Utilization of marine taxa within an artisanal shellcraft sector of the Indo-Pacific region

Abstract

Sustainable utilization of marine taxa is critical for maximizing social and economic goals of livelihood development within the Indo-Pacific. Yet, despite an increasing importance of shellcraft as a livelihood activity within the Indo-Pacific, information on the taxa utilized within shellcraft sectors remains scant. To address this knowledge gap, our study examined diversity, in terms of composition and quantities, of marine taxa utilized by artisan households and, collectively, within an artisanal shellcraft sector of Papua New Guinea. For each taxon, critical source habitats were identified, and the geographic scale of exploitation established. Critically, presented data revealed 73 taxa, representing at least 77 species, were utilized within the studied sector. Many of the taxa utilized had not previously been linked to shellcraft sectors, demonstrating that a broader composition of taxa is utilized than previously acknowledged. In terms of quantity, annual utilization within the sector was close to 500,000 individuals, the majority being mollusks of either class Gastropoda (83.6%), represented by 37 genera, or class Bivalvia (9.6%), represented by four genera. There was a strong bias towards a particular species, Chrysostoma paradoxum (78.5% of all individuals), as indicated by indices for the diversity utilized (H′ = 1.23; D = 0.38). However, substantial variation was evident in the diversity of taxa utilized among households (n = 36) engaged in shellcraft (H′ = 1.09 ± 0.71; D = 0.43 ± 0.27), with each household utilizing a unique composition of 19.1 ± 10.6 taxa. Source habitats for taxa ranged from pelagic to benthic intertidal and subtidal substrates, with the geographic scale of exploitation extending to 34 discrete locations up to 417 km away. The array of sector, household, and taxon-specific information presented provides a basis for supporting greater sustainability within shellcraft sectors across the Indo-Pacific, which is discussed within a context of informing community-based resource management, further developing marine aquaculture, and strengthening existing governance.

Full text

Utilization of marine taxa within
an artisanal shellcraft sector of
the Indo-Pacific region
Nittya S. M. Simard
1
*, Thane A. Militz
1
, Jeff Kinch
2
and Paul C. Southgate
1
1
School of Science, Technology & Engineering and Australian Centre for Pacific Islands Research,
University of the Sunshine Coast, Sippy Downs, QLD, Australia,
2
National Fisheries College, National
Fisheries Authority, Kavieng, Papua New Guinea
Sustainable utilization of marine taxa is critical for maximizing social and
economic goals of livelihood development within the Indo-Pacific. Yet,
despite an increasing importance of shellcraft as a livelihood activity within
the Indo-Pacific, information on the taxa utilized within shellcraft sectors
remains scant. To address this knowledge gap, our study examined diversity,
in terms of composition and quantities, of marine taxa utilized by artisan
households and, collectively, within an artisanal shellcraft sector of Papua
New Guinea. For each taxon, critical source habitats were identified, and the
geographic scale of exploitation established. Critically, presented data revealed
73 taxa, representing at least 77 species, were utilized within the studied sector.
Many of the taxa utilized had not previously been linked to shellcraft sectors,
demonstrating that a broader composition of taxa is utilized than previously
acknowledged. In terms of quantity, annual utilization within the sector was
close to 500,000 individuals, the majority being mollusks of either class
Gastropoda (83.6%), represented by 37 genera, or class Bivalvia (9.6%),
represented by four genera. There was a strong bias towards a particular
species, Chrysostoma paradoxum (78.5% of all individuals), as indicated by
indices for the diversity utilized (H′= 1.23; D= 0.38). However, substantial
variation was evident in the diversity of taxa utilized among households (n= 36)
engaged in shellcraft (H′= 1.09 ± 0.71; D= 0.43 ± 0.27), with each household
utilizing a unique composition of 19.1 ± 10.6 taxa. Source habitats for taxa
ranged from pelagic to benthic intertidal and subtidal substrates, with the
geographic scale of exploitation extending to 34 discrete locations up to
417 km away. The array of sector, household, and taxon-specific information
presented provides a basis for supporting greater sustainability within shellcraft
sectors across the Indo-Pacific, which is discussed within a context of
informing community-based resource management, further developing
marine aquaculture, and strengthening existing governance.
KEYWORDS
artisanal fisheries, diversity, coastal communities, exploitation, livelihoods, mollusks
(molluscs), Papua New Guinea (PNG)
Frontiers in Marine Science frontiersin.org01
OPEN ACCESS
EDITED BY
Cornelia E. Nauen,
Mundus Maris, Belgium
REVIEWED BY
Narriman Saleh Jiddawi,
State University of Zanzibar, Tanzania
Ilana Rosental Zalmon,
State University of the North
Fluminense Darcy Ribeiro, Brazil
*CORRESPONDENCE
Nittya S. M. Simard
Nittya.simard@research.usc.edu.au
SPECIALTY SECTION
This article was submitted to
Marine Fisheries, Aquaculture and
Living Resources,
a section of the journal
Frontiers in Marine Science
RECEIVED 20 October 2022
ACCEPTED 07 November 2022
PUBLISHED 22 November 2022
CITATION
Simard NSM, Militz TA, Kinch J and
Southgate PC (2022) Utilization
of marine taxa within an
artisanal shellcraft sector of the
Indo-Pacific region.
Front. Mar. Sci. 9:1074996.
doi: 10.3389/fmars.2022.1074996
COPYRIGHT
©2022Simard,Militz,Kinchand
Southgate. This is an open-access
article distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution
License (CC BY). The use, distribution
or reproduction in other forums is
permitted, provided the original
author(s) and the copyright owner(s)
are credited and that the original
publication in this journal is cited, in
accordance with accepted academic
practice. No use, distribution or
reproduction is permitted which does
not comply with these terms.
TYPE Original Research
PUBLISHED 22 November 2022
DOI 10.3389/fmars.2022.1074996

Introduction
Shellcraft, an activity producing shell-handicrafts (Fröcklin
et al., 2018) or shell-based handicrafts (Simard et al., 2019),
encompasses production of ornamental and decorative items
that utilize shells and other skeletal remains of marine taxa. Such
items, hereafter referred to as shellcrafts, can be produced in
remote locations using either traditional tools or modern
equipment, and can offer much-needed livelihood
opportunities, particularly in coastal areas with high marine
biodiversity (Fröcklin et al., 2018;Simard et al., 2019;Southgate
et al., 2019;Militz et al., 2021). Shellcraft has become an
increasingly important means of income generation for coastal
communities throughout the Indo-Pacific(Sulu et al., 2015;
Barclay et al., 2018;Fröcklin et al., 2018;Simard et al., 2019)
and, over recent years, demand for souvenirs made locally, by
hand, and with natural materials, such as shellcrafts, has grown
with the rise of tourism (Floren, 2003;Gössling et al., 2004;Dias
et al., 2011;Chand et al., 2014;Naidu et al., 2014;Militz et al.,
2021). Yet, despite an increasing importance of shellcraft, there
has been limited research on this activity, within a contemporary
context, with prior research focused primarily on
anthropological perspectives (Lewis, 1939;Grulke, 2022).
To maximize social and economic goals of livelihood
development in the Indo-Pacific, sustainable utilization of
marine taxa is critical (Allison and Ellis, 2001), and this is
particularly true for shellcraft sectors (Fröcklin et al., 2018).
Within related and better studied curio sectors, over 5,000
species of marine mollusks, corals, and other taxa groups are
reportedly traded (Wood and Wells, 1995). While a similar
composition of taxa may be traded within shellcraft sectors, our
knowledge of the taxa utilized to produce shellcrafts is scant
(Floren, 2003;Fröcklin et al., 2018). Legally protected, and often
larger taxa, such as sea turtles (Kinch and Burgess, 2009) and
nautilus (Nijman and Lee, 2016;Nijman, 2019), are known to be
utilized for shellcraft, however, the quantities involved along
with other information relevant to their use is seldomly
investigated. Moreover, efforts to document shellcraft within
the Indo-Pacifichavefocusedprimarilyonsocio-economic
impacts of this activity (e.g., Tiraa-Passfield, 1996;Chand
et al., 2014;Sulu et al., 2015;Barclay et al., 2018;Fröcklin
et al., 2018;Simard et al., 2019), rather than the taxa utilized.
Collecting information on taxa utilized for small-scale and
artisanal livelihood activities is challenging but necessary to
estimate potential socio-ecological impacts (Pita et al., 2019).
While intact and unprocessed remains of marine taxa traded as
curios may be easily identified and quantified,thisisnot
necessarily the case for taxa utilized to produce shellcrafts
(Nijman et al., 2015). Post-harvest processing, inherent in
producing shellcrafts, may render the remains of taxa
unidentifiable, limiting the feasibility of market surveys (e.g.,
Nijman and Lee, 2016;Nijman, 2019). Furthermore, available
trade records tend to generate limited information on local
exploitation for shellcraft and fail to adequately represent the
diversity of taxa utilized (Wood and Wells, 1995;Floren, 2003;
Simard et al., 2019;Simard et al., 2021). To overcome these and
additional challenges in monitoring shellcraft sectors, including
remoteness, geographic scale, and irregular frequencies of
artisanal fishing (Simard et al., 2019), data collection through
structured household interviews appears to be an effective
approach to obtaining sector-specific information at a local
scale (Kronen et al., 2007). This approach has been used to
generate information for other artisanal fisheries sectors in the
Indo-Pacific(Friedman et al., 2008;Purdy et al., 2017;Thaman
et al., 2017), and has potential to afford a basic understanding of
taxa utilized within shellcraft sectors.
Within the Indo-Pacific, the island nation of Papua New
Guinea (PNG) has a long tradition of shellcraft with coastal
communities producing shellcrafts for personal ornamentation
and exchange (Lewis, 1939). More recently, shellcraft has taken a
commercial focus, expanding rapidly in areas popular with
tourists by adapting traditional knowledge to produce
contemporary designs (Simard et al., 2019). While exploring
socio-economic aspects of such development among the Tigak
Islands of New Ireland Province in PNG, Simard et al. (2019)
found that at least 17 marine species were utilized to produce
shellcrafts. As a baseline study, however, Simard et al. (2019)
only accounted for species deemed of critical importance from a
socio-economic perspective and the study did not determine the
diversity of taxa utilized. To address this knowledge gap, the aim
of our study was to evaluate diversity, in terms of composition
(i.e., number of taxonomic groups) and quantities (i.e., number
of individuals per taxonomic group), of marine taxa utilized by
individual artisan households and, collectively, within the
shellcraft sector of the Tigak Islands. For each taxon, we
identified critical source habitat(s), established the geographic
scale of exploitation, and examined the relational structure
among metrics representing various aspects of utilization.
Materials and methods
Study area
Papua New Guinea comprises the eastern part of the island
of New Guinea and numerous smaller islands in the
southwestern Pacific region. Domestic and international
tourism greatly expanded at coastal destinations in PNG prior
to the COVID-19 pandemic (PNGTPA, 2020;Militz et al., 2021).
The influx of tourists brought demand for a new range of goods
and services, presenting coastal communities with novel income
generating opportunities (IFC, 2016). An unmet demand for
souvenirs (IFC, 2016) coupled with a loss of critical income
sources, such as beche-de-mer fisheries (Purdy et al., 2017),
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appears to have catalyzed local expansion of shellcraft (Simard
et al., 2019;Militz et al., 2021). This is particularly true among
the Tigak Islands of New Ireland Province where households
rely on marine resources for subsistence and income (Kaly et al.,
2005;Purdy et al., 2017). Over a span of twenty years,
participation in shellcraft among the Tigak Islands expanded
from a single household to become an income source supporting
at least 6% of residents by 2017 (Simard et al., 2019). The
shellcraft sector of the Tigak Islands is now well-established and
presents a unique opportunity to evaluate utilization of marine
taxa for this increasingly important livelihood activity. With
resumption of international tourism to PNG now underway
(PNGTPA, 2022), such information comes at an opportune time
to provide a basis for future development plans supporting
sustainability within this sector.
Data collection
Past research on the shellcraft sector of the Tigak Islands
(Simard et al., 2019) found that artisans concentrated at the
Nusa Islands. We conducted a survey at these islands in July
2019 to identify households producing shellcrafts. Households
with at least one member that had routinely produced shellcrafts
during the previous year were asked to participate in an
interview. No household refused participation, and all
households (n= 36) that met the inclusion criteria
were interviewed.
Interviews were conducted verbally in either English or Tok
Pisin, depending on the preference of the participants, and
followed a semi-structured format with a questionnaire to
guide the interview. Participants were asked to identify all
marine taxa their household utilized in the production of
shellcrafts. Since it was unreasonable to expect participants to
identify taxa by internationally recognized (i.e., scientific) names
(Moesinger, 2018), taxa were identified to the lowest taxonomic
rank possible using a photographic reference guide and voucher
specimens. Nomenclature was based on the World Register of
Marine Species (Horton et al., 2022). For each taxon identified,
participants were asked to indicate the quantity utilized during
the previous year. Additionally, participants were asked to list all
locations from where they had obtained (either purchased,
traded, or fished) each taxon identified and, if obtained
through their own fishing activities, to identify source habitat(s).
Where identified taxa were phenotypically and functionally
(as a material) similar, participants were unable to provide
species-specific information. Instead, information was
provided for a group of taxa. This applied to the black corals
Antipathes spp. and Cirrhipathes spp. (hereafter Antipathidae),
the cowries Monetaria annulus and Monetaria moneta
(hereafter Monetaria annulus/moneta), the nautilus
Allonautilus scrobiculatus and Nautilus pompilius (hereafter
Nautilidae), and the sea turtles Chelonia mydas and
Eretmochelys imbricata (hereafter Cheloniidae). We considered
each group as a ‘taxon’in our study to accommodate the
integration of local and traditional knowledge systems with
contemporary fisheries science (Moesinger, 2018).
For each taxon utilized, information obtained from
interviews was supplemented with biological data gleaned
from SeaLifeBase (Palomares and Pauly, 2020). Specifically,
‘common length’was used as an indicator of the typical size of
a given taxon. In cases where data were not available, an
appropriate metric of size (antero-posterior measurement,
dorso-ventral measurement, carapace width, or colony height,
depending on the taxon) was measured from a voucher
specimen using either a vernier caliper (for taxa ≤15 cm) or
measuring tape (for taxa > 15 cm).
Data standardization
Varying systems of measurement were used by participants
to indicate the quantities of taxa utilized during the previous
year. Quantities were reported as the number of individuals,
‘bottles’, or pieces of a taxon utilized on a weekly, monthly, or
annual basis. As these measures were not directly comparable,
quantities were standardized as the number of individuals
utilized annually. For some measures (i.e., bottles and pieces),
this required establishing appropriate conversion factors.
Quantities reported in terms of ‘bottles’refers to a local
practice of storing and trading smaller taxa in 330 mL glass
bottles (Figure 1). To establish an appropriate conversion factor
for each of the 20 taxa quantified in this manner, the number of
individuals within a representative bottle was determined. An
appropriate conversion factor was then applied to express the
quantity of individuals utilized annually.
Quantities of sea turtles (Cheloniidae), reef sharks
(Carcharhinus melanopterus), and black corals (Antipathidae)
were commonly reported in terms of taxon-specific pieces. For
sea turtles, participants reported the number of carapace scutes
utilized (Figure 1), which is a typical measure of sea turtle
utilization for shellcraft (Kinch and Burgess, 2009). Since
Chelonia mydas and Eretmochelys imbricata were the only sea
turtles identified by participants, a conversion factor of 13 scutes
to one carapace (i.e., individual) was adopted (Wyneken, 2001).
For reef sharks, participants reported the cumulative length, in
centimeters, of cartilaginous vertebrae utilized. Since only
vertebrae of immature sharks were reportedly utilized, a
conversion factor of 42.5 cm to one individual was adopted
(White et al., 2017). For black corals, participants reported the
cumulative length, in centimeters, of branches utilized. A
conversion factor of 100 cm to one individual was adopted,
representing a typical Cirrhipathes spp. colony (pers. obs.).
Source habitats were standardized broadly as intertidal benthic,
subtidal benthic, or subtidal pelagic. The local ecological knowledge
of participants, however, permitted further differentiation of
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intertidal benthic habitats based on substrates that the taxon was
associated with, and a distinction was made between hard substrates
(i.e., rock, wood, or sedimentary hardgrounds) and soft substrates
(i.e., unconsolidated sediments).
In addition to source habitats, it was also necessary to
standardize locations that were identified using vernacular
place names. Coordinates from the World Geodetic System
1984 (WGS84) were attributed to all referenced locations from
where taxa were obtained. Where the referenced location was
not discrete but referred to an island or region, the center of
referenced area was used when attributing coordinates.
Data analysis
All statistical computing was performed using R
programming (version: 4.1.3), with the stats (R Core Team,
2021), geosphere (Hijmans, 2021), corrplot (Wei and Simko,
2021), and vegan (Oksanen et al., 2020)packages.Forall
analyses, statistical significance was accepted as P< 0.05 and
summaries of data are presented in-text as the mean ±
standard deviation.
Diversity, in terms of composition and quantities of taxa
utilized, was further represented by two compound indices:
Shannon-Wiener index (H′)andSimpson’s index (D). The
Shannon-Wiener index was calculated as
H0=−opiln (pi)
where p
i
is the proportional quantity of taxon ithat was utilized
for shellcraft (function: diversity). Simpson’sindexwas
calculated as
D=1−oni(ni−1)
N(N−1)
where Nis the total quantity of all taxa utilized and nis the
quantity of taxon ithat was utilized for shellcraft (function:
diversity). These indices were calculated to express diversity
within the shellcraft sector (based on simple-pooling of data
from all households) and among artisan households (based on
data from each household), the latter being summarized by
measures of central tendency and variation (mean ± standard
deviation and range). Additionally, multivariate statistics were
used to investigate whether composition and quantities utilized
differed among artisan households. Specifically, non-metric
multidimensional scaling (nMDS) was used to visualize
differences in the probability that households utilized a non-
identical composition of taxa, based on a Raup-Crick
dissimilarity matrix, and to visualize differences in the
quantities of taxa utilized, based on a Bray-Curtis dissimilarity
matrix (function: metaMDS). A taxa-accumulation curve was
also constructed from random permutations of the data to
estimate the proportional composition of taxa that were
utilized by a random sample of artisan households
(function: specaccum).
To examine whether both the composition and quantities of
taxa originating from the four source habitats differed, c
2
-tests with
Yates’continuity correction were used (function: prop.test). Since
AB DC
FIGURE 1
Examples of marine taxa utilized within the shellcraft sector of the Tigak Islands at various stages of production. (A) Bottles containing gastropod
(Chrysostoma paradoxum) shells and pieces (i.e., scutes) of sea turtle (Cheloniidae) carapace being sold at a local market. (B) Shell fragments
produced from (top to bottom) Atrina vexillum,Mauritia arabica, and Nautilidae, separated by color, which will be further processed into beads.
(C) Strands of beads made from Atrina pectinata (brown), C.paradoxum (orange or red), Turbo maculatus (green), M. arabica (purple), and
Nautilidae (white). (D) Shellcrafts at a local market (left: pendant made from A.vexillum, beads made from Nautilidae and A. vexillum; right:
pendant made from Cheloniidae, beads made from Nautilidae, C. paradoxum, and A.vexillum) for which enumerating the number of individuals
of each taxon utilized is exceedingly difficult. Photos by Nittya S.M. Simard.
Simard et al. 10.3389/fmars.2022.1074996
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the broadly defined source habitats led to an absence of variation in
the number of habitats from which a taxon was obtained, this
metric was excluded from further analyses describing utilization. In
contrast, metrics representing the geographic scale of exploitation
(i.e., the number and distance [based on Haversine distances;
function: distHaversine] of locations from which a taxon was
obtained) had sufficient variation to merit further analysis.
To examine the relational structure among metrics representing
various aspects of utilization, a correlation matrix was constructed
comparing the number of households utilizing each taxon, the
quantity of each taxon utilized, the typical size of each taxon, the
number of locations from where each taxon was obtained, and
the furthest location from where each taxon was obtained. Kendall’s
correlation tests (function: cor.mtest) were used to construct the
correlation matrix, controlling for the false discovery rate with the
Benjamini and Hochberg (1995) procedure.
Research activities associated with this study were reviewed
and approved by University of the Sunshine Coast’s Human
Research Ethics Committee (approval number: S191337).
Authorization to conduct research activities in PNG was
obtained through a Memorandum of Subsidiary Agreement
(approval number: FIS/2014/060) between the Australian
Centre for International Agricultural Research and the PNG
National Fisheries Authority. Permissions to engage with
residents of the Nusa Islands were obtained from elected and
traditional community leaders prior to obtaining informed
consent from households for their participation in this study.
Results
Diversity of taxa utilized within the
shellcraft sector
Seventy-three marine taxa from seven classes were utilized
within the shellcraft sector of the Tigak Islands (Figure 2). The
majority (93.2%) of taxa utilized were mollusks of either class
Gastropoda (83.6%), represented by 37 genera, or class Bivalvia
(9.6%), represented by four genera. All taxa representing these
classes are presented in Figure 2 and Table S1. Each of the other
classes were represented by only a single taxon: for Cephalopoda
this was Nautilidae, for Chondrichthyes this was Carcharhinus
melanopterus, for Hexacorallia this was Antipathidae, for
Malacostraca this was Carpilus maculatus, and for Reptilia this
was Cheloniidae.
Annual utilization within the sector was close to 500,000
individuals (Table 1). Gastropoda was the most utilized class
(98.7%), followed by Bivalvia (1.0%). Critically, most (90.4%) of
the 73 taxa accounted for less than 1.0% of individuals, while a
single gastropod, Chrysostoma paradoxum, accounted for 78.5%
of all individuals utilized (Figure 2). By comparison, the next
most utilized taxa, Euplica scripta, which is also a gastropod,
accounted for only 3.0% of all individuals utilized. Among the
other classes, the most utilized bivalve was Pinctada
margaritifera of which 1,090 individuals (0.2%) were utilized,
while 899 (0.2%) Nautilidae, 97 (< 0.1%) Antipathidae, 55 (<
0.1%) Cheloniidae, and 40 (< 0.1%) Carpilus maculatus
individuals were utilized (Figure 2). Additional data,
pertaining to the quantity of each taxon utilized within the
shellcraft sector, are presented in Table S1.
When considering both the composition and quantities of
taxa utilized, a Shannon-Wiener index (H′)of1.23anda
Simpson’s index (D) of 0.38 was calculated for the shellcraft
sector of the Tigak Islands. Excluding Chrysostoma paradoxum,
however, showed a more even utilization (H′= 3.27; D= 0.94) of
the remaining taxa.
Diversity of taxa utilized among
artisan households
Composition of taxa utilized for shellcraft varied among
artisan households (Figure 3), with 19.1 ± 10.6 (range: 3 –56)
taxa utilized per household. No household utilized the full
composition of taxa within the sector (n= 73), and only two
of the 36 households (5.6%) utilized more than half (n≥37). The
taxa-accumulation curve (Figure 4) shows that with a random
sample of 10 (27.7%) households, an estimated 80.3 ± 12.2% of
taxa within the sector would be represented, whereas a sample of
half the households would represent 92.0 ± 7.3% of taxa. No
taxon, or class of taxa, was utilized by all households, with an
average of 10.0 ± 9.0 (range: 1 –33) households utilizing a given
taxon (Table 1 and Figure 2). The number of households
utilizing each taxon is presented in Table S1,whilethe
composition of taxa utilized by each household is presented in
Table S2.
Quantities of taxa utilized annually for shellcraft also varied
among households, in both absolute and relative terms
(Figure 3). A combined 12,744.1 ± 9,289.7 (range: 36 –31,229)
individuals were utilized per household, with taxon-specific
utilization spanning from 9,999.3 ± 9,465.6 (range: 0 –29,400)
individuals per household for Chrysostoma paradoxum down to
0.1 ± 0.3 (range: 0 –2) individuals per household for Ovula
ovum. The combined quantity of taxa utilized by each household
is presented in Table S2, while taxon-specific quantities utilized
by each household are summarized in Table S1 as the mean ±
standard deviation of all households.
A Shannon-Wiener index (H′) of 1.09 ± 0.71 (range: 0.17 –
2.57) and a Simpson’s index (D) of 0.43 ± 0.27 (range: 0.06 –
0.88) represented the composition and quantities of taxa utilized
among households. Additional data, pertaining to the H′and D
indices for each household, are presented in Table S2.
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Source habitats
Each taxon was attributed to only one of the four broadly
defined source habitats, amongst which the composition of taxa
differed significantly (c
2
= 68.4, P< 0.001; Figure 5). Intertidal
benthic habitats accounted for 91.8% of all taxa, with a similar
number of taxa being sourced from hard (n= 35) and soft (n=
32) substrates (c
2
< 0.01, P= 1.0). By comparison, subtidal
TABLE 1 Summary of marine taxa utilization, by taxonomic class, within the shellcraft sector of the Tigak Islands, Papua New Guinea between
July 2018 and July 2019.
Class Taxa Households Quantity
n%n%n%
Gastropoda 61 83.6 35 97.2 453,023 98.7
Bivalvia 7 9.6 35 97.2 4,336 1.0
Cephalopoda 1 1.4 33 91.7 899 0.2
Reptilia 1 1.4 22 61.1 55 < 0.1
Hexacorallia 1 1.4 17 47.2 97 < 0.1
Malacostraca 1 1.4 1 2.8 40 < 0.1
Chondrichthyes 1 1.4 27 75.0 338 < 0.1
FIGURE 2
Utilization of marine taxa within the shellcraft sector of the Tigak Islands, Papua New Guinea between July 2018 and July 2019. Utilization is
represented by the number of artisan households (n= 36) utilizing each taxon and the quantity of each taxon utilized by all households.
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habitats accounted for only 8.2% of taxa, with the number of taxa
sourced from benthic substrates (n= 4) similar to those sourced
from the water column (i.e., pelagic; n=2;c
2
= 0.17, P= 0.68).
Notably, gastropods and bivalves were sourced from all benthic
habitats. Data pertaining to the source habitat for each taxon are
presented in Table S1.
In terms of quantity, the vast majority (91.4%) of all
individuals (n= 458,788) utilized were sourced from intertidal
benthic hard substrates (Figure 5). Far fewer individuals were
sourced from intertidal benthic soft substrates (8.1%), subtidal
benthic (0.4%), or subtidal pelagic (< 0.1%) habitats (c
2
=
1.45×10
6
,P< 0.001).
Geographic scale of exploitation
Taxa were obtained from at least 34 unique locations across
three provinces: New Ireland, Manus, and East New Britain
(Figure 6). The number of locations from which a given taxon
was obtained ranged from one to thirteen (2.3 ± 2.1). Most taxa
(94.5%) were obtained from the Nusa Islands and 54.8% of taxa
were only obtained from the Nusa Islands. Less than half (45.2%)
were obtained from 33 other locations that were, on average,
55.5 ± 84.5 km from the Nusa Islands. Three taxa (Nautilidae,
Oliva irisans and Pinctada margaritifera) were obtained from
interprovincial locations (Manus and East New Britain) and five
taxa (Antipathidae, Cheloniidae, Nautilidae, Pinctada maxima,
and Pteria penguin) were obtained from intraprovincial
locations (Mussau and Tingwon Islands) more than 100 km
from the Nusa Islands, but all locations were within a 500 km
radius of the Nusa Islands. Table S1 summarizes the number of
locations, distance of furthest location, and the mean ± standard
deviation of distances for all locations from which each taxon
was obtained.
Relational structure among metrics
There were eight significant associations among the metrics
selected to represent aspects of taxa utilization within the
FIGURE 4
Taxa-accumulation curve for proportional composition of
marine taxa utilized among artisan households (n= 36) within
the shellcraft sector of the Tigak Islands, Papua New Guinea
between July 2018 and July 2019. Shading represents standard
deviations of the mean composition.
A
B
FIGURE 3
Differences in marine taxa utilization among artisan households (n= 36) within the shellcraft sector of the Tigak Islands, Papua New Guinea
between July 2018 and July 2019. (A) nMDS biplot based on the probability that households utilized a non-identical composition of taxa (Raup-
Crick dissimilarity). (B) nMDS biplot based on differences in the quantities of taxa utilized (Bray-Curtis dissimilarity), where green contour lines
illustrate a significant (F
1,35
= 14.0, P< 0.001) association between ordination structure and the quantity of all taxa utilized by a household.
Positioning of taxa reflects associations with the ordination structure; the ten most influential taxa are shown.
Simard et al. 10.3389/fmars.2022.1074996
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shellcraft sector of the Tigak Islands (Figure 7). The strongest
association (t
b
= 0.74, P< 0.001) occurred between the number
of locations and furthest location from which a taxon was
obtained, such that taxa obtained from more locations were
likely to be obtained further from the Nusa Islands. Taxa utilized
by a greater number of artisan households were also likely to be
obtained at increasing distances from the Nusa Islands (t
b
=
0.44, P< 0.001), as were taxa utilized in greater quantities (t
b
=
0.36, P< 0.001). The number of locations from which a taxon
was obtained was positively associated with the number the
FIGURE 6
Map of the Tigak Islands (shaded yellow) illustrating locations from where marine taxa utilized for shellcraft were obtained by artisan households
at the Nusa Islands (center of orange point). Line widths and point diameters indicate the composition of taxa obtained from a given location.
Black lines denote intra-provincial locations while red lines denote inter-provincial locations. Bottom left insert places the map and peripheral
locations in geographic context within Papua New Guinea.
AB
FIGURE 5
Source habitats for marine taxa utilized within the shellcraft sector of the Tigak Islands, Papua New Guinea. (A) Relative composition by class
and habitat. (B) Relative quantities by class and habitat.
Simard et al. 10.3389/fmars.2022.1074996
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artisans utilizing it (t
b
= 0.56, P< 0.001), but unrelated to the
quantities utilized (t
b
= 0.14, P= 0.13).
The typical size of a taxon (Table S1), which ranged from
1.0 cm (Engina bonasia and Engina mundula) to 100.0 cm
(Antipathidae), had a significant positive association with the
number of households (t
b
= 0.19, P< 0.05) and number of
locations (t
b
= 0.23, P< 0.05) suggesting that larger taxa were
utilized by a greater number of artisan households and obtained
from a greater number of locations than smaller taxa (Figure 7).
Despite this, typical size had a significant negative association
with quantities utilized (t
b
= -0.27, P< 0.01) suggesting that
larger taxa were used in lower quantities than smaller
taxa (Figure 7).
Discussion
Located within a global center of marine biodiversity, known as
the ‘Coral Triangle’, a wide selection of marine taxa is theoretically
available to artisans among the Tigak Islands for producing
shellcrafts. Whilst knowledge of species richness is superficial, a
popular field guide to mollusks of PNG depicts shells of 950 species
(Hinton, 1979) and, among the Tigak Islands alone, at least 26
different Conus spp. are known (Muttenthaler et al., 2012). In this
context, the shellcraft sector of the Tigak Islands selectively utilized
73 taxa representing at least 77 species (incl. 10 Conus spp.). This
included all species known to be utilized within the sector, such as
Eretmochelys imbricata (Kinch and Burgess, 2009)andthe17
species that Simard et al. (2019) reported, and at least 59
additional species, confirming that a broader composition of taxa
is utilized for shellcraft than previously acknowledged. The
composition was also substantially broader than that of other
shellcraft sectors within the Indo-Pacific where shellcraft
integrates with aquaculture of Rochia nilotica (Lee et al., 2004),
Pteria penguin (Teitelbaum and Fale, 2008;Southgate et al., 2016)or
Pinctada spp. (Southgate et al., 2019). These sectors typically rely on
one or two species (Lee et al., 2004;Southgate et al., 2019), and while
the same species were utilized within the shellcraft sector of the
Tigak Islands, their use occurs with that of numerous other taxa.
The broad composition observed in our study likely reflects a
reliance on artisanal fisheries, rather than aquaculture, but a clearer
picture of how this composition compares to other fisheries-
dependent shellcraft sectors (e.g., Floren, 2003;Dias et al., 2011;
Fröcklin et al., 2018) is presently hindered by an absence of
information. Excluding a few taxa, such as Eretmochelys imbricata
(Kinch and Burgess, 2009), Nautilidae (Nijman et al., 2015;Freitas
and Krishnasamy, 2016;Nijman and Lee, 2016;Nijman, 2019), and
Antipathidae (Grigg, 2001), known to be utilized for shellcraft
throughout the Indo-Pacific, artisanal fisheries for many of the
taxa utilized by households among the Tigak Islands had not
previously been linked to shellcraft sectors. When looking at
related sectors reliant on artisanal fisheries, such as local trade of
whole taxa as curios, analogous compositions of taxa are utilized.
Curio sectors in Zanzibar (Gössling et al., 2004), Madagascar
(Gibbons and Remaneva, 2011), and northeastern Brazil (Dias
et al., 2011),forexample,utilized55,122,and126speciesof
mollusks, respectively. Whilst the species utilized in these sectors
largely differed from those utilized for shellcraft among the Tigak
A
B
FIGURE 7
Relational structure among metrics representing aspects of marine taxa utilization within the shellcraft sector of the Tigak Islands, Papua New
Guinea. (A) Correlation matrix of all metrics. (B) Bi-plot illustrating relationships among quantities utilized, typical size, and number of artisan
households utilizing each taxon.
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Islands, reflecting sector-specificdemands(Wood and Wells, 1995)
and local diversity (Sekhran and Miller, 1996), gastropods and
bivalves were consistently among the most utilized taxa. Also, much
like the curio sectors (Marshall and Barnett, 1997;Gibbons and
Remaneva, 2011), our results demonstrate that not only mollusks,
but a broader composition of marine taxa including corals
(Antipathidae), crustaceans (Carpilus maculatus), sea turtles
(Cheloniidae), and sharks (Carcharhinus melanopterus)are
utilized to produce shellcrafts.
Noting that shellcraft sectors established elsewhere rely on
one or two species (Lee et al., 2004;Teitelbaum and Fale, 2008;
Southgate et al., 2016;Southgate et al., 2019), the broad
composition of taxa utilized within the shellcraft sector of the
Tigak Islands merits discussion. Utilization of all 73 taxa appears
unnecessary for a given household to succeed in deriving
satisfactory income from shellcraft (Simard et al., 2019)
because each household utilized a unique composition of far
fewer taxa than were collectively utilized within the sector.
Factors influencing a household’s access to a given taxon, their
ability to process a given taxon, and desire to do so are
presumably responsible for differentiating composition among
households. For example, small gastropods, such as Engina
scripta, are generally unsuited for use as pendants, whereas the
shell valves of larger bivalves, like Atrina vexillum and Pinctada
margaritifera, can be cut to produce pendants (Figure 1)
provided an artisan has required tools (e.g., coping or jewelry
saws) and proficiencies (Simard, 2019). Similarly, certain taxa,
tools, and skills are more amenable to the production of beads
(Figure 1) just as other unique combinations of taxa, tools, and
skills are better suited for other components of shellcrafts. Since
a broad range of shellcrafts appeal to consumers, with personal
aesthetic preferences in design and color influencing purchase
decisions (Militz et al., 2021), heterogenous demand is
potentially encouraging households to specialize in specific
products to best capture a particular market niche in this
increasingly competitive sector (Simard et al., 2019).
Specialization, in turn, would influence the composition of
taxa utilized. Certainly, tool ownership, shellcrafts produced,
and importance of taxa are known to vary among households
(Simard et al., 2019), with our study now confirming that taxa
composition also varies. Further exploring the human
dimensions influencing utilization of taxa among artisan
households is required to confirm these suppositions, and
necessary for ensuring that taxa utilization is compatible with
both resource conservation and the social and economic goals of
livelihood development (Allison and Ellis, 2001).
Despite utilizing a broad composition of taxa, the shellcraft
sector of the Tigak Islands utilized one species, Chrysostoma
paradoxum, substantially more than any other. Not only
aesthetics (Opitz, 2011), but also local cultural significance
(Lewis, 1939), potentially impact market dynamics that govern
production of shellcrafts incorporating Chrysostoma
paradoxum. A similar bias towards particular, but different,
species is anticipated for other shellcraft sectors of PNG given
variability in how local cultures attribute value to specific
mollusks (Lewis, 1939;Kinch, 2003). Excluding Chrysostoma
paradoxum, a more even utilization of the remaining 72 taxa
accounted for nearly 100,000 individuals annually. In relation to
other sectors in PNG, however, quantities at which most taxa
were utilized are largely insignificant. For example, the mother-
of-pearl fishery in PNG exported around 249 tonnes of Rochia
nilotica and 3 tonnes of Turbo marmoratus as unworked shell in
2019 (Simard et al., 2021); whereas only 2,604 and 125
individuals, respectively, were utilized annually by artisans
among the Tigak Islands. As another example, several tonnes
of Antipathidae from PNG are purchased by jewelers each year
(Kailola, 1995) whereas only 97 colonies were utilized annually
within the shellcraft sector of the Tigak Islands. While such
comparisons help contextualize current utilization, they do not
reflect the rapid growth of this sector (Simard et al., 2019)or
growing demand for shellcrafts in PNG (Militz et al., 2021),
which may lead to far greater quantities of taxa being utilized
than at present. For example, annual utilization of sea turtles
among the Tigak Islands over the last decade has expanded from
a single family utilizing three to four carapaces (Kinch and
Burgess, 2009) to 22 households utilizing 55 carapaces. Similar
growth within the shellcraft sector of the Tigak Islands and,
more broadly across PNG, could see utilization approaching the
more industrial levels of shellcraft sectors in India (Shyam et al.,
2017) and the Philippines (Floren, 2003). Within this context,
thefutureroleofshellcraftinmarinetaxaexploitation,
particularly for taxa jointly exploited by other sectors (Kailola,
1995;Simard et al., 2021), merits continued monitoring and
consideration as part of future development plans supporting
greater sustainability within this sector.
Unevenness in quantities at which taxa are utilized is a trait
shared with curio sectors (Gössling et al., 2004;Dias et al., 2011).
As previously mentioned, market feedback likely influences
which taxa are utilized, and this would also apply to their
quantities (Gibbons and Remaneva, 2011). Unlike curios,
where taxa are generally traded as individuals (i.e., whole
shells or equivalent), a single shellcraft can represent multiple
taxa in unequal proportions (Figure 1). For example, greater
quantities of smaller taxa (e.g., Mauritia arabica) is required to
produce an equivalent number of shell beads to those obtained
from larger taxa (e.g., Atrina vexillum)(Figure 1). This aspect of
a taxon’s utility, combined with market feedback, are necessary
considerations in explaining the unevenness in quantities
utilized. Additionally, the reduced quantities at which larger
taxa were utilized could be related to their scarcity (Dias et al.,
2011). Many of the larger taxa utilized for shellcraft are
presumably less abundant (White et al., 2007)andhave
histories of exploitation for subsistence (Swadling, 1994;
Kailola, 1995) or other commercial activities (Simard et al.,
2022). Without knowledge of current population trends, there
is potential for current quantities, particularly for larger taxa of
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known importance (e.g., Pinctada margaritifera, Pinctada
maxima,Pteria penguin,Rochia nilotica;Simard et al., 2019),
to underestimate the demand for these species. An expansion of
regional aquaculture activities could address supply limitations
by providing a renewable source of shell material and should also
be considered as part of future development plans for this sector.
Implications for monitoring
shellcraft sectors
An absence of information pertaining to taxa utilized within
shellcraft sectors, particularly those reliant on artisanal fisheries
(Kailola, 1995;Wood and Wells, 1995;Dias et al., 2011), begets
value in discussing how the approach taken in our study can be
adapted for monitoring shellcraft sectors more broadly. Past
studies with a single-species (Kinch and Burgess, 2009) or socio-
economic focus (Simard et al., 2019) greatly understated the
composition of taxa utilized within the shellcraft sector of the
Tigak Islands. Thus, dedicated study on fisheries-dependent
shellcraft sectors seems necessary to canvass diversity in
its entirety.
Interviewing artisan households was an effective approach to
obtaining information on the diversity of taxa utilized within the
shellcraft sector of the Tigak Islands as it overcame challenges of
geographic scale. Interviewing fishers directly, as opposed to
artisan households, would have required a far greater investment
in terms of both the number of interviews required and
geographic scale over which interviews were conducted.
Artisan households obtained taxa from more than 30
locations, up to 417 km away, indicating a dispersal of fishing
effort, with monitoring further complicated by the fact that
multiple fishers at each location may supply these taxa. A
dispersal of fishing effort around a central hub of artisanal
activity (either production or sales) is a common aspect of
shellcraftsectorsas,forexample,artisansinTuvalu,the
Philippines, and Indonesia have been reported to source
marine taxa from as far as 100, 400, and 500 km away,
respectively (Tiraa-Passfield, 1996;Floren, 2003;Nijman et al.,
2015). Identifying and targeting these hubs of activity is a
recommended approach for monitoring the diversity of taxa
utilized within shellcraft sectors, where fishing is potentially
extended over a broad geographic scale and across a range
of habitats.
Whilst artisan households among the Tigak Islands were
highly concentrated, facilitating interviews, this may not be the
case with other sectors. Our results suggest that a large
proportional composition of taxa utilized can be identified
even without sampling all households. Randomly sampling a
quarter of households (n= 9) was predicted to identify around
80% of the composition utilized within the sector, which
increased to 90% when involving half the households (n= 18).
Given the positive association between the number of
households utilizing a particular taxon and the quantity
utilized within the sector, a subset of all households should
help identify the more heavily exploited taxa in addition to those
utilized by a large proportion of artisans. Thus, a reasonable
account of both composition and relative quantities at which
taxa are utilized is likely to be obtained even if not all
participants within a sector can be interviewed.
Relevance for future development plans
Tourism is widely perceived as a central element of
development among island nations of the Indo-Pacific(Connell
and Rugendyke, 2008;Connell, 2018) and, through the purchase of
souvenirs, tourism and shellcraft sectors are intrinsically linked
(Chand et al., 2014;Militz et al., 2021). Prior to the COVID-19
pandemic, tourism expanded rapidly throughout the Indo-Pacific
(UNWTO, 2022a). At many coastal destinations, including
Madagascar (Gibbons and Remaneva, 2011), Fiji (Chand et al.,
2014), and Brazil (Dias et al., 2011), growth in tourism coincided
with increasing demand for shellcrafts and, in the case of PNG, local
expansion of shellcraft (Simard et al., 2019). Detrimental impacts,
such as overfishing of utilized taxa, could arise from such expansion
(e.g., Dias et al, 2011). The cessation of tourism attributed to
COVID-19 (UNWTO, 2022b) has allowed critical reconsideration
of tourism-related development and provides opportunities to
accelerate transformation towards more sustainable approaches
(Connell, 2018;Gössling et al., 2020). Such opportunities could
include implementing community-based resource management,
expanding marine aquaculture activities, and strengthening
existing governance as part of future development plans
supporting greater sustainability within shellcraft sectors.
Within PNG, the existing top-down governance framework
for managing fisheries is unlikely to sufficiently mitigate
overexploitation of most taxa utilized within shellcraft sectors.
Attempts to match resource extraction with productivity
through a combination of government-imposed output and
technical control measures have a high failure rate at a
community level (Wilson et al., 1994) and are largely
impractical for shellcraft sectors given the broad composition
of taxa for which limited biological data are available (Kailola,
1995;Dias et al., 2011). Whilst existing regulations prevent
harvesting ‘sedentary’taxa (viz. 93.2% of taxa utilized) at night
with aid of a torch and establish size restrictions for some species
(Pinctada margaritifera Pinctada maxima,Rochia nilotica, and
Turbo marmoratus), national and provincial governments often
lack adequate funding and personnel for enforcement at a
community level (Govan, 2015). Given such challenges, an
alternative management framework, such as community-based,
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centrally governed, and co-managed marine protected areas
(MPAs) (Smallhorn-West et al., 2019), are more likely to yield
positive ecological and socio-economic impacts within shellcraft
sectors. While poaching aggression and a lack of compliance
have limited the effectiveness of MPAs for high-value taxa in
PNG (Hair et al., 2020), most of the taxa utilized for shellcraft
have negligible value as an unworked resource (Kailola, 1995).
No-take MPAs appear particularly well-suited for shellcraft
sectors, because most positive ecological impacts are associated
with rapid recovery of benthic invertebrates following reduced
fishing efforts (Thaman et al., 2017;Smallhorn-West et al.,
2019). Targeting intertidal and subtidal benthic habitats,
specifically, during MPA establishment would best ensure
recovery of a large proportion of taxa utilized by artisans.
In addition to community-based resource management, an
expansion of aquaculture activities could offer a renewable
source of shell material while simultaneously creating
additional income-generating opportunities. Several nations,
such Fiji, Tanzania, and Tonga, already benefitfrom
community-based farming of pearl oysters to provide a
sustainable supply of shell and opportunity for additional
income through pearl culture (Southgate et al., 2006;Jiddawi,
2008;Fröcklin et al., 2018;Johnston et al., 2019;Southgate et al.,
2019;Saucedo et al., 2022). Whilst similar developments existed
in PNG (George, 1978), production has greatly diminished in
recent years (Simard et al., 2022) with current operations of
marginal relevance to shellcraft sectors. For example, current
operations are limited to the production of Pinctada maxima in
Milne Bay Province (IPA 2021), to which the shellcraft sector of
the Tigak Islands had no direct links (Figure 6). Establishing
linkage between shellcraft sectors and existing aquaculture
operations should be seen as a priority given that shellcraft
can generate 5-10 times more income than the export of
unprocessed shell (Friedman et al., 2008;Simard et al., 2019).
Beyond this, reinvigorating community-based aquaculture in
areas presently producing shellcrafts should be considered, given
the apparent importance of pearl oysters within shellcraft sectors
(Simard et al., 2019).
Studies have shown that marine taxa threatened with
overexploitation, such as Antipathidae, Cheloniidae, and
Nautilidae, are heavily trafficked as curios and shellcrafts
(Nijman et al., 2015;Nijman and Lee, 2016;Nijman, 2019).
Our study found all these taxa utilized within the shellcraft
sector of the Tigak Islands. Papua New Guinea, as a Party to the
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species
(CITES) since 1976, has acknowledged that international
cooperation is essential for the protection of these taxa and is
committed to ensuring their utilization is compatible with their
survival. Under CITES regulations, transport of shellcrafts
comprised of Antipathidae, Cheloniidae, or Nautilidae out of
PNG requires a government-issued export permit. Despite this,
such regulations have a history of being minimally promoted or
policed, as evident from items containing Eretmochelys
imbricata being offered for sale within Jackson’s International
Airport in Port Moresby (Kinch and Burgess, 2009). Current
quantities of Antipathidae, Cheloniidae, and Nautilidae leaving
PNG as shellcrafts are unclear, although conservative estimates
can be made by examining their utilization within shellcraft
sectors. In our study, an estimated 899 shells of Nautilidae, 55
carapaces of Cheloniidae, and 97 colonies of Antipathidae were
utilized annually. For Nautilidae, current utilization represents
no imminent threat to their survival as the shellcraft sector of
the Tigak Islands exclusively utilized drift shells collected from
intertidal benthic habitats (Kailola, 1995;Simard et al., 2019).
Similarly, with Cheloniidae, scutes and carapaces used in
shellcraft are mainly obtained from subsistence or
opportunistic catches (Kinch and Burgess, 2009)withthe
quantity utilized comparatively low compared to other areas
of PNG. For example, annual utilization across all households
among the Tigak Islands was roughly half that reportedly
utilized by a single household based at Hula village, Central
Province (Kinch and Burgess, 2009). Given the relatively small
quantities utilized for shellcraft, draconian measures to reduce
utilization of these taxa within the sector would seem
unnecessary. Rather, educating consumers, particularly
foreign tourists (Militz et al., 2021), retailers, and relevant
authorities would greatly strengthen existing governance to
protect these taxa against unregulated international trade.
Routine monitoring of shellcraft sectors would also help to
detect a change in practices (such as targeted fishing of
Nautilidae spp.; Dunstan et al., 2011)thatmaypresenta
potential threat to the sustainability of both these taxa and
the sectors they support.
Conclusion
For a fisheries-dependent shellcraft sector, our study
demonstrated how data collection through structured
household interviews was an effective approach to obtaining
sector-specific information at a local scale. Information
pertaining to marine taxa utilization within a shellcraft sector
of PNG revealed a greater diversity, in terms of both
composition and quantities, than previously reported.
Knowledge generated on the taxa utilized, their quantities,
source habitats, and geographic scales of exploitation can now
provide a basis for developing greater sustainability within
shellcraft sectors across the Indo-Pacificbyinforming
community-based resource management, further developing of
marine aquaculture, and existing governance arrangements.
Given the socio-economic benefits that shellcraft provides to
coastal communities of developing island nations (Tiraa-
Passfield, 1996;Chand et al., 2014;Barclay et al., 2018;
Fröcklin et al., 2018;Simard et al., 2019;Southgate et al.,
2019), further research on social, economic, and ecological
links of this livelihood activity is warranted.
Simard et al. 10.3389/fmars.2022.1074996
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Data availability statement
The original contributions presented in the study are
included in the article/Supplementary Material. Further
inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Ethics statement
The studies involving human participants were reviewed and
approved by University of the Sunshine Coast’sHuman
Research Ethics Committee. The participants provided their
informed consent to participate in this study.
Author contributions
All authors contributed to the conception of the project, read
manuscript revisions, and approved the submitted version.
NSMS collected data and performed statistical analysis with
TAM. NSMS wrote the manuscript with support from TAM, JK,
and PCS.
Funding
This study was supported by the Australian Centre for
International Agriculture Research (ACIAR) and the National
Fisheries Authority (NFA) of Papua New Guinea within ACIAR
Projects FIS/2014/060 and FIS/2019/122 led by PCS at the
University of the Sunshine Coast.
Acknowledgments
For facilitating interactions with artisans and accessing
research sites we thankfully acknowledge Michael Mangun as
community chairman of the Nusa Islands as well as staff at the
National Fisheries Authority Nago Island Mariculture and
Research Facility. We appreciate all of the valuable comments
from the two reviewers.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the
absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could
be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Publisher’s note
All claims expressed in this article are solely those of the
authors and do not necessarily represent those of their affiliated
organizations, or those of the publisher, the editors and the
reviewers. Any product that may be evaluated in this article, or
claim that may be made by its manufacturer, is not guaranteed
or endorsed by the publisher.
Supplementary material
The Supplementary Material for this article can be found
online at: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/
fmars.2022.1074996/full#supplementary-material
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