The Psychology of Rewards in Digital Game-Based Learning: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

A significantly accelerated speed in the growth and acceptance of new technology has been observed in recent decades. This rapid technological transition has affected almost every economy, environment, culture, and education. The rapid technological evolution has led to the frequent use of Digital Game-Based Learning (DGBL), where users learn and play simultaneously. DGBL has been implemented to supplement formal classroom lessons. Despite the extensive use of DGBL and other implementation methodologies, no study has yet synthesised the use of the "reward system" and its associated components. This study reviewed over fifty scientific publications on the forms of rewards in DGBL and their effects on learners, published between 2000 and 2021.

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Journal of Cognitive Sciences and Human Development. Vol.8(1), March 2022
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The Psychology of Rewards in Digital Game-Based Learning: A
Comprehensive Review
Carmen Soo* & Julia Lee Ai Cheng
Faculty of Cognitive Sciences and Human Development, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak,
Sarawak, Malaysia.
ABSTRACT
A significantly accelerated speed in the growth and acceptance of new technology has been observed in
recent decades. This rapid technological transition has affected almost every economy, environment,
culture, and education. The rapid technological evolution has led to the frequent use of Digital Game-Based
Learning (DGBL), where users learn and play simultaneously. DGBL has been implemented to supplement
formal classroom lessons. Despite the extensive use of DGBL and other implementation methodologies, no
study has yet synthesised the use of the "reward system" and its associated components. This study reviewed
over fifty scientific publications on the forms of rewards in DGBL and their effects on learners, published
between 2000 and 2021.
Keywords: digital game-based learning, educational technology, reward system, extrinsic reward,
gamification
ARTICLE INFO
Email address: mycarmen98@gmail.com (Carmen Soo)
*Corresponding author
https://doi.org/10.33736/jcshd.4131.2022
e-ISSN: 2550-1623
Manuscript received: 14 August 2021; Accepted: 11 February 2022; Date of publication: 31 March 2022
Copyright: This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the CC-BY-NC-SA (Creative Commons Attribution-Non-commercial-ShareAlike 4.0
International License), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, for non -commercial purposes, provided the original work of the
author(s) is properly cited.

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1 INTRODUCTION
Technology has developed tremendously in recent years, especially the internet, web-based,
and mobile-based applications. It has since taken over many tasks and given new breaths to
many sectors all over the globe. According to Furió et al. (2015), the new generation's children
have grown up playing computer games, using smartphones and other electronic devices.
Children have since established distinct attitudes and aptitudes, which may have produced a
disconnection between their perceptions and the conventional classroom's learning
environment (Furió et al., 2015). Many of the reasons for this setback are that old techniques
are being used to educate the new generation's children (Beck & Wade, 2006).
Consequently, Digital Game-Based Learning (DGBL) has been incorporated into education
worldwide to replace traditional classroom lessons. DGBL seems to engage the children better
and more effectively than traditional learning methods (Bai et al., 2020; Hwa, 2018). According
to Dickey (2005), there are three essential components in most digital games: goal-oriented
activity, reward system, and progress monitoring. To effectively engage a player's attention
and interest, a game needs to maintain an adequate difficulty level. For instance, the degree of
difficulty increases through the progression of level, which targets to keep the game adequately
challenging while maintaining a high success rate of 80 per cent, regardless of the player's
current skill level (Ronimus et al., 2014). Virtual rewards, such as points, badges, and
leaderboards, are used in digital games to acknowledge players' effort to complete a task
regardless of performance and effort and motivate players (Preist & Jones, 2015).
Using extrinsic rewards in education, however, is highly controversial. Extrinsic rewards such
as cash, awards, and prizes, according to Deci et al. (1999), hampered intrinsic drive. Extrinsic
benefits, according to Deci and Ryan (2010), can "guide individual's behaviour into
participation in activities" that they did not intend to participate in at first (p. 1). As a result,
people may lose interest and persevere less as time goes on. On the other hand, extrinsic
rewards have been shown to have a favourable impact on learners, particularly in terms of
creating brain dopamine in the human memory system and increasing memory consolidation.
When learners are given extrinsic rewards, the human brain produces dopamine, which causes
them to have positive emotions (Reeve, 2006). Extrinsic rewards also foster the storage of
newly learned information into learners' long-term memory when presented in the learning
process, thus increasing learning (Behnamnia et al., 2020; Park et al., 2019). The importance
of the rewards system in DGBL on the human brain discussed above emphasises the necessity
to examine the types and effects of rewards utilised in DGBL in greater depth.
Hitherto, little is known about the psychology underlying the DGBL reward systems, the
impacts of rewards on the learner, and how rewards in DGBL engage learners in their learning
process. Although the literature on extrinsic rewards used in DGBL is extensive, the types of
rewards and their effect on learners have yet to be clarified. Thus, this review focuses on the
types of rewards in DGBL and their effect on the learners. This comprehensive review aims to
examine the following:
i. The types of rewards used in digital game-based learning solutions
ii. The effects of rewards in a digital game-based learning solution in the learning process

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2 METHOD
Articles were found with a search using the most reliable research search engines such as
EBSCOhost Complete, PubMed, Research Gate, Science Direct, APA PsycInfo, and Google
Scholar using the following keywords: 'Digital Game-Based Learning', 'DGBL', 'mobile-game
based learning', 'educational technology', 'gamification', 'reward system', 'extrinsic reward',
'intrinsic motivation', and 'learners' engagement'. Bibliographies from selected articles were
consulted to identify additional studies. Articles were separated into findings and conclusions
to evaluate trends or gaps in the literature. Specific articles on the reward system not within the
DGBL environment were excluded from providing a complete overview of the rewards found
exclusively in DGBL. Furthermore, over 50 articles published between the year 2000 to 2021
were carefully selected in line with the research objectives, and they were categorised and
organised into two comprehensive tables (Table 1 and Table 2). Table 1 (Types of rewards
used in a digital game-based learning solution) is divided into six categories: achievement,
leaderboards, level, new features, points, and prizes. Meanwhile, Table 2 (Effects of rewards
in digital game-based learning) was divided into six categories: better concentration, better
knowledge retention, engaging the learners, enhanced memory consolidation, enhanced
motivation, and enhanced positive emotions.

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Table 1. Types of rewards used in a digital game-based learning solution.
Articles
Methodology
Age
N
Types of rewards
Achievements
Leaderboards
Levels
New
Features
Points
Prizes
Behnamnia et al. (2020)
Case study
3-6
7
✓
Charles et al. (2010)
Framework
All
✓
✓
Glover (2013)
Meta-analysis
All
✓
✓
✓
Huang et al. (2018)
Experiment
Undergraduate
student
96
✓
✓
Kazimoglu et al. (2012)
Framework
11-16
25
✓
Lister (2015)
Analysis
All
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
McKernan et al. (2015)
Experiment
College
student
242
✓
✓
Mekler et al. (2013)
Experiment
17-68
295
✓
✓
✓
Nicholson (2015)
Meta-analysis
All
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
Pinter et al. (2020)
Experiment
Higher
education
student
570
✓
✓
Richardson and Lyytinen
(2014)
Mixed methods
All
✓
Richter et al. (2014)
Meta-analysis
All
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
Yang et al. (2016)
Experiment
8-9
50
✓

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Table 2: Effects of rewards in digital game-based learning.
Effects
Articles
Methodology
Age
N
Findings
Better
concentration
Ronimus et al.
(2014)
Experiment
3-10
138
Parents whose children used the reward versions of GraphoGame
reported that their children concentrated better during the play sessions
than parents whose children did not use the reward system.
Better knowledge
retention
Ge (2018)
Experiment
Adults
180
The presence of a reward or punishment pattern enables the learner to
retain the knowledge in their mind, which calls for a deeper
understanding of learning motivation and learning anxiety.
Engage the
learners
Chen (2012)
Experiment
10-11
57
Incorporating rewards in virtual coins could motivate players to take
care of their virtual pets, indirectly facilitating learning.
Khan et al. (2017)
Experiment
12-15
72
Incorporating game elements such as challenge, progression, point, and
level in DGBL to achieve desired learning goals can boost student
engagement.
Leftheriotis et al.
(2017)
Empirical study
15-18
16
Gamifying in interaction display (ID) enhance students' mental exercise.
Moreover, fantasy promotes student engagement through rewards and
collaboration.
Moon et al. (2011)
Theoretical
Framework
Student
40
The reward mechanism could engage players to continue playing the
game and encourage learning.
Nicholson (2015)
Meta-analysis
All
Some gamification systems focus on introducing scores, levels,
leaderboards, accomplishments, or medals to real-life settings to enable
users to engage with the real world to gain these rewards.
Przybylski et al.
(2010)
Meta-analysis
All
Rewards were effective motivators of engagement in digital games
because they provided learners with immediate feedback on their
performance, thereby maintaining participation in-game activities.
Yang et al. (2016)
Experiment
8-9
50
In the presence of rewards (virtual stars and digital badges) in DGBL,
learners' self-efficacy and learning performance were positively
impacted.
Enhance memory
consolidation
Düzel et al. (2010)
Theoretical
Framework
55-77
21
The anticipation of an extrinsic reward could facilitate memory
consolidation by triggering the mesolimbic reward system, enhancing
the release of phasic dopamine in the hippocampal memory system.

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Murayama and
Kitagami (2014)
Experiment
Graduate
students
33
Research participants might recall task-related materials better simply
because they are motivated by the rewards.
Shohamy and
Adcock (2010)
Mixed methods
All
The dopaminergic memory consolidation hypothesis suggests that the
reward system would explicitly modulate memory consolidation inside
the hippocampal memory system. Thus, extrinsic rewards enhance
memory consolidation even without motivational and attentional
processes.
Enhance
motivation
Abramovich et al.
(2013)
Experiment
11-12
51
Learner motivations may drive rewards earned in the form of a badge.
The system with badges may have a positive impact on critical learner
motivations.
Alhebshi and
Halabi (2020)
Quantitative
18-20
35
Students are motivated to reach the top level when their points appear
on the scoreboard.
Arifudin et al.
(2020)
Mixed methods
All
The feedback system (points, levels, scores, or progress bars) motivates
the participants to continue playing.
Barata et al. (2013)
Experiment
College
students
N/A
Apart from an evening out the challenge distribution over the term, fairly
rewarding students could significantly improve their participation and
performance.
Behnamnia et al.
(2020)
Case study
3-6
7
Feedback and rewarding the child's performance is also a practical
approach to improving his or her skills and increasing the level of
learning. Thus, making the child motivated to continue playing.
Cameron et al.
(2005)
Experiment
University
students
119
Rewards can improve learning outcomes by motivating people to pursue
complex tasks or goals that they would otherwise be less interested in or
attempt less diligently.
Chen et al. (2017)
Experiment
10-11
172
In-game cards as educational rewards motivate learners to use the
vocabulary learning system and boost their learning outcomes.
Constantin et al.
(2017)
Experiment
11-15
15
Children were positively motivated to continue participating in their
learning tasks when given computer-based rewards.
Cruz et al. (2017)
Experiment
18-38
36
When participants consider the badge a reward for hard work, they
interpret this as positive feedback and are driven to keep playing.
Dicheva et al.
(2015)
Systematic
mapping study
All
The presence of reward in a game would allow the players to desire to
win and enhance their motivation.

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DomíNguez et al.
(2013)
Experiment
University
students
211
Rewards and competition mechanisms increase the students' motivation
to complete optional exercises.
Filsecker and
Hickey (2014)
Experiment
Fifth-grader
106
The use of external rewards is one of the efforts to motivate learning.
Garris et al. (2002)
Theoretical
Framework
All
In-game scorekeeping may encourage players to replay the game to
improve their performance.
Glover (2013)
Meta-analysis
All
Different rewards would offer different degrees of motivation to
different learners, and thus the reward(s) should be deliberately designed
to ensure that they motivate all. For example, points could be earned,
and a 'price list' of various prizes could be used so that users could strive
for something that interests them.
Hoffmann et al.
(2009)
Mixed methods
Adult teachers
86
Rewards would motivate learners to do more activities directly affiliated
with the learning outcomes.
Huang et al. (2010)
Qualitative
Survey
Undergraduate
students
264
Rewards positively increased learners' motivation and sustained the
game playing and learning cycle in DGBL.
Leftheriotis et al.
(2017)
Empirical study
15-18
16
When a reward is involved in a game, players will usually have more
desire to win, and therefore their motivation will be increased.
McDaniel et al.
(2012)
Survey Research
University
students
200
Rewards in the form of badges and achievements "still had the
motivational effect that was desired".
Park et al. (2019)
Experiment
University
students
64
The desire of the user to receive such rewards will motivate users to
engage more in the learning task through rewards that make the game
experience more pleasant and thus increase the level of learning.
Skinner et al.
(2004)
Meta-analysis
All
Rewards can improve learning outcomes by motivating people to pursue
complex tasks or goals which they might otherwise be less interested in
or attempt less diligently.
Tan et al. (2007)
Theoretical
Framework
All
Rewards must be given to the learners in the game. It allows the learners
to evaluate their performance. Learners would be motivated to obtain
rewards and confidence in the next task. On the other hand, if little or no
rewards are obtained, learners would attempt to perform the same task
again to attain higher achievement.
Yang et al. (2018)
Experiment
11-12
43
Learners keen to perform more tasks have better chances of earning
rewards in the game-based English learning system. Thus, making them

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more motivated to proceed with another form of task. Consequently,
learners' language performance could be improved through gameplay.
Zin et al. (2009)
Theoretical
Framework
All
Reward/award is one way to motivate learners to continue the gameplay
and overcome the difficulties of each game level.
Enhance positive
emotions
De Wet and Venter
(2019)
Mixed methods
8-12
60
The rewards constructed elicited strong positive emotions in learners
and were closely connected to the mobile mathematical learning games.
DomíNguez et al.
(2013)
Experiment
University
students
211
A virtual reward system could elicit positive emotions upon task
completion, motivating students to complete more tasks.
McKernan et al.
(2015)
Experiment
College
student
242
Regardless of how many reward features are present, players respond
positively to the game when they feel rewarded while playing.
Reeve (2006)
Meta-analysis
All
Extrinsic rewards stimulate positive emotion and facilitate behaviour by
signalling a forthcoming opportunity for personal gain.

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3 FINDINGS
The use of rewards in the education sector is not a new phenomenon, as educators have been
utilising rewards in various stages of education, such as early childhood education (Behnamnia et
al., 2020; Ronimus et al., 2014), primary education (Abramovich et al., 2013; Chen, 2012; Yang
et al., 2016), secondary education (Kazimoglu et al., 2012; Khan et al., 2017; Leftheriotis et al.,
2017), and tertiary education (Barata et al., 2013; Cameron et al., 2005; DomíNguez et al., 2013;
Huang et al., 2010; McDaniel et al., 2012; McKernan et al., 2015; Murayama & Kitagami, 2014;
Park et al., 2019). In a traditional classroom setting, teachers usually reward students who achieve
outstanding academic performance to recognise their efforts and accomplishments (Souza et al.,
2017). Students with low academic performance, on the other hand, are also rewarded for boosting
vital student motivation (Pinter et al., 2020). Some everyday rewards offered in a traditional
classroom include "praise, attention, stickers, gold stars, privileges, good grades, tokens, approval,
scholarships, candy, food, trophies, checkmarks and points, good citizen certificates, awards,
money, smiles, positive feedback, public recognition, pats on the back, prizes, special materials,
free time, incentive plans, and honour rolls" (Reeve, 2006, p. 3).
Generally, rewards are divided into two main types: intrinsic and extrinsic. Šajeva (2014) defined
intrinsic rewards as psychological or internal rewards that an individual receives directly from
completing a task, while extrinsic rewards, on the other hand, are tangible rewards that
organisations offer to individuals. Additionally, according to Magerko et al. (2008), intrinsic
rewards derive from the learning and playing process, while extrinsic rewards derive from grades,
points, winning, and approval. From psychologists' point of view, rewards are provided in
exchange for something else that is compensation under an outsider's control (Hidi, 2016), while
neuroscientists perceive rewards as constructive reinforcements that boost the likelihood of
repetitive actions associated with them (Schultz, 2010). Statistically, behaviour frequently
associated with rewards such as food and money is 65 times more likely to be repeated than actions
that have not been rewarded (Berridge & Robinson, 2003; Correa, 2018).
Glover (2013) states that rewards in DGBL are presented differently and vary depending on the
game's context and concept. Nevertheless, there are six significant rewards categories represented
in DGBL: achievement, leaderboards, level, new features, points, and prizes. As shown in Table
1, rewards in the form of achievement were examined in five out of thirteen studies (Charles et al.,
2010; Glover, 2013; Lister, 2015; Nicholson, 2015; Richter et al., 2014). Achievement is a type of
"symbolic award for any skill, knowledge, or achievement", which can be shown by the learners
to "let others know of their mastery or knowledge" (Abramovich et al., 2013, p. 218). Similarly,
Glover (2013) defined 'achievements' as a symbol displayed publicly on online profiles that draw
attention to the accomplishments of an individual, which allows individuals to keep track of their
progress and boast to third parties (p. 2001). Badges and gold stars also fall under this reward
category (Abramovich et al., 2013; Glover, 2013).
Leaderboards imply that players' rank is displayed according to their in-game performance.
Conventionally, leaderboards are commonly used in sports to show where a team stands relative
to its opponent. However, the same concept is also integrated into DGBL and is prevalently used

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in multiplayer games, particularly games with fixed times and objectives (Glover, 2013, p. 2001).
O'Donovan et al. (2013) mentioned that using a leaderboard in DGBL would foster a sense of
rivalry and belonging to like-minded groups. Seven of the thirteen studies were reported to have
used leaderboards to reward players (Glover, 2013; Huang et al., 2018; Lister, 2015; Mekler et al.,
2013; Nicholson, 2015; Pinter et al., 2020; Richter et al., 2014).
Levels split a game into tiny, separate, and feasible chunks and progressing to the next level is
frequently a powerful motivator for deliberate attempts (Gåsland, 2011). According to Zagal et al.
(2005), levels are goal metrics since they evaluate and offer feedback on players' game
performance. Rewards in the form of levels were reported in five out of the thirteen studies. (Huang
et al., 2018; Lister, 2015; Mekler et al., 2013; Nicholson, 2015; Richter et al., 2014).
There have been 'new features' in DGBL in engaging the learners to continue playing. These new
features refer to features that are unavailable at lower levels and can only be obtained after learners
have performed certain tasks or have achieved a specific objective. Two studies reported new
features as one of the types of rewards presented in DGBL (see Table 1; Kazimoglu et al., 2012;
McKernan et al., 2015). For instance, Kazimoglu et al. (2012) reported that the rewards presented
in a technical game prototype such as 'Program Your Robot' are new features to the game, namely
new collectable pieces, slots and enemy robots to avoid while players progress through the game.
Moreover, McKernan et al. (2015) further clarified that new game features such as unlocking new
tasks, earning items to personalise their avatar, or winning trophies are some in-game features that
players find appealing.
Rewards, which are presented in the form of points similar to the conventional 'marks' or 'scores'
that a student receives in a classroom, are among the three most basic reward elements found in
DGBL (Zagal et al., 2005). Six out of thirteen studies reported that rewards in the form of points
were constantly used in DGBL (Charles et al., 2010; Lister, 2015; Mekler et al., 2013; Nicholson,
2015; Pinter et al., 2020; Richter et al., 2014). Furthermore, Gåsland (2011) reported that
gamification uses a point-based reward system that is both motivating and enjoyable.
Prizes in DGBL exist in many forms, such as game tokens, trophies, medals, coins, and virtual
stickers. Prizes are the most widely used reward component found in DGBL, which are reported
in eight out of the thirteen studies that are listed in Table 1 (Behnamnia et al., 2020; Glover, 2013;
Lister, 2015; McKernan et al., 2015; Nicholson, 2015; Richardson & Lyytinen, 2014; Richter et
al., 2014; Yang et al., 2016). For example, the educational DGBL mobile application on a reading
DGBL 'GraphoGame' presents extrinsic rewards in the form of game tokens and virtual stickers to
reward the learners for their performance (Richardson & Lyytinen, 2014). The reward system is
controlled by a personal avatar created at the beginning of the game (Thomson et al., 2020).
Moreover, McKernan et al. (2015) added that tokens and rewards gained by the players along the
game's storyline would be used to purchase the components needed to complete a task (e.g., repair
the ship) and promote a sense of game progression.
Regardless of the types of rewards presented in DGBL, the effects of rewards on learners' learning
process are consistent. Apart from the positive emotions that learners experience after receiving

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rewards, DGBL also helps engage the players and thus increases learners' motivation, enhances
concentration, enhances memory consolidation, and elicits better knowledge retention.
According to Stevens and Bavelier (2012), attention is vital in many cognitive functions as it
regulates the flow of information between individuals and their surroundings. The ability to
concentrate selectively determines successful learning and impacts academic performance.
Therefore, incorporating DGBL in learning would facilitate learners to concentrate better. It is said
so because when learners are presented with rewards while they are playing, they tend to pay full
attention and concentrate fully on the content of the game to obtain more rewards (Ge, 2018). In a
study conducted by Ronimus et al. (2014), it was reported that parents whose children used the
rewards version of GraphoGame reported that their children seemed to concentrate better during
the play sessions than those who used the non-reward version of GraphoGame. They also added
that fantasy elements and a more comprehensive range of learning activities in GraphoGame might
have enhanced the children's attention while gaming (Ronimus et al., 2014).
DGBL has also demonstrated promising effects in better knowledge retention among players. For
example, Cooper (2014) revealed that one of the ways to move up to another level of the pyramid
is by asking questions frequently. The answers obtained from asking questions would enrich the
information with meaning and context (Cooper, 2014). Additionally, Nuthall (2000) suggests that
an elaborative rehearsal strategy should be used for a learner to retain knowledge effectively. When
a learner elaborates on a piece of information, they are more likely to remember it for a longer
time. Learners will recall new information more readily when they link the unfamiliar information
to the information they already know (Nuthall, 2000). In an experiment by Ge (2018), the presence
of a 'reward or punishment' pattern in DGBL enabled the learners to better retain the knowledge
in their minds as compared to another two control groups that employed the 'only reward' strategy
and 'no reward nor punishment' pattern.
Learner engagement can be described as "behavioural engagement, cognitive engagement, and
motivational engagement" (Linnenbrink & Pintrich 2003, p.122). Learners who are behaviourally
engaged would persevere and seek assistance compared to those who are not (Linnenbrink &
Pintrich, 2003). To be genuinely cognitively engaged, a learner must be immersed in detailed
thoughts about the materials learned and distinguish between what they understand and what they
do not understand. In contrast, motivational engagement refers to the learners' interests, values,
and affect (Linnenbrink & Pintrich, 2003).
As DGBL is integrated into conventional classrooms, educators no longer bear the sole
responsibility of engaging learners since the rewards component in DGBL is proven to effectively
engage the learners (Chen, 2012; Khan et al., 2017; Moon et al., 2011; Przybylski et al., 2010;
Yang et al., 2016). According to Nicholson (2015), many reward-based gamification technologies
are causing an immediate upsurge of engagement as users continue to experience this promising
approach. It provides learners with immediate feedback on their performance, thereby maintaining
participation in-game activities. Moreover, Przybylski et al. (2010) also added that rewards were
effective motivators of engagement in digital games.

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Regardless of the types of rewards used in DGBL, the impact on learners' engagement remains the
same. For instance, rewards in virtual coins could motivate players to take care of their virtual
pets, indirectly facilitate learning (Chen, 2012). Furthermore, rewards in virtual stars and digital
badges also help engage learners' self-efficacy and learning performance. (Leftheriotis et al., 2017;
Yang et al., 2016). Khan et al. (2017) added that challenge, progression, points, and levels in
DGBL to achieve desired learning goals could boost student engagement.
Above all, Ronimus et al. (2014) mentioned that fantasy elements and novel task types might
increase learners' engagement in DGBL. However, this effect may not be durable if there are
drawbacks in the game design. Behaviour caused by the rewards is directly proportional to the
rewards provided. Termination of the rewards will also lead to stopping the behaviour (Nicholson,
2015). Therefore, every game designer should design games so that the players do not obtain
rewards too quickly. As stated by Glover et al. (2013), "Rewards should be desirable by the
learners, and one of the ways to ensure desirability is through the creation of artificial scarcity" (p.
7).
Memory consolidation refers to transforming a "temporary, labile memory into a more stable and
long-lasting form" (Squire et al., 2015, p.1). It is the process of converting newly learned
information and experience into long-term memory (Urcelay & Miller, 2008). Memory
consolidation is a time-dependent process that transforms the present-day experience into long-
term memory, possibly due to structural and chemical changes in the nervous systems (Urcelay &
Miller, 2008). Rewards in DGBL are reported to enhance the memory consolidation of learners.
Several studies have demonstrated that extrinsic rewards boost memory consolidation in
individuals. A neuroscientific study by Düzel et al. (2010) found that the anticipation of an
extrinsic reward could facilitate memory consolidation by triggering the mesolimbic reward
system, enhancing the release of phasic dopamine in the hippocampal memory system. Thus,
extrinsic rewards enhance memory consolidation even without the accompanying motivational and
attentional processes (Shohamy & Adcock, 2010).
Nevertheless, the idea that rewards have strong motivational properties ultimately induces
individuals to participate in learning activities and pay attention to them. For this reason, most
previous findings of the effects of extrinsic reward expectation on memory enhancement can be
explained in terms of enhanced motivation and attention. Research participants might recall task-
related materials better simply because they are motivated by the rewards (Murayama & Kitagami,
2014). Furthermore, reward-associated items were more recalled and more fixated during
encoding, demonstrating that the rewards might enhance the player's focus on some stimuli more
than others, making them more noteworthy and memorable (Loftus, 1972). In addition, Erhel and
Jamet (2013) also found that including feedback in DGBL helps improve memorisation, which
follows the cognitive load theory.
Motivation can be categorised into intrinsic and extrinsic motivations (Deci & Ryan, 2010).
Intrinsic motivation is a form of motivation that arises from people's innate interest in activities
that brings novelty and challenge. With that being said, "individuals who are intrinsically driven
do not require external rewards to act, but it reflects an individuals' sense of who they are and what
interests them" (Deci & Ryan, 2010, p. 1). In contrast, extrinsic motivation involves engaging in

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an activity for external reasons and achieving a different goal. Consequently, individuals are
extrinsically motivated when they perform an activity to earn money, avoid punishment, or
conform to societal standards (Deci and Ryan, 2010). When individuals receive monetary prizes
or awards for engaging in an activity, they find it less enjoyable. They are less likely to partake in
it willingly than before they were paid (Deci et al., 1999). Although their findings may be valid,
other studies indicate otherwise.
The impact of rewards in DGBL on the learners' motivation is constant even when presented in
various forms. For example, the feedback systems in DGBL systems, in various forms (i.e., points,
levels, scores, or progress bars), all have the same motivational effect in encouraging the learners
to continue playing (Arifudin et al., 2020). Furthermore, learners are motivated to reach the top
level when their points appear on the scoreboard (Alhebshi & Halabi, 2020). When rewards are
presented to the learners upon completing an activity or reaching a particular objective, their
motivation will be increased (Abramovich et al., 2013; Behnamnia et al., 2020; Constantin et al.,
2017; Dicheva et al., 2015; Domínguez et al., 2013; Huang et al., 2010; Leftheriotis et al., 2017;
McDaniel et al., 2012) and their game playing and learning cycle will be sustained (Huang et al.,
2010). As a consequence, their learning outcome will be improved (Behnamnia et al., 2020;
Hoffmann et al., 2009; Huang et al., 2010; Park et al., 2019; Skinner et al., 2004) as the learners
would keep replaying the game to improve their performance (Behnamnia et al., 2020; Garris et
al., 2002; Tan et al., 2007; Yang et al., 2018). In summary, the use of external rewards in DGBL
is one of the ways to motivate learners to continue the gameplay and overcome the difficulties of
each game level (Zin et al., 2009) and motivate learning (Filsecker & Hickey (2014).
The natural response towards the anticipation of rewards is generally favourable. Excitement,
happiness, joy, and gratitude are the typical emotions students show when rewards are offered to
them in return for positive behaviours. Like every other human being, students are naturally
responsive to the signal of attaining and pleasure (Reeve, 2006). When the neural activity
increases, the individual would feel positive emotions such as hope and interest as a specific part
of the brain known as the behavioural activation system (BAS) is in charge of generating
intrinsically positive emotions. The BAS activation would literally and physically motivate the
individual to shift towards environmental signals of personal gain, further facilitating actions
(Reeve, 2006). Additionally, virtual reward systems can elicit positive emotions upon task
completion, motivating students to complete more tasks (DomíNguez et al., 2013). Ultimately,
regardless of the number of reward features, players respond positively to the game when they feel
rewarded while playing (McKernan et al., 2015).
4 DISCUSSION
Rewards play a massive role in an individual's learning process. Apart from the positive emotions
that learners experience after receiving rewards, rewards facilitate learner engagement, increase
motivation, elicit better knowledge retention, foster better learner concentration, and improve
memory consolidation. This review provides an overview of the literature about the types of
rewards used in DGBL and the effects of rewards in DGBL on the learning process of individuals.
Rewards in DGBL are presented differently and vary depending on the game's context and concept.

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Generally, there are six main categories of rewards represented in DGBL: achievement,
leaderboards, level, new features, points, and prizes.
According to the self-determination theoretical perspective, DGBL that provides a reward system
and feedback in the form of points could help fulfil the learners' need for competence (Sailer et al.,
2017). The reward system in DGBL provides feedback on the learner's performance and thus
facilitates educators' evaluation of the learner's performance (Bai et al., 2020). Learners tend to
compare themselves to their peers to evaluate their performances (Baldwin & Mussweiler, 2018).
Consequently, learners may strive to perform better in games once they know that their peers have
won certain game elements or have achieved a high position on the leaderboard (Huang & Hew,
2018).
Bai et al. (2020) also added that rewards in DGBL can meet learners' desire for recognition as
learners like to have their effort appreciated by others. Satisfying an individual's need for
recognition can be viewed as a form of positive reinforcement in operant conditioning theory
(Garren et al., 2013). Hence, once a learner completes a task and receives positive reinforcement
(rewards), the probability of the target response occurring again increases (Landers et al., 2014).
Bai et al. (2020) further argue that rewards in DGBL could encourage the learners to set goals. In
line with the goal-setting theory, setting a goal before performing an activity could fixate an
individual's attention on the target and thus increase their perseverance (Kapp, 2014).
Several important limitations arose regarding this comprehensive review, which affects the
findings. Although all age groups use DGBL, limited research is available on a specific age group.
Secondly, many studies were omitted from the findings due to the irrelevance of the studies to the
research questions. To elaborate, the rewards mentioned in some studies did not specifically refer
to the rewards found in DGBL but to extrinsic rewards in general. Finally, due to the time
constraint to search for relevant research articles that fit the research questions, there might be
publications that have yet to be explored through hand searching.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial,
or not-for-profit sectors.
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