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Volume 5, Issue 2, November 2022 Page 1–11
Keywords:
accessibility
disaster
education
social-support
subsidy
Disasters can directly impact educational learning activities. Lower
accessibility to socio-economic resources can directly impact into lives and
livelihoods of a landless household. The study has explored how resourceless
household struggle with their kid’s education accessibility, especially in
earthquake disasters scenario in Gorkha Nepal. The research paper has
explored existing education accessibility issues of pupils in the landless
community. It has explained the major obstacle in educational accessibility
impacted by the Gorkha earthquake of 2015 in Nepal. Descriptive and
explanatory research methodology has been used. Primary information has
been collected from a close-ended and open-ended questionnaire through
local informants. Landless, education issues in disaster, and community-
based initiatives related to publication information have been considered
secondary sources of the study. Descriptive analysis has been used for
qualitative data, and inferential data analysis has been for quantitative
data. Education accessibility in the study area is hindered by a lack of
local resources, additional earnings, insucient savings, remoteness, weak
physical structures, and a lack of social support. It is possible to enhance
education accessibility for landless household pupils through community-
based socioeconomic empowerment, collective engagement, and social
protection provision.
Chongbang, N. (2022). The impacts of earthquake disaster on educational accessibility, aordability and
continuity in Nepal. Simulacra, 5(2), 1–11. hps://doi.org/10.21107/sml.v5i2.15673
Received 21 July 2022; Received in revised form 12 October 2022; Accepted 28 October 2022; Published online 25
November 2022.
The impacts of earthquake disaster on educational
Nirmal Chongbang1*
1 Department of Social Work, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal 44613
* Corresponding author
E-mail address: nirech2005@gmail.com
DOI: hps://doi.org/10.21107/sml.v5i2.15673
Simulacra | ISSN: 2622-6952 (Print), 2656-8721 (Online)
hps://journal.trunojoyo.ac.id/simulacra
2
Nirmal Chongbang
Introduction
Physical destruction and lack of
socioeconomic capacity of parents are the
main learning constraints for pupils after
the Gorkha earthquake in 2015. It has a
multilayered impact on regularized learning.
Due to a lack of physical preparedness,
Nepal has been hit by many natural
disasters including landslides, oods, and
lightning. Students were stressed due to a
long disturbance of education institutions,
irregular teaching-learning practices due to
teacher unavailability, and infrastructures
were already collapsed. Suering from long
disturbance on the academic calendar, some
communities have started the educational
institutions in temporary learning centers
(Basnet, 2020).
The disaster-aected context is denied
delivering right to pupils an education
because there are insucient local resources,
no alternatives to educational access, and
fewer teachers available due to infrastructure
damage (Chongbang & Bharadwaj, 2021). The
eectiveness of continuous learning during
the time of crisis is a topic that worries a vast
number of education stakeholders. There
are concerns about student’s participation,
ecacy, regularity, and accessibility to
their learning process. A crucial method
to address educational issues in disaster-
aected communities is temporary teaching-
learning (Bhaa, 2020). There are many
obstacles in education in these areas such
as there is a lack of necessary resources like
textbooks, teachers have diculties teaching
students, parent’s aordability for alternative
education for their children in rural places
faces challenging, and children in many
communities’ face discrimination. Briguglio
et al. (2014) have compared the long local
experiences analysis based on crises faced
by communities, their life experiences on
educational access disturbances during the
disaster, and how the recovery can contribute
to future education modeling and reshaping.
Chandani (2016) has shared the interaction
among landless households and how the
lower socioeconomic status of households
can impact their children’s education. He
claims that agriculture plays a crucial role
in the local economy. The author has added
further; how landless farmers are illiterate or
less literate, and it has impacted agricultural
production and their socioeconomic
empowerment.
A traditional system comprised tenure
systems: Kael (2012) explains how the
traditional system comprised tenure
systems: Kipat, a form of communal land
ownership which is a traditional concept of
customary rights in the land, was applied in
Nepal. Raikar is a form of state landlordism
whereby the state owns all the land and
retains the right to alienate it through sales
and mortgages. Most of the property was
arranged under Raikar’s tenure after the
unication of Nepal in 1768. By giving
non-agriculturalists ownership of land at
the expense of the agrarian class, Raikar’s
tenures strengthened class determinations
and concentrated economic and political
power in the hands of a few landowners.
As a result, it can contribute to long-term
land exclusion (Wickeri, E. 2011, p.9).
Basnet, (2020) explains that earthquakes do
not typically result in fatalities, they serve
to emphasize the crucial need for resilient
physical infrastructure, safety precautions,
and disaster preparedness.
Natural disasters/natural hazards include
a variety of environmental catastrophes,
including earthquakes. In response to the
2015 earthquake, several measures were
taken to reduce student and teacher stress,
including the creation of a ve-hour credit-
bearing TPD counseling program, and
simulation activities in schools to prepare
pupils for the upcoming disaster.
©2022 Simulacra 5(2), 1–11
3
According to Alessandro & Rebecca
(2019), the Brazilian public school reform
movement includes the entire landless
worker movement. Public education reform
is associated with social movements, and it
aims to co-govern public schools for social
justice in disadvantaged and marginalized
communities. Chongbang (2022) investigates
informal teaching and learning activities
in the wake of the epidemic. Based on
locally accessible resources, it is tested as
a means of increasing access to education
for disadvantaged communities during
the pandemic. The study has explored the
socio-economic status of parents, modes
of teaching, and equipment aordability
during the pandemic.
Landless peoples have limited access
to their natural resources, including
conditional access. Due to the traditional
land arrangement system’s history, those
who were not allowed to serve as state
functionaries and those who lost their
native land due to many circumstances
also became landless. Despite this, landless
people continue to struggle with ‘hand-to-
mouth and livelihood-optional engagement,
which directly aects their children’s
education accessibility. They do not trust
educational institutions’ awareness of
quality and transformation due to lower
engagement in formal education. Critique,
self-critique, and applying knowledge to
the beerment of the community are not
considered transformative agents in schools.
Butler (2018) explains how social movements
should be based on the education system and
take an active role in co-governing public
schools for social justice for disadvantaged
and marginalized communities from the
collective approach.
A landless household in the study area
faces extreme misery and lower engagement
in their children’s education. Through
government investment for bilateral
purposes, Chemmencheri (2016) explains
how social protection can improve lives in
targeted communities. By using this study
framework, we can develop a scientic and
practical social protection framework that can
maximize socio-economic opportunities for
landless households and enable educational
opportunities for their children. The main
background of this study is the impacts of
earthquakes on education deprivation and
how it is related to land deprivation. Most
previous authors have investigated landless
issues, anthropological views on landless,
landless farmers, and their educational
perspectives, and some have researched
the impact of the disaster on education.
Furthermore, this study would like to
contribute to the above-discussed issues
of learning outcomes during earthquakes
and associated with landless households.
Further instructional engagement should be
an oversight of the holistic transformation of
the socio-economic status of marginalized
and disadvantaged households, especially
considering accessibility, aordability, and
the lifelong learning process.
Major contributions of this research
can describe, and explain how education
accessibility of landless pupils has been
going on during the crises, what the major
contributing factors are, and how it will
maximize the accessibility of pupil’s
education during a disaster. They are major
themes of study. Through the objectivist
response collection, the study paper further
explains how it has been going on, who are
the major drivers of inaccessibility in the
study area, and how the study can explore
the good practices on education accessibility
during this crisis.
During research data analysis, descriptive
and explanatory methods has been used
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Nirmal Chongbang
in conjunction with multivariate variables.
While explore the self- practices on self-
learning, it has discovered on how disaster
impacts on the education accessibility,
how the peripheral aspects impact kids’
daily learning, and how the parents have
engaged kids’ learning activities. What is
the major hindering factor that impacts
accessibility, aordability, and continuity of
children’s education during and aftermath
of earthquake, who has supported kids’
continuing education, and why children
have lower accessibility to education are the
main research questions of this study.
Data have been gathered directly from
an open-ended/close-ended questionnaire,
phone and direct interviews with the
responders through the frontline workers.
Convenience sampling has been applied for
a sample collection from landless household
beneciaries from six rural/municipalities of
Gorkha districts in Nepal, who are impacted
by the Gorkha earthquake in 2015, and
registered by government reconstruction
beneciary procedure. The total sample size
of the google survey has xed at nearly 214
households, and information was collected
from 2019 April to June 2022. The listed
respondents have purposefully collected
from the landless household that directly
received a tranche of new story reconstruction
from national reconstruction authority
(NRA). The data collection strategy focused
on an in-depth analysis of the socioeconomic
status, accessibility, aordability, and
continuity of formal education of kids.
Research has been explored through
qualitative and quantitative data analysis,
trying to collect the previous nding from the
literature review, and take deep interviews
for qualitative analysis of specic experience
collection, and collect observation for
detailed information. The major collection
of data used direct information collection
form, draft tabulation, communication with
local social leaders and parents. Responses
have been interviewed, transcribed, and
descriptive analyzed in qualitative analysis,
and the research uses multiple regression in
quantitative analysis for sketching research
ndings.
Landless communities are deprived of
economic opportunities and social ties due
to limited access to economic activity. In
the study area, there is a lack of economic
bridging among communities. They still
suer from basic needs and there are no
local economic opportunities. It has badly
impacted landless houses by providing
educational opportunities to their children
during a disaster.
Descriptive analysis
Mean 3.52
Standard Error 0.09
Median 3.00
Mode 3.00
Standard Deviation 1.31
Sample Variance 1.70
Kurtosis -0.41
Skewness 0.00
Range 7.00
Minimum 0.00
Maximum 7.00
Sum 750.00
Count 213.00
Condence Level (95.0%) 0.18
When we compare with the available
data, most respondents said that due to lack
of economic opportunity, pupils engaged
in housework and external livelihood
engagement, and child work engagement
in the local market, which are mean values.
It shows most pupils are suering from the
extra housework and external workload,
©2022 Simulacra 5(2), 1–11
5
and they are contributing as an economic
driver in this crisis management. The mean
and mode value reect that to children who
come from the landless household, factors
like clothes, fee unavailability, remoteness,
already being engaged in housework, and
pupil’s engagement in daily livelihood are
aecting their learning losses. Data shows the
unavailability of dress and school fees, hard
access (remoteness), higher engagement in
housework, and children being engaged as
child workers as a family economic driver
may impact their learning losses during
these crises.
During the disaster, many disadvantaged,
marginalized, and landless household
children were deprived of education access.
Due to physical distance, among the survey
household, 39.71% respond that they are
unable to send their children during this
emergency due to the distance hindrance.
They said most of the schools were collapsed,
some seemed to be much vulnerable, and
some school access routes seemed to be
much inaccessible.
Among the 214 respondents, 38.31% said
they experienced the social hindering factors
of accessing educational services during this
emergency. Most of the respondents did not
feel secure with the physical strength of the
existing school building, most of the toilets
and water supply were already collapsed
and the lack of gender-friendly WASH
facilities in the school was a major social
hindering factor of inaccessibility. 38.31%
of respondents shared that their children
could not go to school due to economic
factors. Specially 38.78% shared they could
not oer school costs including their fees
and dress code. 39.25% of respondents were
not interested in forwarding their children
due to remoteness, physical inaccessibility,
rough foot trail, and not feeling safe while
they drove to school.
Around 38.31% of respondents said due
to housework and because some children
joined near labor market, they did not join
school aftermath of this mega-earthquake.
38.78% of respondents said their kids were
already engaged in livelihood promotion,
and 4.67% of respondents said the children
did not have their parents in current residence
so they could not join their education.
During the focus group discussion,
one teacher from Tanglichowk higher
school shared that “During the pandemic,
they faced many obstacles in teaching and
learning helpless kids. Both A & B kids are
in classes 2 & 3. They are staying with their
grandmom in their old story. Their father is
on aboard labor market and their mom left
them while their father goes aboard. Both
are helpless, and their grandmother has
been taking care of them. Both kids have
been studied in subsidy of school but due to
proper caring in house, they are not in good
educational status, and even they have not
responded their home/class work properly”
(My translation from Nepali). According to
Mr. Shrestha (2019) “In Maskichap, there
is Mr. C, aged six. He is also not interested
in joining his instructional activity near
primary school due to a lack of parents.
His father is still on aboard and her mother
has done her second marriage. After their
parents’ separation, he is used to staying
with his relatives near his hut. Not having
proper nutrition, care, and family support,
his educational accessibility, aordability,
and continuity is becoming worse” (My
translation from Nepali).
The primary barriers to teaching and
learning in disaster-aected landless
communities include a lack of economic
opportunity, students’ involvement in
household chores, involvement in outside
job, and involvement in child labor in the
neighborhood market. It has demonstrated
that students are working harder both
inside and outside of the classroom and that
they have helped manage the household’s
economic crisis. Learning losses are caused
6
Nirmal Chongbang
by things including lack of access to uniforms
and fees, physical isolation, already doing
household stus, and students’ involvement
in daily activities.
Our continued change should be more
progressive by ensuring full social justice
for landless and marginalized households,
as well as for their children’s education
social protection (Lakey & Cohen, 2000).
Further frameworks for their comprehensive
evolution and transformation must be taken
into consideration with the reformation of
this production mode and market relations.
In order for human rights to develop, the
current political and economic systems of
society cannot consider people as humans
since they have not yet addressed their
particular requirements. As a result, societies
are unable to develop into just and equal
societies. Longhurst (2020) tried to linkage
among of social protection and humanitarian
cash & voucher assistance program to
support on crises aected communities,
and dig-out its eectiveness in targeted
communities.
Families who lack access to land are
forced to live in extreme poverty and have
lower levels of educational participation for
the benet of their lives and the education
of their children. The educational needs
of children aected by the disaster are still
unfullled primarily to this day, especially
in the study area’s landless populations.
We cannot envisage how the capitalist and
working class would manage under the
current socioeconomic structure. However,
moving forward, every state structure
could perhaps address the nancial crises,
guarantee landless, poor, and vulnerable
people’s right to access natural resources,
enable their capacity, scale up their
purchasing power, and guarantee every
family member’s right to an education.
Individual suggestions, that could be
increased into student learning achievement
including external support for agriculture,
enabling local business, providing local
economic opportunity, skill transfer to
members of landless households, linking
landless houses on local savings and credit,
external support for the construction of
temporary classrooms, support for building
safer school structures, and construction
of a safer footrail can increase on learning
recovery of pupils in study area.
The political orientation and economic
situation of each nation have a signicant
impact on school and educational changes
in emerging states. Implementing signicant
reforms that meet the objectives of national
development is hampered by the challenges
facing education in developing nations.
(Systems of Education and School Reform in
the Socialist, 1979, pp.110-112).
Alessandro & Rebecca (2019) explains
how education mediates the relationship
between the co-production of environmental
knowledge and the social reproduction of an
alternative society. This article draws upon
a political ecology of education framework
to analyze how schools advance alternative
land management strategies and forms of
environmental knowledge. Schools catering
to grassroots movements can actualize their
emancipatory objectives by institutionalizing
hybridized conceptions of educational space-
time. This article focuses on a vocational
high school in a selement of the Brazilian
Landless Workers’ Movement. It analyzes a
document known as a ‘political pedagogical
project’ (PPP) which details the identity of
the school and how it sees itself as a tool for
social and environmental justice.
Chongbang (2022) has explored the
growing practices of the informal modes of
teaching-learning activity. However, due
to the necessity of the Covid-19 epidemic,
it has been implemented based on locally
accessible resources. The current virtual
teaching-learning techniques are hostile
©2022 Simulacra 5(2), 1–11
7
among local students. Virtual learning will
be challenging, especially in marginalized
areas, due to lack of experience, lack of
supervision, and poor socioeconomic
situations of parents.
Häuberer (2010) asserts that the
fundamental ideas of social capital are
the focus of a rigorous and methodical
critical examination. By doing this, she can
identify the collection of considerations (the
rational) that led to the choice of theoretical
foundations for future assessments of a
complicated phenomenon like “social
capital.” The foundation of Julia Häuberer’s
assessment strategy is the distinction between
network-provided access to social capital
and social capital or social resources that
have been used. She further dierentiates
between “formal networks” and “informal
networks” to measure the former, measuring
them with “network size” and “network
density.” She assesses “openness” and looks
for “structural gaps.”
She uses the so-called “resource
generator” to quantify the laer. An
examination of the reliability and validity of
the employed question baeries is the next
major task that Julia tackles. Julia Häuberer
can describe a highly dierentiated reality
and analyze in detail the varying degrees
of success aained in the endeavor to nd,
construct, and verify measurement scales
for the various dimensions of social capital
by operationalizing the social capital model,
particularly with the “bridging social capital
item baery” and the “resource generator.”
The conditions for creating uniform
measurement scales are constantly made
more dicult by the cultural background.
This has broad and dual application in the
measuring of social capital.
In her work, Julia Häuberer looks at how
cultural dierences hinder the development
and validation of measurement scales and
make it challenging to gauge how broadly
they will be applied in the future. As the
biggest dierences between the various
theoretical approaches to social capital
are their cultural perspectives, the added
diculty and limitations associated with
the cultural dimension of the social capital
stem in part from theory and in part from the
development of measurement scales, as the
various indicators of social capital applied in
proposed measurement instruments occupy
very dierent positions in dierent cultural
contexts and are viewed and perceived in
dierent ways.
The weak physical structure, not having
a proper and safe route to school, not
adequate family support, loss of parents,
socio-economic hindering factors, child
labor, children’s livelihood support to the
family, and family separation are the major
hindering factors aecting the accessibility,
aordability, and sustainability of children
to education in an emergency, especially in
the landless household community.
Inferential analysis
Multiple regression applied on enable factors as
driver of learning in emergency in study area
F statistics is the sign for the entire
regression. At a (alpha) =0.005, this
regression has statistically signicant
because ‘P-value is < 0.05. All T values
are statistically signicant because their
corresponding P-value is <0.05. Therefore,
all eight; X1 (Agriculture support), X2(Local
business), X3(Local economic opportunity),
X4(Skill transfer), X5 (Saving capacity), X6
(Temporary learning center), X7 (Safer school
structure), and X8(Enable safer footrail) are
individually in the prediction of Y (Learning
impact on pupils). Signicantly, the support
of agriculture support, local business, local
economic opportunity, skill transfer (labor
market), local saving capacity, temporary
8
Nirmal Chongbang
learning centers, safer school buildings,
and enable safer footrails can contribute to
the learning impact of each pupil by 3 times
more during the educational learning in an
emergency.
The educational access of landless and
disadvantaged pupils is still challenging.
Socioeconomic disadvantages in pupils’
engagement in the economic sector and
physical disturbance are major hindering
factors of educational deprivation. The
landless issues, landless farmers, their
educational perspective, and the impacts
of disaster are also multipliers impacting
their children’s education. Limited natural
resources access like in local land, limited
production, lower access to market, highly
competitive market, and the large farming
company are also the side aecting factors
of a landless household. It has impacted
Regression Statistics
Multiple R 1.00E+00
R Square 1.00E+00
Adjusted R
Square 1.00E+00
Standard
Error 2.40E-15
Observations 2.14E+02
ANOVA
df SS MS F
Signicance
F
Regression 8.00E+00 2.74E+02 3.43E+01 5.94E+30 0.00E+00
Residual 2.05E+02 1.18E-27 5.77E-30
Total 2.13E+02 2.74E+02
Coecients
Standard
Error t Stat P-value
Lower
95%
Upper
95%
Lower
95.0%
Upper
95.0%
Intercept 6.11E-16 5.25E-16 1.16E+00 2.46E-01 -4.25E-16 1.65E-15 -4.25E-16 1.65E-15
Agriculture
support 1.00E+00 3.55E-16 2.82E+15 0.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00
Local
business 1.00E+00 3.98E-16 2.51E+15 0.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00
Local
Economic
opportunity 1.00E+00 4.15E-16 2.41E+15 0.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00
skill transfer
(labor
market) 1.00E+00 3.55E-16 2.82E+15 0.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00
Local saving
capacity 1.00E+00 5.36E-16 1.87E+15 0.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00
Temporary
learning
center 1.00E+00 3.89E-16 2.57E+15 0.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00
Safer school
building 1.00E+00 3.89E-16 2.57E+15 0.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00
Enable safer
footrail 1.00E+00 4.66E-16 2.15E+15 0.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00 1.00E+00
©2022 Simulacra 5(2), 1–11
9
their daily life and livelihood and ultimately
impacted their children’s educational access,
aordability and continuity.
Conclusion
The major hindering factors in teaching
and learning practices during the disaster
in landless commutes are the lack of
economic opportunity, pupils’ being
engaged in housework, external livelihood
engagement, and child work engagement
in the local market. It has shown that pupils
are engaged in extra in-house and external
workload, and they have contributed to
their house’s economic crisis management.
Factors like dress and fee unavailability,
physical remoteness, being already engaged
in housework, and pupils’ engagement in
daily livelihood are aecting their learning
losses. The external support in agriculture
support, enabling local business, provided
local economic opportunity, skill transfer
to landless household members, linkage
landless houses on local savings and credit,
external support on the building of temporary
learning centers, support and building
safer school structures, and constructing a
safer footrail are individually suggestion to
improve learning achievement of students.
Through the conditions of
comprehensive social justice for the landless
and marginalized households and their
child education, our further transformation
should be more progressive. With razing
of this productive mode and relations of
markets state, further frameworks need to
be considered for their holistic progress and
transformation must be considered. The
existing political and economic structures
of society have not addressed their specic
needs yet and cannot consider them as
human for the ourishment of human rights.
As a result, societies are not able to become
socially justiciable and equitable.
The landless families are facing extreme
life with misery and lower engagement of
their educational engagement for beerment
to their life including kids’ education
process. To this date, it hardly nds any
specic state as collective intervention on
children’s educational impacted by the
disaster, especially in landless communities
of study area. We cannot imagine the
situation of workers and the bourgeoisie in
a current social system. But now onwards
every structure of the state should resolve
the nancial crises, and ensure the rights to
access natural resources to landless, poor,
and vulnerable people, enable their capacity,
scale-up their purchasing capacity, and
ensure the right to education to each family
member whether in they are crises.
The author would like to express gratitude
to frontline workers of the Nepal Housing
Reconstruction Project, who were supported
in collecting this data from the local level of
the Gorkha earthquake.
This article is my original work.
There is no conict of interest to declare in
this article.
Ethical Clearance
This study was approved by the institution.
10
Nirmal Chongbang
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Nirmal Chongbang
