Content uploaded by Mohammad Yacoub Al Shdaifat
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Mohammad Yacoub Al Shdaifat on Feb 25, 2022
Content may be subject to copyright.
Review Article
Proc IMechE Part D:
J Automobile Engineering
1–17
ÓIMechE 2022
Article reuse guidelines:
sagepub.com/journals-permissions
DOI: 10.1177/09544070221079195
journals.sagepub.com/home/pid
Basics, properties, and thermal issues
of EV battery and battery thermal
management systems: Comprehensive
review
Mohammad Yacoub Al Shdaifat
1
, Rozli Zulkifli
1
,
Kamaruzzaman Sopian
2
and Abeer Adel Salih
2
Abstract
This paper presents a comprehensive review on the battery especially Lithium-ion batteries and the battery thermal
management systems for electric vehicles. The basics of the battery system and thermal issues related to the battery
have been highlighted. Different battery thermal management systems have been discussed in the review. This paper has
presented different thermal management systems for electric vehicle battery in details. Air cooling, phase change, and
liquid cooling are studied in the reviewed literature, by showing and discussing the results of the previous studies in
these fields. Most promising thermal management system is the liquid cooling, because it has the best cooling potential
for the EV batteries which gets the researchers attention to improve it based on wide number of increasing studies and
developments in the EV liquid cooling systems. Improving the hydraulic and thermal performance of the liquid cold plate
which is part of the EV liquid colling systems has not widely been explored in the fields of developing inlets design, out-
lets, and fins. The review paper could guide the researchers to innovate better liquid cooling systems and improve their
cooling and hydraulic performance in battery thermal management systems.
Keywords
EV battery, electric vehicles, battery thermal management, cooling performance, lithium-ion battery safety
Date received: 14 September 2021; accepted: 18 January 2022
Introduction
This paper discusses the basics, properties, and the
thermal issues which are related to the Lithium-ion bat-
tery, also it gives a review about various thermal man-
agement systems for electric vehicle batteries. The first
section reviews the fundamentals of the electrical bat-
tery system and the related thermal issues to Lithium-
ion batteries. Second section presents a literature on
battery thermal management systems which focused
precisely on the liquid cooling systems and finned cold
plate. The contribution of this paper is to provide a
good and updated knowledge about EV batteries espe-
cially EV Li-ion batteries and clearly show the thermal
problems in the EV battery and all possible reasons for
that and the consequences, then show the EV battery
cooling systems which have studied to guide the
researchers to a reference point to where start their
improvements.
Electric vehicle batteries
Battery basics
Battery is a device consists of electrochemical cells con-
vert the chemical energy to electrical energy to power
different electrical devices. A battery module is number
of battery cells grouped into electrical and mechanical
unit. A battery pack is formed by number of connected
battery modules, where it provides power to the elec-
tronic drive systems. The battery cells are connected in
1
Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering, Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi, Malaysia
2
Solar Energy Research Institute, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi,
Malaysia
Corresponding author:
Rozli Zulkifli, Department of Mechanical and Manufacturing Engineering,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi 43600, Malaysia.
Email: rozlizulkifli@ukm.edu.my
parallel or series to meet the required current and
voltage.
The available batteries for EV application in the
market are Li-ion, Nickel-Metal Hybrid (NiMH), and
Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd), where these types are
advanced batteries using paste, gel, or resin as electro-
lyte. Li-ion battery is emerging battery technology for
EV applications because Lithium has lowest atomic
weight and greatest negative potential. A battery using
Lithium provides EVs with highest performance char-
acteristics in terms of range and acceleration.
1
Beside
the high-specific energy of Li-ion batteries, they also
have an outstanding potential for long life.
Additionally, the conventional design and high voltage
of Li-ion battery make it a promising low-cost battery.
2
From environmental aspect, Li-ion battery technology
is capable to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions in the
transportation industry significantly.
3
Unfortunately,
most liquid electrolytes and air are highly reactive with
Lithium metal on its own. For this problem, Lithium
intercalated graphitic carbons are used and give high
power performance while keeping the cell safe.
4,5
There are five main components in the Li-ion bat-
tery: cathode and anode, electrolyte, separator, term-
inals, and a case as shown in Figure 1. During
discharging, the positive is a cathode, the negative is an
anode, where complete circuit is formed not just by the
flow of electrons but by a combination of the flow of
electrons and ions. Electrons flow away from the nega-
tive terminal (anode) through the load. Negative OH
2
ions flow away from the positive terminal (cathode)
through the electrolyte. The separator should allow the
OH
2
to flow from the positive terminal to the negative
terminal. During charging, the positive is an anode, the
negative is a cathode, where the flow of both electrons
and ions must be considered. As above, the direction of
the current is opposite to the direction electrons flow.
There are positive and negative terminals per bat-
tery, where these terminals connect a charger or load to
the battery cell. The positive terminal is usually made
of Aluminum while Cuprum used for the negative ter-
minal. The electrodes play important rule in the deter-
mination of the capacity and density of the battery.
The composite materials are used for the positive elec-
trode, which has three structures: olivine structure, spi-
nel structure, and layered structure. Graphite-based
carbon or graphite are used for the negative electrode.
Non-aqueous solution of Lithium-salt mixture is used
for the free ions of the electrolytes, and a mixture of
organic liquid (e.g. Ethylene carbonate and Propylene
carbonate) is the dissolver of this solution. The separa-
tors of the battery work as barrier between the cathode
and the anode while allowing Lithium ions exchange
from one side to other. The activation of the separator
as a fuse comes from the high temperature inside the
battery to shut down the battery to keep away from
thermal runaway.
As illustrated in Figure 2, the transportation of
Lithium ions and electrons is the charging and dischar-
ging processes. The charge process starts when same
polarity external voltage is applied between the current
collectors. The metal oxide structure releases the
Lithium atoms and they got ionized into Li
+
ions dur-
ing the release of an electron of each one. A recombina-
tion of Li
+
and electrons takes place at the surface of
Graphite particles to form neutral Lithium atoms and
being inserted into the molecular structure of the
Graphite particles. During discharging process, an oxi-
dization of Lithium atoms occurs by forming Li
+
and
electrons, where Li
+
flow to the cathode spreading
through the electrolyte and the separator. The electrons
move from the anode to the cathode on the external
circuitry, whereas an application can use the resulting
current flow. At the cathode, a recombination of elec-
trons with Li
+
ions occurs and they are stored in the
molecular structure of the active material.
As shown in Figure 3, the most common cell types
are cylindrical and prismatic cells. The design of cylind-
rical cell provides better consistency, lower cost, and
Figure 1. Main components of Li-ion battery.
Source: Wang et al.
6
Figure 2. Lithium-ion battery charge/discharge diagram.
Source: Mebarki et al.
7
2Proc IMechE Part D: J Automobile Engineering 00(0)
easier in the production process due to maturity of
manufacturing process, but it limits the capacity below
4 Ah. The design of the prismatic cell is more flexible,
better space utilization, and large capacity, but it is
made up of many negative and positive electrodes
which leaves more possibility for inconsistency and
short circuit, also the battery management system
(BMS) faces difficulties to protect each cell from over
dissipating heat and charging due to the high capacity
of the prismatic cells.
8,9
Practically, number of cells are
required to provide sufficient energy and power for the
transportation usage. These cells are connected in series
or parallel to build up the battery modules, finally vari-
ous number of battery modules are connected by elec-
tric wires to form a battery pack. Intercalated Lithium
compounds are used in Li-ion battery instead of metal-
lic Lithium. The Li-cobalt electrochemical reactions in
the negative and positive electrodes are expressed as
following:
The negative electrode reaction:
LiC
O
O
2
óLi
12X
C
O
O
2
+xLi
+
+xe
2
The positive electrode reaction:
xLi
+
+xe
2
+xC
6
óxLiC
6
There are several types of Li-ion battery which are
named by the cathode oxides, and each type has its
own characteristics as shown in Table 1.
As shown in Table 1, there are three types of Li-ion
batteries suitable for EV battery application, namely
LiNiMnCoO
2
, LiMn
2
O
4
, and LiFePO4.
Thermal issues of Li-ion battery
The operating voltage and temperature are the factors
of Li-ion cells performance. Li-ion cells have a specific
operating condition (limited voltage and temperature)
to work well, otherwise they will be irreversible and got
damaged.
For over-voltage cases, the charging voltage exceeds
the potential cell voltage which leads to excessive
current flows and rise in the reduction of free Lithium
ions and irreversible capacity loss.
13,14
Excessive cur-
rents cause Lithium plating, where the Li-ions got
deposited faster than intercalation to the anode layers,
then Li-ions are deposited on the anode surface as
metallic Lithium. Heterogeneous and homogeneous
Lithium plating are the types of metal Lithium plating.
However, the dendritic form is the characteristic of
Lithium plating, which can result in a short-circuit
between the electrodes. Under-voltage increases the
breakdown of the electrode materials. When the copper
current collector breaks down (corrosion), an increase
in the battery voltage and discharge rate occurs, also
the copper ions precipitate as metal copper (irreversible
material), which leads to dangerous situation resulting
in a short-circuit between the cathode and anode. After
many cycles under low voltage, the manganese oxide
and cobalt oxide are decomposed in the cathode, mean-
while, the battery suffers from capacity loss and the
oxygen will be released.
15,16
The temperature of the Li-ion battery should be
under control. Any heat lack or excess heat will bring
problems to the battery. The acceptable operating tem-
perature range of Li-ion batteries which is suitable for
the electrical vehicles application (as shown in Table 1)
is around 220°C–60°C.
17
Thomas et al.
18
found
through an experimental study that 55°C was enough
to fade 55% of the power under storage course. Liu
et al.
17
also mentioned that the operating temperature
range around 15°C–35°C brings the best Li-ion battery
performance. Joshi
19
indicated that the power loss in
the battery is caused by the increasing impedance while
the capacity loss in the battery is occurred when the
battery active materials convert to inactive phase. The
battery temperature has linear relation with the chemi-
cal reaction. There are three types of heating in the Li-
ion battery during the charge and discharge processes;
the electrochemical reaction polarization which causes
activation irreversible heat, entropy change during pro-
cess which causes reversible reaction heat, and Joule
heating which causes Ohmic losses.
20
The decrease of the operating temperature leads to
reduction in the capacity of carrying current and
Table 1. Types of lithium-ion battery.
Chemical name Material Short form Characteristic
Lithium cobalt oxide LiCoO
2
Li-cobalt High capacity
Applications: Cell phone laptop, camera
Lithium manganese oxide LiMn
2
O
4
Li-manganese Most safe
Long life
High specific power
Applications: Power tools, e-bikes, EV,
medical, hobbyist
Lithium iron phosphate LiFePO
4
Li-phosphate
Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide LiNiMnCoO
2
NMC
Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide LiNiCoAlO
2
NCA Gaining importance in electric powertrain
and grid storageLithium titanate Li
4
Ti
5
O
12
Li-titanate
Source: Li and Zhu.
12
Al Shdaifat et al. 3
reaction rate during charging and discharging. Also,
the low temperature causes low diffusion property of
electrode material which limits the intercalation reac-
tion. Moreover, inserting of Lithium ions into interca-
lation spaces is harder due to the reduction of reaction
rate. As a result, a Lithium plating and power reduc-
tion take place which leads to loss in the battery capac-
ity. High temperature maximizes reaction rates with
higher power output, but it also raises the heat dissipa-
tion and generates higher temperatures. When the gen-
erated heat is higher than the dissipated heat then the
operating temperature goes higher and resulting in a
thermal runaway.
21–23
Thermal runaway is divided into several stages and
each one increases the irreversible damage to the bat-
tery cells. High ambient temperature and the excessive
current may cause a primary overheating. First, an exo-
thermal reaction occurs between the electrolyte and the
anode when the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) layer
is broken down at 80°C, this reaction drives the tem-
perature higher. Secondly, the organic solvents are bro-
ken down and the hydrocarbon gases are released
normally at 110°C. The gas does not burn although the
temperature is beyond the flashpoint and the pressure
is high inside the cells because of the lack of oxygen. At
135°C, a short-circuit occurs between cathode and
anode because the separator is melted. Finally, hydro-
gen gas and electrolyte get burned when the metal-
oxide cathode breaks down at 200°C.
24–26
Another battery issue is the uneven temperature dis-
tribution. More typically, it is caused by thermal con-
ductivity, excessive local temperature, and the
placement of negative and positive terminals.
27–29
It
contributes to overall battery degradation and can lead
to thermal runaway with a reduction in battery
lifecycle.
30,31
Battery thermal management systems
The Li-ion battery generates heat during the charging
and discharging processes, which makes the battery
thermal management system (BTMS) essential to dis-
perse the generated heat across the battery and lengthen
the battery’s lifespan.
32
Although BTMS protects the
battery from rough thermal conditions, it can also
cause severe damage to the battery such as the coolant
leakage to the cells which leads to a short-circuit.
33
Within the limited space available in modern vehicles,
BTMS must meet all three core functions: safe, feasible
economically, and provides the required heat transfer.
BTMSs are classified based on the aspect of heat
removal position, while cooling can be active (through
the built-in appliances) or passive (only using the ambi-
ent environment).
34
Categories of the thermal manage-
ment processes are based on cooling medium which
include phase change materials (PCM) based cooling,
liquid cooling, and air cooling.
35
Air cooling systems
Air cooling technology is commonly used in commer-
cial EVs like Toyota Prius as shown in Figure 4,
because it is low cost, easy to maintain, simple in struc-
ture, and it has low parasitic energy (the energy used to
power the fans and pumps which transfer cooling from
central cooling plants to the battery cells) due to the
low air viscosity. The performance of BTMS is influ-
enced by the layout structure of the battery pack such
as array configuration, the connection type, and the
distance between batteries.
36–38
Fan et al.
36
stated that
the thermal distribution is affected by the uneven gap
spacing while it did not have a significant impact on
the rise of the maximum temperature. Yang et al.
39
studied the effects of two typical arrangements, stag-
gered and aligned, on the performance of active BTMS
using forced air cooling and it was found that the stag-
gered design can make the maximum temperature var-
iation of the battery lower, as shown in Figure 5.
Air flow is also a key feature to improve the cooling
capability, but studies like Tong et al.
37
found that
increasing parasitic load is penalty for any increase in
the air flow. Therefore, trade-offs among these para-
meters should be into consideration. The uniformity of
flow rate in the cooling channels depends mainly on
the geometries of outlet and inlet flow ducts, which has
Figure 3. Schematic of different Li-ion battery types:
(a) cylindrical cell and (b) prismatic cell.
Source: Budde-Meiwes et al.
10
and Song et al.
11
4Proc IMechE Part D: J Automobile Engineering 00(0)
a great impact on pressure drop of the battery pack,
cell temperature, and thermal distribution across the
pack.
40
Researchers have been working to make signifi-
cant improvements in the air BTMS. Mohammadian
and Zhang
41
integrated the air flow channel by the pin-
fin heat transfer to be used for the air cooling system of
the prismatic Li-ion battery as shown in Figure 6,
which leads to much uniform and lower temperature
distribution inside the battery. Mahamud and Park
42
and Wang and Ma
43
used reciprocating air cooling
with staggered arrangement of the battery cells as
shown in Figure 7, where the reciprocal flow was
impressively efficient in the battery cooling process.
However, air BTMS works well as long as it is used for
small-scale battery packs and moderate environmental
temperature, but it faces failure in case of high power
output and the rough ambient temperatures.
44
Figure 4. Battery cooling in Toyota Prius.
Figure 5. Cell arrangement (a) aligned and (b) staggered.
Source: Yang et al.
39
Figure 6. Pin-fin heating plate for the battery.
41
Figure 7. Schematic view of a battery system using a
reciprocating air flow for battery thermal management. The flow
directions are: (a) from right to left side and (b) from left to
right side.
42
Al Shdaifat et al. 5
Phase change materials cooling systems
The use of phase change material (PCM) technique for
the thermal management of the battery was introduced
by Al-Hallaj and Selman.
45,46
The PCM works differ-
ently during the charging process than the discharging
process, where PCM possess the low thermal conductiv-
ity and being completely melted during the charging
process, while it absorbs the generated heat from the
battery though acting as heat sink during the dischar-
ging process. PCM has teeny temperature variation
during the phase change process, low melting, and high
latent heat.
47,48
Moraga et al.
49
used four kinds of pure
PCM to design a BTM to investigate the optimal num-
ber of layers and locations of PCMs. The study revealed
that three layers of PCM is the optimal configuration
where the PCMs with higher thermal conductivity
should be placed closer to the battery while PCMs with
lower thermal conductivity should be placed in the
outer wall.
There are three important indexes of PCMs: melting
temperature, phase change latent heat and thermal con-
ductivity. One of the most used PCMs is Paraffin,
because of its low melting temperature and high latent
heat, but its thermal conductivity is less than 0.5W/
mK which leads to a complete melting for the Paraffin
which contacts the battery while the rest parts are not
melted and that causes great temperature gradient
inside the Paraffin and breaking down the heat transfer
efficiency.
44
Many researchers study different meth-
odologies to improve the thermal conductivity of
Paraffin, but the most promising technique is develop-
ing the composite PCM, where adding metal skeleton
(e.g. Copper foam
50,51
and Aluminum foam
52–54
) was
the main approach. Mills and Al-Hallaj
55
found that
combining Paraffin wax matrix with expanded graphite
can impressively increases thermal conductivity of
Paraffin wax, whereas 10% mass fraction of expanded
graphite increased the thermal conductivity up to
272.7%. Lin et al.
56
applied graphite sheets and
expanded graphite matrix, as shown in Figure 8, to
enhance temperature uniformity of the battery by
increasing thermal conductivity of PCM, and that
resulted to 37% reduction in the battery module tem-
perature. Despite the high efficiency of PCMs, they can
only absorb heat passively. This disadvantage may lead
to a failure in the BTMSs during high ambient tem-
perature or extreme conditions such as the high current
during charging and discharging processes which need
high heat density.
57
BTMS based on liquid cooling concept has been
widespread and the most efficient technology in the
industrial application due to the thermal conductivity
behavior and high specific heat capacity.
44
Despite the
drawbacks of the liquid cooling systems, they are still
more efficient than air cooling and PCM systems.
27,58
There are two modes in the liquid technology which are
the indirect-contact and direct-contact, where the sys-
tems are categorized in these two modes whether there
is direct contact between the battery and the working
medium or not. Thermal, hydraulic, and electrochemi-
cal parameters should be under consideration when
designing the liquid BTMS. The optimal operation con-
ditions practically are verified based on analyzing the
effect of hydrodynamic and geometrical parameters
such as flow direction, channel number, and mass flow
rate.
59,60
Liquid cooling system
The liquid cooling technology has been the focus of
researchers and industries in the past couple of decades
due to the high efficiency it has as BTMS. The develop-
ments of the liquid BTMS are based on two approaches
to provide high transfer characteristics. The first
approach is optimizing the structure of the liquid cool-
ing system by choosing the type of the system (i.e.
direct or indirect configuration) or developing some
parts in the design of the system (e.g. the design and
number of the inlets, outlets, adding internal fins, etc.)
to fit the battery arrangement and the application. The
second approach is choosing the best fit working fluid
for the application purpose to ensure possessing higher
thermal characteristics. Only the first approach is
reviewed extensively in the following subsections.
Direct liquid BTMS. The features of direct liquid BTMS
are the high compactness and cooling capability. The
basic cooling unit for the direct liquid cooling system is
the aluminum heat sink plate which is inserted between
two cells. The cell heat flux distribution is the reference
for the design of the coolant passages in the heat sink
plate. Number of studies
60–62
fabricated different cool-
ant passages in the heat sink plate as shown in Figure 9.
The coolant flows in all parallel cooling channels and
heat sink plates in the direct liquid cooling system. The
coolant flow is formed by cooling channels which are
integrated by collection plenums or coolant supply or
Figure 8. Schematic diagram passive thermal management
system of the battery pack.
Source: Lin et al.
56
6Proc IMechE Part D: J Automobile Engineering 00(0)
manifolds. The elastomeric thermal pads are used to
thermally insulate the side surfaces of the cell which are
not in contact with heat sink from the adjacent cells, as
shown in Figure 10.
Teng and Yeow
61
claimed that the direct liquid
cooling system faces great challenge to distribute the
coolant evenly in whole cooling channels, another chal-
lenge is sealing of the cooling channels and connectors.
There are big disadvantages the direct liquid cooling
system has such as the complexity of the system and
coolant leakage from the connections between the
channels.
62
Indirect liquid BTMS. Although the direct cooling system
has high thermal performance, it is not considered as
practical solution for the battery packs especially in the
presence of heat transfer fluid.
58,66
The indirect liquid
cooling system has more advantages over the direct
liquid cooling system, where it has higher flow rate with
fixed pumping power, because the used coolants (e.g.
CuO/water nanofluid) have lower viscosity than dielec-
tric liquids which are used in the direct liquid systems,
also the indirect system is easier to implement.
67,68
Thus, the indirect BTMS has been investigated and
developed by the researchers widely, whereas this sys-
tem is based on making the coolant flows in a channel
which can be a discrete tube or a metal plate has built-
in channels (cold plate).
Discrete tube. The structure of discrete tube has wide
different configurations that can achieve a considerable
liquid cooling system for the battery. Zhang et al.
69,70
arranged flat tube banks in staggered formation on a
cell surface, which provides less in the net weight, fluid
volume and demands of flow path. The effects of geo-
metrical designs on the cooling performance of the
liquid tube BTMS were studied by Lan et al.
71
The
study involved different number of mini-channels and
strips in four different systems, which were applied to
prismatic cells. The study also included the impact of
this liquid cooling system on the thermal runway (TR)
in cells. The study indicated that the mini-channel can-
not eliminate the TR, but it can prevent the module
from TR propagation. Rao et al.
72
inserted PCM
between the prismatic batteries and the liquid tube
cooling system, where the research found that increas-
ing the number of tubes can decrease the temperature
difference and the max temperature of the battery.
Tube liquid cooling system is more fit for the cylind-
rical batteries. The ribbon shaped tube in BTMS has a
wave profile, where it makes greater thermal contact
between each cell and tubes and provides better packing
density for the battery pack. The ribbon shaped metallic
tubes is used in Tesla Model S as shown in Figure 11.
Basu et al.
73
suggested to use Aluminum conduction
elements instead of liquid cooling channels, where they
are attached with the cells in parallel (Figure 11). The
generated heat from the cells transfers to the conductive
elements then to the coolant on the side position. This
configuration was made to keep the electrical connec-
tions away from coolant to prevent any possible liquid
leakage from the cooling system. Tang et al.
74
proposed
novel liquid cooling system with a slender tube and a
thin plate for the prismatic batteries. For achieving
higher temperature uniformity, four structures of the
tube are designed. The study reported that the best
design is where the periphery of the module is first sur-
rounded by the slender tube and passes through the
module after every two batteries, because each battery
distributes the length of effective heat transfer tube gra-
dually with the flow direction of the HTF leading to
best performance in the BTM among the other four
structures especially in the temperature distribution
over the batteries.
Liquid cold plate. Liquid cold plates (LCPs) are con-
sidered as a way of cooling the power battery cells
locally by a heat transfer process between the battery
surface and a heat absorbing plate, where a coolant
flows inside that plate to take the heat out of the sys-
tem, then the heat being dissipated to another coolant
in a secondary cooling system or into the ambient. The
coolant is pumped to move through the internal chan-
nels, which makes the pumping power (in terms of
pressure drop) under consideration as much as the ther-
mal performance of the system. LCP can be inserted at
three locations as shown in Figure 12: sandwiched
between adjacent cells,
77,78
into battery monomer,
34
on
the battery module sides.
79–81
To facilitate better vehicle integration, a low-
thickness LCP is necessary when it is sandwiched
between the adjacent cells as shown in Figure 12(a).
The thick current collectors make obstacles for setting
the LCP on the top portion of the cells as shown
Figure 12(b), therefore the channels of the LCP should
be small and chemically inert, because of the complex
chemical reactions. The electrical connections between
cells occupy the top potion of the battery module,
therefore it is better to set the LCP on the sides
82
or
bottom
83
portions of the module. To ease the heat
Figure 9. Illustration of the cooling unit of the direct liquid
BTMS.
Al Shdaifat et al. 7
transfer from the cells to the LCP, battery cells may be
sandwiched between two heat spreaders as shown in
Figure 12(c). The flat shape of LCP is more fit for the
prismatic cells while it is low applicable for the cylindri-
cal cells. The channel configuration of the LCP is com-
monly classified as serpentine design and parallel
design. Kandlikar and Hayner
84
classified the LCPs
into four types as shown in Figure 13: machined chan-
nel LCP, formed tube LCP, pocketed folded-fin LCP,
and deep drilled LCP. Also, the study mentioned that
involving the thermal design is recommended in the
early stages of designing the layout of the batteries and
the electrical design. Rao and co-authors
59
indicated
factors which should be under consideration in design-
ing LCP for BTMS such as thickness of the LCP,
LCP’s position, channel shape, flow path configura-
tion, number of channels, and the number and config-
uration of the inlet and outlet of the LCP system.
Mini-channel LCP. There are number of parameters
affect the hydraulic and thermal performance of mini-
channel LCP, the most effective parameters are the flow
direction, inlet mass flow rate, coolant channel number,
channel hydraulic diameter, and ambient temperature.
Patil et al.
86
made a three-dimensional numerical model
of U-turn microchannel LCP with 20-Ah Li-ion pouch
cell at high discharge rate as shown in Figure 14. The
study indicated that the channel hydraulic diameter
1.54 mm gave better temperature distribution compared
to 1.47 and 1.52 mm. Chevrolet Spark EV is one of the
Figure 10. Different designs examples of coolant passages in heat sink plate: (a and b) GM, (c) Delphi, and (d) LG.
Source: Weber et al.
63
,Kruger and Beer,
64
and Payne et al.
65
Figure 11. Battery cooling in Tesla Module S.
Source: Hermann
75
and Tang et al.
76
8Proc IMechE Part D: J Automobile Engineering 00(0)
cars which used this technique for their cooling systems
as shown in Figure 15.
Huo et al.
60
performed a study on a straight mini-
channel aluminum LCP. The impact of channel number
was investigated in the results, where the maximum
temperature of the battery was 63.43°C, 62.55°C, and
58.40°C for 2, 3, and 6 channels number, respectively.
However, it was noted that the local temperature differ-
ence of 6-channels design increases rapidly after 630 s,
then it becomes the largest local temperature difference
of all other designs. As shown in Figure 16, the study
contains six designs with different flow directions,
whereas the worst cooling performance was shown in
design 2 with maximum battery temperature 63.28°C
and local temperature difference 13.94°C. The best
ability in reducing the maximum battery temperature
which is 58.40°C was demonstrated by design 1, while
design 3 had the lowest local temperature difference as
9.02°C. It was observed that increasing the inlet mass
flow rate leads to a decrease in the effect of flow direc-
tion on the cooling performance. The inlet mass flow
rate also has effect on the pressure loss, where the pres-
sure loss increased from 478.23 to 973.49 Pa by increas-
ing the inlet mass flow rate from 5 310
24
to
1310
23
kg/s, and it is known that a greater pressure
loss leads to more energy consumption and operating
cost. Although the clear effect of inlet mass flow rate
on flow direction and pressure loss, the cooling perfor-
mance did not improve a lot. The study also included
the ambient temperature effect, whereas a little change
Figure 12. Different locations for the LCP in the battery (a) sandwiched adjacent cells (b) into battery monomer (c) on battery
module sides.
Source: Bandhauer and Garimella,
34
Panchal et al.,
77
Bai et al.,
78
Nieto et al.,
79
Xie et al.,
80
Wang et al.
81
Figure 13. Configuration types of the LCP, (a) machined channel LCP, (b) formed tube LCP, (c) pocketed folded-fin LCP, (d) deep
drilled LCP.
Source.
84,85
:
Al Shdaifat et al. 9
of local temperature difference (less than 0.01°C) was
the result of increasing the ambient temperature.
However, the ambient temperature was the same as the
ascensional range of maximum battery temperature.
When the ambient temperature was set as 35°C, then
the maximum battery temperature exceeded to 40°C.
This result made the authors to claim that the ambient
temperature higher than 35°C may reduce lifespan of
the battery and cause safety problem.
Deng et al.
87
investigated a design of LCP
with serpentine-channel configuration (as shown in
Figure 17) and the effect of different parameters on the
cooling and hydraulic performance of the design. The
study claimed based on different studies reviewed in
their study that the flow resistance increases on the
right angle when the shape of channels is straight,
therefore the layout of the cooling channel should be
under consideration. From the aspect of channel num-
bers effect, it was found that increasing the channel
numbers can decrease the standard deviation of tem-
perature and the maximum temperature of the Li-ion
battery, but it increases the pressure drop in the system.
For example, in design 1 with 2 channels, the maximum
temperature of battery is 66.808°C, standard deviation
of temperature on the battery surface 9.05°C, and pres-
sure drop of the cooling system is 1.5865 310
4
Pa,
while these values in design 1 with 6 channels turned to
be 42.164°C, 2.309°C, and 2.452 310
4
Pa for the maxi-
mum temperature, standard deviation of temperature,
and pressure drop, respectively. From the aspect of
flowing direction effect, there are two flowing direc-
tions of channels layout: length-direction and width-
direction. It was noted that the length-direction
achieves better cooling performance than width-direc-
tion. Furthermore, there was impact for the sudden
change in the flow direction at the corner of the chan-
nel which leads to an increase in the flow resistance.
From the aspect of inlet mass flow rate effect, the dif-
ference in the maximum temperature, standard devia-
tion of temperature, and pressure drop between design
1 and design 2 turned from 2.429°C, 0.201°C, and
1.104 310
4
Pa, respectively at inlet mass flow rate 10 g/
s to be 3.045°C, 0.106°C, and 0.51 310
4
Pa, respec-
tively at inlet mass flow rate 5 g/s.
Zhao et al.
88
investigated numerically a new cooling
method which is based on mini-channel liquid cooled
cylinder to be used for cylindrical batteries to maintain
appropriate range in the local temperature difference
and the maximum temperature. The change in the inlet
mass flow rate had clear effect when it was 5 310
26
kg/
Figure 14. Geometry schematic with side view and front view
with coolant flow direction.
Source: Patil et al.
86
Figure 15. Battery cooling in Chevrolet Spark EV.
Figure 16. Schematic of multi-channel LCP with different flow
direction.
Source: Huo et al.
60
10 Proc IMechE Part D: J Automobile Engineering 00(0)
s with maximum temperature 65.92°C then it decreased
to 34.93°Cat2310
24
kg/s. The flow direction has an
impact on the maximum temperature, where the maxi-
mum difference in the maximum temperature is less
than 1.5°C for the whole flow direction cases. When
the flow rate is constant, the inlet size is proportional
to the area of heat transfer and inversely proportional
to the inlet velocity, so increasing the inlet size leads to
decrease in the convection heat transfer coefficient and
the velocity, while it increases the area of heat transfer.
Compared to natural convection cooling, this cold
cylinder with configuration of channel number over
than eight has extra advantage in term of difference
between local temperature and maximum temperature.
Shang et al.
89
made a mathematical derivation and
numerical analysis for a LCP system for Li-ion battery
with changing the contact surface, where the contact
surface is determined by the width of the cooling plate
to evaluate the pumping power consumption and the
cooling performance. The study reported that increas-
ing the inlet mass flow rate has different effects on the
temperature uniformity and maximum temperature,
whereas it cannot improve the temperature uniformity
significantly, but it limits the maximum temperature
effectively. The effect of inlet mass flow rate, width of
cooling plate, and inlet coolant temperature improves
the thermal properties of the LCP. After using the
optimization method, an inlet mass flow rate 0.21 kg/s,
inlet temperature 18°C and width of cooling plate
70 mm can obtain the best cooling performance.
Malik et al.
90
made a combination of four LCPs and
three battery cells and investigated the thermal perfor-
mance of this system. The study focused on the effect
of different inlet coolant temperatures and discharge
rates. Table 2 gives clear impression about the effect of
the previous mentioned parameters. From discharge
rates aspect, the maximum percentages of the tempera-
ture rise between the discharge rates are 76.3%, 78.2%,
69.8%, and 88% for 10°C, 20°C, 30°C, and 40°C,
respectively. From inlet coolant temperature aspect, the
maximum percentages of the temperature rise between
the inlet coolant temperatures are 68.2°%, 57.5°%,
60.3%, and 53.8% for 1°C, 2°C, 3°C, and 4°C, respec-
tively. These results show that the discharge rate has
bigger effect on the temperature of the battery pack,
but also the inlet coolant temperature has close effect
to the discharge rate. Cao et al.
91
found the same effect
for the discharge rates on the temperature of the bat-
tery pack, but the results also showed that one of the
best solution to decrease this effect is through increas-
ing the coolant flow rate to make the battery pack per-
form better.
Xie et al.
92
studied the impact of channel diameter
and depth on the heat transfer rate and pressure drop.
From the obtained results, as the diameter of the chan-
nel goes smaller the pressure drop increases proportion-
ally which requires larger pumping power, also the
narrow and deep channel with thin wall thickness could
enhance the heat transfer rate. Tong et al.
93
modeled a
stack of battery module sandwiched between two
LCPs, where the thickness of the LCPs vary within the
range 0.5–4 mm. The study showed that increasing the
thickness of the LCP leads to a reduction in the tem-
perature difference at high discharge rate. However,
the mean temperature of the battery pack lays to be
insignificant once the thickness exceeds 2 mm. Zhang
et al.
94
explored the influence of the inlet channel shape
of LCP on the cooling performance of the battery
pack. Trapezoidal, circular, and rectangular were the
considered shapes. The results revealed that the greatest
cooling performance was achieved by the trapezoidal
Figure 17. Schematic of LCP with serpentine-channel
configuration: (a) Design 1 with five channels and (b) Design 2
with five channels.
Source: Deng et al.
87
Table 2. Maximum temperature rise in the battery pack with
different inlet coolant temperatures at different discharge rates.
Discharge rate Inlet coolant temperature (°C)
10°C20°C30°C40°C
Temperature rise (°C)
1°C 2.2 1.7 1.3 0.7
2°C 4.0 3.3 1.7 1.9
3°C 7.3 6.0 2.9 3.8
4°C 9.3 7.8 4.3 5.8
Source: Malik et al.
90
Al Shdaifat et al. 11
channel, while the lowest pressure drop was achieved
by the circular channel. Kumar and Singh
95
performed
various flow inlet angles u(90°, 105°, and 120°)ona
mini-channel heat sink to achieve improvements in heat
transfer and flow distribution. They found that a signif-
icant improvement occurred when the coolant enters
the distributor header at u= 105°and leave from the
middle of collector header.
The thermal and hydraulic performance of LCPs
can be affected significantly by the inlet/outlet. Lu and
Wang
96
stated that inlet/outlet positions have effects
on the parallel-channel cold plate performance. The
nonuniformity of temperature and velocity maldistribu-
tion were core of studying these effects. The best heat
transfer performance made by I-arrangement due to
the impingement configurations, while Z-arrangement
made the worst heat transfer performance because of
misdistribution and dramatic flow recirculation. Malazi
et al.
97
found that the average temperature of the outlet
for the I-arrangement and Z-arrangement does not
change very much. Chein and Chen
98
indicated that the
V-arrangement heat sink had the best performance.
Finned LCP. Enhancing the heat transfer in the LCP
can be achieved by increasing the surface area that con-
tacts the fluid, where the internal fins are the most
applicable to play this role. Fin density and shape has
impact on the performance of LCPs and heat exchan-
gers. The fins create turbulence by their geometry,
which reduces the fluid boundary layer and further
minimizes the thermal resistance. Aluminum fins are
mostly used for high performance applications such as
aircraft electronic liquid cooling applications, because
of their light weight. For the applications where the
weight is not important factor, copper fins are used
because they have higher thermal conductivity.
Mohammed et al.
99
utilized two cooling plates which
are based on two different methods of liquid flow, a pin
type design (which has the similar design idea which is
shown in Figure 18) allows simultaneous multichannel
flow, while the other is S-type design with a single ser-
pentine channel which is shown in Figure 19. The sur-
face temperature of the battery and pressure drop of
the LCP are the controlling factor for the best design
selection. The results of the study found that both
LCPs can maintain the temperature of the battery
below 25°C. When the flow rate increased from 0.2 to
0.3 L/min, the temperature difference decreased from
4.1°C to 3.5°C between the coldest and hottest region
in the S-type design, while decreased from 4.8°Cto
Table 3. Maximum surface temperature for different flow rates and cooling plate designs.
Flow rate (L/min) Maximum surface
temperature (°C)
Maximum temperature
gradient (°C/m)
Pressure drop (Pa)
S-type cooling plate 0.2 24.1 163.2 6224
0.3 23.5 112.3 9665
Pin-type cooling plate 0.2 24.8 325 22
0.3 23.3 231.2 34
Source: Mohammed et al.
99
Figure 18. Sectioned view of single channel S-type.
Figure 19. Pin-type cooling plate: (a) Design 1, (b) Design 2,
and (c) arrangement of pins.
Source: Mohammed et al.
100
12 Proc IMechE Part D: J Automobile Engineering 00(0)
3.3°C for pin type design as shown in Table 3, which
gives indication that pin-type cooling plate is more
affected by increasing the flow rate than S-type cooling
plate. Table 3 also shows that the maximum pressure
drop for S-type is 283 times higher than the maximum
pressure drop of pin-type cooling plate at 0.2 L/min,
while it is 284 times higher at 0.3 L/min, as well the
increasing percentage between 0.2 and 0.3 L/min for S-
type cooling plate is 55.3%, while it is 54.5% for pin-
type cooling plate. There are two reasons for such high
pressure in S-type cooling plate, first reason is the small
inlet of this type while the inlet size for pin-type is much
larger. Second reason is due to the channel length, as
Darcy-Weisbach stated that the effective length and the
friction factor are inversely proportional to the pressure
drop.
Mohammed et al.
100
aimed to increase the safety
and lifecycle of the prismatic Li-ion batteries which are
used for vehicles, stationary electric storage system, and
aircraft by using dual-purpose cooling plate. The study
focused on two designs which are different in terms of
outlet and inlet channels, as well as the arrangement of
pins near the inlet, as shown in Figure 19. The designed
cooling plate succeeded to maintain the surface tem-
perature of the Li-ion battery below 23°C and pressure
drop about 75 Pa with flow rate of 0.2 L/min and input
coolant temperature of 20°C during normal operation.
Design 2 has much lower pressure drop than Design 1,
because the mechanical shock which suddenly increases
the coolant pressure in the system is lower in the design.
The study also found that the used cylindrical pin size
does not have big difference in the cooling and hydrau-
lic performance for vehicle application, therefore
1.5 mm was the suitable choice, because of the sensitiv-
ity of manufacturing cost about the size of the pin.
Fu et al.
101
researched the impact of the LCP with
different heat transfer fins on the performance of the
heat dissipation. The discussion of the study contains
different fin length (8, 10, and 12 mm) and different fin
angle (15°,30°, and 45°). The used fins were able to
decrease the temperature difference among battery cells
and the highest temperature of the battery module.
They found that the best fins angle and length are
8 mm –15°, which can have 1.75K decrease in the high-
est temperature and 0.32K in temperature difference
compared to the LCP without fins. However, the fin
length and angle depend on each other for increasing
or decreasing the cooling performance, where the rela-
tion between the fin angle and fin length was positive
at 15°while it was negative for 30°and 45°. The results
also showed that the pressure loss mainly comes from
the fin angle which makes the fin length more recom-
mended in the developments.
Researchers have investigated using the oblique fins
in the LCP and ways to improve it through optimizing
the design of the oblique fins to gain better thermal
and hydraulic performance. The concept of the oblique
fin is based on two types of flow channels which are
main flow channels and secondary flow channels,
102
as
shown in Figure 20. The secondary flow channels work
on the disruption and the re-initialization of the bound-
ary layer development periodically, which decreases the
thickness of the boundary layer and keeps the flow in
developing state. The secondary flow is generated when
a small friction of coolant is induced in the beginning
of the bypass channel between main channels, without
incurring a major raise in pressure drop or requiring
external power. Jin et al.
67
used oblique fins to develop
a novel LCP which can deal with high heat dissipation
in the EV batteries. The results showed that oblique
fins can improve the cooling performance of the LCP
significantly, where it maintained the heater surface
temperature below 50°C at 0.1 l/m and 0.9 l/min for
heat loads of 220 and 1240 W, respectively. Also, they
found that oblique fins LCP has better temperature
uniformity than the conventional straight channel
LCP. Lee et al.
103
made experimental study on micro-
channel oblique fin heat sink and compare it with the
conventional microchannel heat sink. They found that
oblique fins obtained 47% better heat transfer com-
pared with conventional one with insignificant increase
in the pressure drop. They also found that the highest
heat transfer performance was obtained with oblique
angle of 27°and 100 mm channel width.
Section of the thermal management system has pre-
sented the liquid cooling system for electric vehicle bat-
tery in details. There are three main concepts for the
EV cooling systems which are the air cooling, phase
change material cooling and liquid cooling. The air-
cooling systems and phase change systems gave clear
disadvantages and low cooling potential for the appli-
cation of cooling EV Li-ion batteries and that makes
the liquid cooling systems as the focus of the
Figure 20. Concept of the oblique fin.
Source: Fan et al.
102
Al Shdaifat et al. 13
researchers and vehicle companies to develop and use,
especially the indirect liquid cooling systems.
Moreover, there are different liquid cooling systems
based on the reviewed literature, these systems are asso-
ciated with conventional design for example, tubes and
channels. Improving the hydraulic and thermal perfor-
mance of the liquid cold plate (LCP) which is used for
electric vehicle battery application has not widely been
explored in the fields of developing inlets design, out-
lets, and fins.
Conclusions
A comprehensive review about Li-ion battery and bat-
tery thermal management system is made in this paper.
From this article, the following conclusions can be
drawn:
(1) Li-ion battery is emerging battery technology for
EV applications, because Lithium has lowest
atomic weight and greatest negative potential. A
battery using Lithium provides EVs with highest
performance characteristics in terms of range and
acceleration. Beside the high-specific energy of Li-
ion batteries, they also have an outstanding poten-
tial for long life. Additionally, the conventional
design and high voltage of Li-ion battery make it
a promising low-cost battery.
(2) The design of the prismatic cell is more flexible,
better space utilization, and large capacity, but it
is made up of many negative and positive electro-
des which leaves more possibility for inconsistency
and short circuit. Also the battery management
system faces difficulties to protect each cell from
over dissipating heat and charging due to the high
capacity of the prismatic cells.
(3) For over-voltage cases, the charging voltage
exceeds the potential cell voltage which leads to
excessive current flows and rise in the reduction of
free Lithium ions and irreversible capacity loss.
While under-voltage increases the breakdown of
the electrode materials.
(4) When the generated heat is higher than the dissi-
pated heat then the operating temperature goes
higher and resulting in a thermal runaway.
(5) The unbalanced temperature distribution over the
battery cells can be caused by thermal conductivity
or excessive local temperature or the placement of
negative and positive terminals.
(6) Air cooling technology is commonly used in a lot
of Li-ion batteries applications, because it is low
cost, easily maintained, simple structure, and it
has low parasitic energy due to the low air viscos-
ity. However, air BTMS works well as long as it is
used for small-scale battery packs and moderate
environmental temperature, but it faces failure in
case of high-power output and the rough ambient
temperatures.
(7) PCM has teeny temperature variation during the
phase change process, low melting, and high
latent heat.
(8) The indirect liquid cooling system has more
advantages over the direct liquid cooling system,
where it has higher flow rate with fixed pumping
power, because the used coolants have lower visc-
osity than dielectric liquids which are used in the
direct liquid cooling systems, also indirect system
is easier to implement.
(9) The most effective parameters on the mini-
channel LCP are the flow direction, inlet mass
flow rate, coolant channel number, channel
hydraulic diameter, and ambient temperature.
(10) Enhancing the heat transfer in the LCP can be
achieved by increasing the surface area that con-
tacts the fluid, where the internal fins are the
most applicable to play this role. Fin density and
shape has impact on the performance of LCPs
and heat exchangers. The fins create turbulence
by their geometry, which reduces the fluid bound-
ary layer and further minimizes the thermal
resistance.
Future work
Researchers would be interested to have a future review
paper which is built based on the sections of the heat
transfer and hydraulic parameters (temperature, heat
transfer coefficient, heat absorption by the coolant,
pumping power, pressure drop, simplicity, and approxi-
mated costs), and that will give great evaluation for all
the battery cooling systems and which parameters to
work on it in the future.
Acknowledgement
We would like to acknowledge the help with insightful
edits and lab facilities from Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia.
Author contributions
M.Y.A.S. wrote the original draft of this manuscript
and visualized the results. R.Z. acquired funding for
this project and reviewed the manuscript. K.S. reviewed
the manuscript. A.A.S. wrote part of the manuscript.
All authors have read and agreed to the published ver-
sion of the manuscript.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest
with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publi-
cation of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following finan-
cial support for the research, authorship, and/or
14 Proc IMechE Part D: J Automobile Engineering 00(0)
publication of this article: This research was funded by
the Ministry of Education Malaysia and Universiti
Kebangsaan Malaysia under grant number FRGS/1/
2018/TK03/UKM/02/2.
ORCID iDs
Mohammad Yacoub Al Shdaifat https://orcid.org/
0000-0002-2629-6378
Kamaruzzaman Sopian https://orcid.org/0000-0002-
4675-3927
References
1. Pistoia G. Lithium-ion batteries: advances and applica-
tions. Rome, Italy: Newnes, 2013.
2. Pistoia G and Liaw B. Behaviour of lithium-ion batteries
in electric vehicles: battery health, performance, safety,
and cost. Cham, Switzerland: Springer, 2018.
3. Dunn JB, Gaines L, Kelly JC, et al. The significance of
Li-ion batteries in electric vehicle life-cycle energy and
emissions and recycling’s role in its reduction. Energy
Environ Sci 2015; 8: 158–168.
4. Grande L, Paillard E, Kim G-T, et al. Ionic liquid elec-
trolytes for Li-air batteries: lithium metal cycling. Int J
Mol Sci 2014; 15: 8122–8137.
5. Kazemiabnavi S, Dutta P and Banerjee S. Density func-
tional theory based study of the electron transfer reaction
at the lithium metal anode in a lithium–air battery with
ionic liquid electrolytes. J Phys Chem B 2014; 118:
27183–27192.
6. Wang Z, Ma J and Zhang L. Finite element thermal
model and simulation for a cylindrical Li-ion battery.
IEEE Access 2017; 5: 15372–15379.
7. Mebarki B, Draoui B, Allaou B, et al. Impact of the air-
conditioning system on the power consumption of an
electric vehicle powered by lithium-ion battery. Model
Simul Eng 2013; 2013: 1–6.
8. Xun J, Liu R and Jiao K. Numerical and analytical mod-
eling of lithium ion battery thermal behaviors with differ-
ent cooling designs. J Power Sources 2013; 233: 47–61.
9. Beard KW. Linden’s handbook of batteries. New York:
McGraw-Hill Education, 2019.
10. Budde-Meiwes H, Drillkens J, Lunz B, et al. A review of
current automotive battery technology and future pros-
pects. Proc IMechE, Part D: J Automobile Engineering
2013; 227: 761–776.
11. Song Y, Lu B, Ji X, et al. Diffusion induced stresses in
cylindrical lithium-ion batteries: analytical solutions and
design insights. J Electrochem Soc 2012; 159: A2060–A2068.
12. Li J and Zhu Z. Battery thermal management systems of
electric vehicles, Go
¨teborg, Sweden: Chalmers University
of Technology, 2014.
13. Doughty DH and Roth EP. A general discussion of Li
ion battery safety. Electrochem Soc Interface 2012; 21: 37.
14. Hu M, Pang X and Zhou Z. Recent progress in high-
voltage lithium ion batteries. J Power Sources 2013; 237:
229–242.
15. Lu L, Han X, Li J, et al. A review on the key issues for
lithium-ion battery management in electric vehicles. J
Power Sources 2013; 226: 272–288.
16. Chen Z, Xu K, Wei J, et al. Voltage fault detection for
lithium-ion battery pack using local outlier factor. Mea-
surement 2019; 146: 544–556.
17. Liu H, Wei Z, He W, et al. Thermal issues about Li-ion
batteries and recent progress in battery thermal manage-
ment systems: a review. Energy Convers Manag 2017;
150: 304–330.
18. Thomas EV, Case HL, Doughty DH, et al. Accelerated
power degradation of Li-ion cells. J Power Sources 2003;
124: 254–260.
19. Joshi T. Capacity and power fade in lithium-ion batteries.
Georgia: Georgia Institute of Technology, 2016.
20. Thomas KE and Newman J. Thermal modeling of porous
insertion electrodes. J Electrochem Soc 2003; 150: A176–
A192.
21. Ma S, Jiang M, Tao P, et al. Temperature effect and ther-
mal impact in lithium-ion batteries: a review. Prog Nat
Sci Mater Int 2018; 28: 653–666.
22. Aris AM and Shabani B. An experimental study of a
lithium ion cell operation at low temperature conditions.
Energy Proc 2017; 110: 128–135.
23. Petzl M, Kasper M and Danzer MA. Lithium plating in
a commercial lithium-ion battery. J Power Sources 2015;
275: 799–807.
24. Wang Q, Ping P, Zhao X, et al. Thermal runaway caused
fire and explosion of lithium ion battery. J Power Sources
2012; 208: 210–224.
25. Feng X, Ouyang M, Liu X, et al. Thermal runaway
mechanism of lithium ion battery for electric vehicles: a
review. Energy Storage Mater 2018; 10: 246–267.
26. Feng X, Ren D, He X, et al. Mitigating thermal runaway
of lithium-ion batteries. Joule 2020; 4: 743–770.
27. Pesaran AA. Battery thermal management in EV and
HEVs: issues and solutions. Battery Man 2001; 43: 34–49.
28. Vetter J, Nova
´k P, Wagner MR, et al. Ageing mechan-
isms in lithium-ion batteries. J Power Sources 2005; 147:
269–281.
29. Barre
´A, Deguilhem B, Grolleau S, et al. A review on
lithium-ion battery ageing mechanisms and estimations
for automotive applications. J Power Sources 2013; 241:
680–689.
30. Kizilel R, Sabbah R, Selman JR, et al. An alternative
cooling system to enhance the safety of Li-ion battery
packs. J Power Sources 2009; 194: 1105–1112.
31. Scrosati B and Garche J. Lithium batteries: status, pros-
pects and future. J Power Sources 2010; 195: 2419–2430.
32. Wang H, Tao T, Xu J, et al. Cooling capacity of a novel
modular liquid-cooled battery thermal management sys-
tem for cylindrical lithium ion batteries. Appl Therm Eng
2020; 178: 115591.
33. Wang Y, Gao Q, Wang G, et al. A review on research sta-
tus and key technologies of battery thermal management
and its enhanced safety. Int J Energy Res 2018; 42: 4008–
4033.
34. Bandhauer TM and Garimella S. Passive, internal ther-
mal management system for batteries using microscale
liquid–vapor phase change. Appl Therm Eng 2013; 61:
756–769.
35. Rao Z and Wang S. A review of power battery thermal
energy management. Renew Sustain Energ Rev 2011; 15:
4554–4571.
36. Fan L, Khodadadi JM and Pesaran AA. A parametric
study on thermal management of an air-cooled lithium-
ion battery module for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. J
Power Sources 2013; 238: 301–312.
37. Tong W, Somasundaram K, Birgersson E, et al. Thermo-
electrochemical model for forced convection air cooling
Al Shdaifat et al. 15
of a lithium-ion battery module. Appl Therm Eng 2016;
99: 672–682.
38. Wang T, Tseng KJ, Zhao J, et al. Thermal investigation
of lithium-ion battery module with different cell arrange-
ment structures and forced air-cooling strategies. Appl
Energy 2014; 134: 229–238.
39. Yang N, Zhang X, Li G, et al. Assessment of the forced
air-cooling performance for cylindrical lithium-ion bat-
tery packs: a comparative analysis between aligned and
staggered cell arrangements. Appl Therm Eng 2015; 80:
55–65.
40. Sun H and Dixon R. Development of cooling strategy for
an air cooled lithium-ion battery pack. J Power Sources
2014; 272: 404–414.
41. Mohammadian SK and Zhang Y. Thermal management
optimization of an air-cooled Li-ion battery module using
pin-fin heat sinks for hybrid electric vehicles. J Power
Sources 2015; 273: 431–439.
42. Mahamud R and Park C. Reciprocating air flow for Li-
ion battery thermal management to improve temperature
uniformity. J Power Sources 2011; 196: 5685–5696.
43. Wang H and Ma L. Thermal management of a large pris-
matic battery pack based on reciprocating flow and active
control. Int J Heat Mass Transf 2017; 115: 296–303.
44. An Z, Jia L, Ding Y, et al. A review on lithium-ion power
battery thermal management technologies and thermal
safety. J Therm Sci 2017; 26: 391–412.
45. Al Hallaj S and Selman JR. A novel thermal management
system for electric vehicle batteries using phase-change
material. J Electrochem Soc 2000; 147: 3231–3236.
46. Al-Hallaj S and Selman JR. Thermal modeling of sec-
ondary lithium batteries for electric vehicle/hybrid elec-
tric vehicle applications. J Power Sources 2002; 110: 341–
348.
47. Ling Z, Zhang Z, Shi G, et al. Review on thermal man-
agement systems using phase change materials for elec-
tronic components, Li-ion batteries and photovoltaic
modules. Renew Sustain Energ Rev 2014; 31: 427–438.
48. Ghalambaz M, Mehryan SAM, Hajjar A, et al. Thermal
charging optimization of a Wavy-shaped nano-enhanced
thermal storage unit. Molecules 2021; 26: 1496.
49. Moraga NO, Xama
´n JP and Araya RH. Cooling Li-ion
batteries of racing solar car by using multiple
phase change materials. Appl Therm Eng 2016; 108:
1041–1054.
50. Qu ZG, Li WQ and Tao WQ. Numerical model of the
passive thermal management system for high-power
lithium ion battery by using porous metal foam saturated
with phase change material. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2014;
39: 3904–3913.
51. Rao Z, Huo Y, Liu X, et al. Experimental investigation
of battery thermal management system for electric vehicle
based on paraffin/copper foam. J Energ Inst 2015; 88:
241–246.
52. Wang Z, Zhang Z, Jia L, et al. Paraffin and paraffin/alu-
minum foam composite phase change material heat stor-
age experimental study based on thermal management of
Li-ion battery. Appl Therm Eng 2015; 78: 428–436.
53. Khateeb SA, Amiruddin S, Farid M, et al. Thermal man-
agement of Li-ion battery with phase change material for
electric scooters: experimental validation. J Power
Sources 2005; 142: 345–353.
54. Zhu F, Zhang C and Gong X. Numerical analysis and
comparison of the thermal performance enhancement
methods for metal foam/phase change material compo-
site. Appl Therm Eng 2016; 109: 373–383.
55. Mills A and Al-Hallaj S. Simulation of passive thermal
management system for lithium-ion battery packs. J
Power Sources 2005; 141: 307–315.
56. Lin C, Xu S, Chang G, et al. Experiment and simulation
of a LiFePO4 battery pack with a passive thermal man-
agement system using composite phase change material
and graphite sheets. J Power Sources 2015; 275: 742–749.
57. Kizilel R, Lateef A, Sabbah R, et al. Passive control of
temperature excursion and uniformity in high-energy Li-
ion battery packs at high current and ambient tempera-
ture. J Power Sources 2008; 183: 370–375.
58. Chen D, Jiang J, Kim G-H, et al. Comparison of different
cooling methods for lithium ion battery cells. Appl Therm
Eng 2016; 94: 846–854.
59. Qian Z, Li Y and Rao Z. Thermal performance of
lithium-ion battery thermal management system by using
mini-channel cooling. Energy Convers Manag 2016; 126:
622–631.
60. Huo Y, Rao Z, Liu X, et al. Investigation of power bat-
tery thermal management by using mini-channel cold
plate. Energy Convers Manag 2015; 89: 387–395.
61. Teng H and Yeow K. Design of direct and indirect liquid
cooling systems for high- capacity, high-power lithium-
ion battery packs. SAE Int J Altern Powertrains 2012; 1:
525–536.
62. Xia G, Cao L and Bi G. A review on battery thermal
management in electric vehicle application. J Power
Sources 2017; 367: 90–105.
63. Weber DR, Spencer SJ and Spacher PF. Inventors; GM
Global Technology Operations LLC, assignee. Battery
cooling plate design with discrete channels. United States
patent US 7,851,080. 2010.
64. Kruger DD and Beer RC. Inventors; Delphi Technologies
Inc, assignee. Prismatic-cell battery pack with integral
coolant passages. United States patent US 8,039,139.
2011.
65. Payne J, Isayev I, Yang H, Koetting W, Morris P and
Natarajan VM. Inventors; LG Chem Ltd, assignee. Bat-
tery cell assembly having heat exchanger with serpentine
flow path. United States patent US 9,759,495. 2017.
66. Etier I, Nijmeh S, Shdiefat M, et al. Experimentally eval-
uating electrical outputs of a PV-T system in Jordan. Int
J Power Electron Drive Syst 2021; 12: 421–430.
67. Jin LW, Lee PS, Kong XX, et al. Ultra-thin minichannel
LCP for EV battery thermal management. Appl Energy
2014; 113: 1786–1794.
68. Al Shdaifat MY, Zulkifli R, Sopian K, et al. Thermal
and hydraulic performance of CuO/water nanofluids: a
review. Micromachines 2020; 11: 416.
69. Zhang T, Gao Q, Wang G, et al. Investigation on the pro-
motion of temperature uniformity for the designed bat-
tery pack with liquid flow in cooling process. Appl Therm
Eng 2017; 116: 655–662.
70. Zhang T, Gao C, Gao Q, et al. Status and development
of electric vehicle integrated thermal management from
BTM to HVAC. Appl Therm Eng 2015; 88: 398–409.
71. Lan C, Xu J, Qiao Y, et al. Thermal management for
high power lithium-ion battery by minichannel aluminum
tubes. Appl Therm Eng 2016; 101: 284–292.
72. Rao Z, Wang Q and Huang C. Investigation of the ther-
mal performance of phase change material/mini-channel
16 Proc IMechE Part D: J Automobile Engineering 00(0)
coupled battery thermal management system. Appl
Energy 2016; 164: 659–669.
73. Basu S, Hariharan KS, Kolake SM, et al. Coupled elec-
trochemical thermal modelling of a novel Li-ion battery
pack thermal management system. Appl Energy 2016;
181: 1–13.
74. Tang Z, Li J, Liu Z, et al. Thermal performance of a ther-
mal management system with a thin plate and a slender
tube for prismatic batteries. Int J Energy Res 2021; 45:
5347–5358.
75. Hermann WA. Inventor; Tesla Motor Inc, assignee. Liquid
cooling manifold with multi-function thermal interface.
United States patent US 8,263,250. 2012.
76. Tang Z, Min X, Song A, et al. Thermal management of a
cylindrical lithium-ion battery module using a multichan-
nel wavy tube. J Energy Eng 2019; 145: 04018072.
77. Panchal S, Dincer I, Agelin-Chaab M, et al. Experimental
and theoretical investigations of heat generation rates for
a water cooled LiFePO
4
battery. Int J Heat Mass Transf
2016; 101: 1093–1102.
78. Bai F, Chen M, Song W, et al. Thermal management per-
formances of PCM/water cooling-plate using for lithium-
ion battery module based on non-uniform internal heat
source. Appl Therm Eng 2017; 126: 17–27.
79. Nieto N, Dı
´az L, Gastelurrutia J, et al. Novel thermal
management system design methodology for power
lithium-ion battery. J Power Sources 2014; 272: 291–302.
80. Xie J, Zang M, Wang S, et al. Optimization investigation
on the liquid cooling heat dissipation structure for the
lithium-ion battery package in electric vehicles. Proc
IMechE, Part D: J Automobile Engineering 2017; 231:
1735–1750.
81. Wang S, Li Y, Li Y-Z, et al. A forced gas cooling circle
packaging with liquid cooling plate for the thermal man-
agement of Li-ion batteries under space environment.
Appl Therm Eng 2017; 123: 929–939.
82. Saw LH, Tay AAO and Zhang LW. Thermal manage-
ment of lithium-ion battery pack with liquid cooling. In:
Proceedings of the 2015 31st thermal measurement, model-
ing and management symposium (SEMI-THERM),San
Jose, CA, 2015, pp.298–302.
83. Bahiraei F, Fartaj A and Nazri G-A. Numerical investi-
gation of active and passive cooling systems of a lithium-
ion battery module for electric vehicles, SAE technical
paper 2016-01-0655, 2016.
84. Kandlikar SG and Hayner CN. Liquid cooled cold plates
for industrial high-power electronic devices: thermal
design and manufacturing considerations. Heat Transf
Eng 2009; 30: 918–930.
85. Om NI, Zulkifli R and Gunnasegaran P. Influence of the
oblique fin arrangement on the fluid flow and thermal
performance of liquid cold plate. Case Stud Therm Eng
2018; 12: 717–727.
86. Patil MS, Seo J-H, Panchal S, et al. Investigation on ther-
mal performance of water-cooled Li-ion pouch cell and
pack at high discharge rate with U-turn type microchan-
nel cold plate. Int J Heat Mass Transf 2020; 155: 119728.
87. Deng T, Zhang G and Ran Y. Study on thermal manage-
ment of rectangular Li-ion battery with serpentine-
channel cold plate. Int J Heat Mass Transf 2018; 125:
143–152.
88. Zhao J, Rao Z and Li Y. Thermal performance of mini-
channel liquid cooled cylinder based battery thermal
management for cylindrical lithium-ion power battery.
Energy Convers Manag 5; 103: 157–165.
89. Shang Z, Qi H, Liu X, et al. Structural optimization of
lithium-ion battery for improving thermal performance
based on a liquid cooling system. Int J Heat Mass Transf
2019; 130: 33–41.
90. Malik M, Dincer I, Rosen MA, et al. Thermal and elec-
trical performance evaluations of series connected Li-ion
batteries in a pack with liquid cooling. Appl Therm Eng
2018; 129: 472–481.
91. Cao W, Zhao C, Wang Y, et al. Thermal modeling of
full-size-scale cylindrical battery pack cooled by chan-
neled liquid flow. Int J Heat Mass Transf 2019; 138:
1178–1187.
92. Xie XL, Liu ZJ, He YL, et al. Numerical study of lami-
nar heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics in a
water-cooled minichannel heat sink. Appl Therm Eng
2009; 29: 64–74.
93. Tong W, Somasundaram K, Birgersson E, et al. Numeri-
cal investigation of water cooling for a lithium-ion bipo-
lar battery pack. Int J Therm Sci 2015; 94: 259–269.
94. Zhang Y, Wang S and Ding P. Effects of channel shape
on the cooling performance of hybrid micro-channel and
slot-jet module. Int J Heat Mass Transf 2017; 113: 295–
309.
95. Kumar S and Singh PK. Effects of flow inlet angle on
flow maldistribution and thermal performance of water
cooled mini-channel heat sink. Int J Therm Sci 2019; 138:
504–511.
96. Lu M-C and Wang C-C. Effect of the inlet location on
the performance of parallel-channel cold-plate. IEEE
Transactions on Components and Packaging Technologies
2006; 29: 30–38.
97. Malazi MT, Sensoy S and Heperkan HA. Numerical
investigation of heat transfer In a cold plate with two dif-
ferent inlet location. Int J Electron Mech Mechatron Eng
2018; 8: 1529.
98. Chein R and Chen J. Numerical study of the inlet/outlet
arrangement effect on microchannel heat sink perfor-
mance. Int J Therm Sci 2009; 48: 1627–1638.
99. Mohammed AH, Alhadri M, Zakri W, et al. Design and
comparison of cooling plates for a prismatic lithium-ion
battery for electrified vehicles, SAE technical paper 2018-
01-1188, 2018.
100. Mohammed AH, Esmaeeli R, Aliniagerdroudbari H, et
al. Dual-purpose cooling plate for thermal management
of prismatic lithium-ion batteries during normal opera-
tion and thermal runaway. Appl Therm Eng 2019; 160:
114106.
101. Fu J, Xu X and Li R. Battery module thermal manage-
ment based on liquid cold plate with heat transfer
enhanced fin. Int J Energy Res 2019; 43: 4312–4321.
102. Fan Y, Lee PS, Jin L-W, et al. Experimental investigation
on heat transfer and pressure drop of a novel cylindrical
oblique fin heat sink. Int J Therm Sci 2014; 76: 1–10.
103. Lee YJ, Singh PK and Lee PS. Fluid flow and heat
transfer investigations on enhanced microchannel heat
sink using oblique fins with parametric study. Int J Heat
Mass Transf 2015; 81: 325–336.
Al Shdaifat et al. 17
