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Phenological growth stages of ‘Barcelona’ hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) described using an extended BBCH scale
Abstract
A wide range of hazelnut (Corylus avellana) cultivars are produced around the world. Cultivars are often listed by the time of bloom, from early to mid and late season. To date, phenological stages have been recorded using alphanumerical codes, although data analysis is difficult with such codes. This study converted the alphanumerical codes to fully numerical codes using the Biologische Bundesanstalt Bundessortenamt und Chemische Industrie (BBCH) scale. A hazelnut BBCH scale was created for the cultivar Barcelona, which is considered a reference for phenological stages. The scale was constructed with at least two digits (0 to 9) for the main growth stages and three digits for female flowering and fruit development. The first number indicates the general growth stage, the second number indicates the growth stage at a specific time, and the third digit, when present, indicates the proportion at that stage on the tree. The hazelnut BBCH scale describes in 38 stages within 7 of the 10 available stages. The BBCH stages used are 5 (inflorescence emergence), 6 (flowering), 0 (bud development), 1 (leaf development), 7 (fruit development), 8 (fruit ripening), and 9 (senescence). The hazelnut is unusual in that it flowers in winter. Thus, the scale was extended from flower initiation (spring to summer of the year before harvest), male and female flowering (winter before harvest) and bud and leaf development (spring before harvest). During the spring before harvest, and summer before harvest, fruit developmental stages and fruit ripening are monitored and finally, senescence finalises the hazelnut life cycle in autumn after the harvest. Thus, the BBCH hazelnut cycle has a duration of at least 18 months and gives a good idea of hazelnut development. Finally, this new scale will add new information on the kernel development stages which were not evaluated in the former phenological scale. It will help producers to have a better idea of the fruit ripening and potential harvest date.
... Later, Hack et al. [36] developed an extended BBCH scale for other species such as pome and stone fruits. BBCH scales are already available for other nut species, such as almond [37], cashew [38], chestnut [39], hazelnut [40,41], and pecan [42]. However, a BBCH scale for Persian walnut is still missing. ...
... Means (n = 40) are presented with their standard deviations. For lignification, the method described by Paradinas et al. [40] was used. ...
... To avoid errors during phenology monitoring, male flowering was described using a two-digit code, while female flowering was described using a three-digit code. As for hazelnuts [40], once the walnut husk and the shell were fully developed, a third digit was added to describe kernel development. For fruit development, a third digit was added to the two-digit scale of fruit ripening to detail the percentage of falling fruits at maturity. ...
Citation: Robin, J.; Bernard, A.; Albouy, L.; Papillon, S.; Tranchand, E.; Hebrard, M.-N.; Philibert, J.-B.; Barbedette, M.; Schafleitner, S.; Wenden, B.; et al. Description of Phenological Events of Persian Walnut (Juglans regia L.) according to the Extended BBCH Scale and Historical Scales. Horticulturae 2024, 10, 402. https://doi. Abstract: Walnut trees are grown worldwide for their edible fruits, which have high nutritional value. To address climate change, researchers have studied walnut phenology to create cultivars adapted to warmer climates. The objective of this study is to propose a scale for phenological Persian walnut observations using the Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt, und CHemische Industrie (BBCH) codification and alignment with historical alphameric scales. Here, the principal growth stages (PGSs) of Persian walnut (Juglans regia L.) are described using stages from a previously available alphanumeric scale. This standardised phenological scale describes Persian walnut growth from the dormant vegetative state through reproductive budding and senescence. This phenological scale is expected to increase the efficiency of walnut phenological monitoring. Fifty-seven stages are used to describe the life cycle of Persian walnut in this BBCH scale. Of these 57 stages, 3 stages are dedicated to seed germination (PGS-0), 4 stages are dedicated to bud development (PGS-0), 7 stages are dedicated to leaf development (PGS-1), 4 stages are dedicated to stem elongation (PGS-3), 8 stages are dedicated to inflorescence emergence (PGS-5), 5 stages are dedicated to male flowering (PGS-6), 5 stages are dedicated to female flowering (PGS-6), 5 stages are dedicated to fruit development (PGS-7), 12 stages are dedicated to fruit ripening (PGS-8), and 4 stages are dedicated to leaf senescence (PGS-9).
... The scale developed by Taghavi et al. (2022) described stages from leaf budbreak, stem elongation, to leaf fall but with few stages on kernel development. In the phenological scale proposed by Paradinas et al. (2022), all previous stages are described, with a focus on fruit and kernel development. However, elongation stages were missing. ...
... However, elongation stages were missing. Furthermore, unlike Paradinas et al. (2022) letters were used to describe stages in the study of Taghavi et al. (2022). Considering these two new hazelnut phenotyping contributions available in the literature, the aim of this study was to merge them and release a new easy-to-use BBCH scale for hazelnut. ...
... Hazelnut phenological development was divided into eight PGS (i.e., 8 phenophases), subdivided into 53 growth stages. These stages are described in Table 1, and corresponding ratings in the previously published systems are presented in Table 2. Taghavi et al. (2022), Paradinas et al. (2022), the GFI Italian system (Brunetti, 1998), the French system (Germain and Sarraquigne, 2004), and the American system (Capik and Molnar, 2014 For bud swelling and development, three stages are present (Figure 1): Stage 00 is for the dormant buds. At this stage, no distinction can be made between glomerulus and vegetative buds. ...
European hazelnut cultivars are grouped by comparing their phenological development to a few reference cultivars such as ‘Barcelona’, ‘Tonda di Giffoni’ and ‘Tonda Gentile delle Langhe’. The cultivars are described as earlier or later than the references for blooming, and harvest time. BBCH scales describe the plant phenological stages according to a numerical scale. The conversion of alphanumerical codes to a fully numerical code would allow easier phenological computer data analysis. While the scale is widely used in predictive agriculture, it needs to be updated for hazelnut cultivation considering current knowledge. The aim of this study was to present a consolidated BBCH scale for European hazelnut phenotyping. The plant phenology was divided into eight growth stages, from bud development to senescence as follows: stage 0, bud development; stage 1, leaf development; stage 3, stem elongation; stage 5, male inflorescence emergence; stage 6, male and female flowering; stage 7, fruit development; stage 8, fruit ripening; and stage 9, dormancy or winter rest. The eight growth stages were subdivided into 53 specific sub-stages corresponding to each specific phenophase of the hazelnut growing season. This updated scale is easily usable once the translation between historical and BBCH scales are grasped by the observer. The phenological stages of hazelnut can be described from the male inflorescence development (stage 5) in one year until fruit ripening (stage 8), which occurs in the next year.
... Besides, it can meet the special requirements for describing the vegetative and reproductive stages of plant growth, suitable for monocotyledons, dicotyledons and perennials (Finn et al., 2007;Meier, 2018;Meier et al., 2009). Now, it has been widely used to accurately compile and record the growth and development rhythm of many plants, such as peach (Han et al., 2018), prunus (Sakar et al., 2019), hazelnut (Paradinas et al., 2022), mangosteen (Awachare & Upreti, 2020) and bean (Cavalcante et al., 2020). Precise, detailed and standardized phenology research can not only unify the cognition among researchers and increase the communication between researchers and growers around the world (Meier, 2018), but also help plant managers make corresponding management decisions according to the growth laws of plant phenology (Han et al., 2018;Paradinas et al., 2022). ...
... Now, it has been widely used to accurately compile and record the growth and development rhythm of many plants, such as peach (Han et al., 2018), prunus (Sakar et al., 2019), hazelnut (Paradinas et al., 2022), mangosteen (Awachare & Upreti, 2020) and bean (Cavalcante et al., 2020). Precise, detailed and standardized phenology research can not only unify the cognition among researchers and increase the communication between researchers and growers around the world (Meier, 2018), but also help plant managers make corresponding management decisions according to the growth laws of plant phenology (Han et al., 2018;Paradinas et al., 2022). ...
Gleditsia sinensis is a species endemic to China, an ecologically economic multipurpose tree with great development potential, which could be used as medicine, food, industrial materials and wood. It is well known that the standardized description of plant development stages according to their phenological characteristics not only is crucial for conduct of various agronomic practices, but also facilitates the exchange of new findings based on the same understanding of the plant. However, a uniform phenology scale of G. sinensis has rarely been reported, despite its expanding plant area and rapid development of this industry over the past few years. Thus, phenological events of G. sinensis were monitored based on the BBCH scale during two consecutive years in this study. Eight of the 10 BBCH stages described in detail by combining numbers and letters based on its species characteristic were accurately recorded, including bud development (0), leaf development (1), shoot development (3), inflorescence emergence (5), flowering (6), pod development (7), maturity of pod (8) and senescence (9). As far as we know, it is the first time that a special phenological rhythm for G. sinensis has been developed using an extended BBCH scale, which not only provides the basis for other basic research, but also assists growers in conducting planting management practices.
... Our report indicated that A. manihot is defined by nine principal growth stages and69 secondary growth stages was described for seed germination, inflorescence emergence, flowering and set, and fruit development ( Table 1, Figures 2-5). In some plant species, mesostages were used in particular for growth stages of leaf development, shoot development, inflorescence development, flowering, and fruiting [8,9,11,31]. The BBCH scale for various plants has ranged from stages 208 to stages 809 [4]. ...
... In A. manihot, among different phenological growth stages, leaf development (stage 101-109, Figure 3), inflorescence development (stage 501-509, Figure 4) and early fruits development stages are easily influenced by the attacks of biting or sucking insect, like aphids and ants, etc. Furthermore, different reports indicated that the hardness of the fruit pod, decided by the fruit development period, can protect it from pest attacks [9,11]. Thus, appropriate pest management strategies at specific phenological growth stages will help to better the development and yield of flowers and fruit. ...
Abelmoschus manihot L. (A. manihot) has received more and more attention due to its potential edible and medicinal value. It shows higher yield and related fine agronomic traits suitable for disadvantaged areas and low-input planting. However, a systemic description of the phenological growth stages of A. manihot, an alternative, multipurpose crop of worldwide interest, does not exist. This study aims to detail the phenological growth stages of A. manihot based on the BBCH scale. Nine principal growth stages were described from seed germination to senescence, along with 69 secondary growth stages, including germination, leaf development, formation of side shoots, primary stem elongation, inflorescence emergence, flowering, fruit development, maturation of fruit and seed, and senescence. However, the morphology and structure of A. manihot become complex with growth, and some growth stages, like inflorescence development, flowering, fruit development, and fruit maturation, overlap totally or partially with each other. Thus, the three-digit scale is considered necessary for a complementary description of these growth stages and illustrations for clarification. Moreover, the unique morphology and structure features of the pistil, stamen, and ovary and the development process of fruits and seeds were described in detail at different stages. The basic and extended BBCH scales will add new information on defining and identifying A. manihot phenological growth stages. They will help farmers efficiently schedule and manage A. manihot cultivation and improve knowledge dissemination among growers and researchers.
... Defective hazelnuts (Dh), which are the last step in the relational diagram, are the result of the infection cycle. We computed the Dh cumulative index (Dh-I) following the described steps and using georeferenced meteorological data from 1 January to BBCH81 (when from 10% to 50% of the hazelnut shells changed colour [31]) and BBCH89 (when the nuts separated from the husks at the basal scar, the basal scar turned brown, and the nuts fell to the ground [31]). ...
... Defective hazelnuts (Dh), which are the last step in the relational diagram, are the result of the infection cycle. We computed the Dh cumulative index (Dh-I) following the described steps and using georeferenced meteorological data from 1 January to BBCH81 (when from 10% to 50% of the hazelnut shells changed colour [31]) and BBCH89 (when the nuts separated from the husks at the basal scar, the basal scar turned brown, and the nuts fell to the ground [31]). ...
The browning of the internal tissues of hazelnut kernels, which are visible when the nuts are cut in half, as well as the discolouration and brown spots on the kernel surface, are important defects that are mainly attributed to Diaporthe eres. The knowledge regarding the Diaporthe eres infection cycle and its interaction with hazelnut crops is incomplete. Nevertheless, we developed a mechanistic model called DEFHAZ. We considered georeferenced data on the occurrence of hazelnut defects from 2013 to 2020 from orchards in the Caucasus region and Turkey, supported by meteorological data, to run and validate the model. The predictive model inputs are the hourly meteorological data (air temperature, relative humidity, and rainfall), and the model output is the cumulative index (Dh-I), which we computed daily during the growing season till ripening/harvest time. We established the probability function, with a threshold of 1% of defective hazelnuts, to define the defect occurrence risk. We compared the predictions at early and full ripening with the observed data at the corresponding crop growth stages. In addition, we compared the predictions at early ripening with the defects observed at full ripening. Overall, the correct predictions were >80%, with <16% false negatives, which confirmed the model accuracy in predicting hazelnut defects, even in advance of the harvest. The DEFHAZ model could become a valuable support for hazelnut stakeholders.
... In southern France, where most hazelnut orchards are planted, ovule development begins in March and fertilization occurs between the end of May and the third week of June, based on the variety. In August, kernel maturation ends and the nuts are harvested [28]. Various non-exclusive problems may be associated with hazelnut weevil (adults and/or larvae) attacks that depend on the timing of the attack and, thus, on the stage of nut development (or cultivar), including nutlet drop (i.e., clusters of one to five small (<5 mm) nuts), blank nuts (i.e., having no kernel or kernel abortion), belted nuts (blank nuts where the shell is deformed at the lignification line), and shrivelled kernels, along with exclusive attacks, such as wormy nuts. ...
... The nuts and kernels were measured using a caliper. Using the BBCH scale (Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt and Chemical Industry), the hazelnut phenology was divided into four main stages of development: pre-expansion (Stages 691 to 695 on the BBCH scale), shell expansion (Stages 710 to 750), kernel expansion (Stages 751 to 799), and kernel maturation (Stages 81 to 89) [28]. In the preexpansion stage, neither the nut nor the kernel was well developed. ...
Hazelnut is an important food resource for the larvae and adults of the hazelnut weevil, Curculio nucum. While wormy nuts reflect the impact of such weevils at harvest time, little is known about the other types of damage they cause. To establish a comprehensive list of damages, and thereby identify the period of hazelnut vulnerability, male and female weevils were collected weekly and isolated on fruiting branches for 1 week. Based on nut development, higher rates of dropped nutlets, belted nuts, and blank nuts were observed at harvest. Marks specific to weevils, including wormy nuts, riddled shells, and larvae paths on the basal scar, were recorded during nut lignification. Belted nuts and blank nuts are empty nuts and constituted the main damage. The feeding activities of both the adults and larvae, but also the oviposition punctures, are likely to be the main causes of embryo abortions. The greatest damages occurred during kernel growth and when the shell had almost reached its final size. The larvae failed to penetrate fully lignified shells, with dead larvae mainly being found on the basal scar, the later softer part of the hazelnut. In Ségorbe cultivars, the dynamic of hazelnut development is the main factor involved in its susceptibility to C. nucum, with aborted nuts being the most underestimated damage.
... Between 2001 and 2019, stage monitoring used the Germain and Sarraquigne Scale (Bergougnoux et al., 1978;Germain and Sarraquigne, 2004). Since 2020, the recently published BBCH scale has been adopted for phonological stage monitoring in southwestern France (Paradinas et al., 2022). Data acquired between 2001 and 2019 were translated onto the BBCH scale and incorporated in a unique internal database. ...
Hazelnut flowering and leaf phenology have been monitored yearly in southwestern France and stored in data files since the early 2000s. The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the annual evolution of flowering and budbreak dates for productive hazelnut orchards in southwestern France. The tested cultivars were ‘Tonda di Giffoni’, ‘Barcelona’, ‘Segorbe’, ‘Pauetet’, ‘Corabel’, ‘Ennis’, ‘Feriale’, and ‘Lewis’. For each cultivar, 2-3 trees were monitored in commercial orchards when they were 4-6 years old. Female flowering and bud-flush dates were evaluated annually and compared with historical data. Three groups of cultivars could be distinguished according to their flowering date. Early cultivars such as ‘Tonda di Giffoni’, ‘Pauetet’, and ‘Segorbe’ had a female flowering 8 to 19 days later than the historical values in southwestern France. The beginning of winter was milder than climate references and the chilling requirements were met later. ‘Barcelona’ showed a 15-day earlier flowering over the 15 years of monitoring. This could be linked to the flowering period of this cultivar (late January to mid-February). Indeed, there are more frosts in this winter period than in December. Finally, some cultivars such as ‘Ennis’, ‘Lewis’, and ‘Corabel’ had a mean flowering date over the 15 years of monitoring near to those observed in the literature (from 4 days earlier to 2 days later). Winter could be harder from late January to the beginning of March and may provide the chilling hour requirements for these cultivars. For all cultivars, the mean leaf budbreak date is earlier by at least seven days than those observed in the literature. To conclude, climate change seems to have various impacts on hazelnut phenology, ranging from later female flowering to earlier budbreak making them susceptible to late spring frosts as observed in southwestern France in 2021.
... Ripening takes place at the beginning of September, and suitable pollinators for this variety can be other varieties of linden, such as Tonda Gentile Romana, Camponica, or San Giovanni. Barcelona variety (Figure 1e) comes from the NE area of Spain [18], it ripens at the end of August and the beginning of September. The fruits are grouped in groups of 2-5, large and very large (2.8-4.5g), ...
... One adult of Gonocerus acuteangulatus was observed on April 10 in the conventional orchard. This stink bug was observed when the BBCH stage 13 was reached (Paradinas et al., 2022). Then, an adult of Palomena prasina was observed during fruit differentiation on May 6 (BBCH stage 710). ...
In France, organic hazelnut production is a real challenge. Considering the lack of organic solutions to limit insect pests in orchards, yield and nut quality could be impacted. This trial aims at evaluating: i) tree growth and nut productivity; ii) nut quality; iii) abundance of insect pests; and iv) soil insect biodiversity under organic and conventional orchard management. Trees were significantly taller and bigger in a conventional orchard than in an organic orchard (291 cm height and 72.9 mm diameter under conventional vs. 196 cm height and 43.3 mm diameter under organic). In the organic orchard, the yield was low (0.231 t ha-1), while in the conventional system, the yield was 1.91 t ha-1 during the 6th year. Concerning insect pests, few stink bug species (Hemiptera) were observed in conventional orchards. Three Gonocerus acuteangulatus were observed in both orchards, one in the organic and two in the conventional orchard. One individual of Palomena prasina, and one individual of Peribalus strictus were identified in the conventional orchard while five individuals of Nezara viridula were identified in the organic orchard. Stink bug damage ranged from 4 to 14.5% in organic orchards and from 0.4 to 4.9% in conventional orchards over the three harvests. While no nut weevils were collected in the orchards, the observed damage of Curculio nucum on nuts was 0.47-1.55% in the organic and 0.17-0.37% in the conventional orchards. Finally, in the soil, a larger number of insects were collected in the organic orchards than in the conventional orchards, respectively 17.2 vs. 5.7 individuals per soil sample in 2019, and 10.2 vs. 8.9 in 2020. The macrofauna was distributed into 3 classes, scavengers (73 vs. 68%), predators (12 vs. 8%) and harmful (15 vs. 24%), respectively, in organic and conventional orchards. To conclude, while the soil biodiversity was better in the organic orchard, soil preparation for tree establishment seems to be essential for improving tree growth and yield under organic systems.
... The kernels were measured using a caliper following the protocol of Hamidi et al. (2022). Hazelnut phenology was classified in four main stages of development following the hazelnut BBCH scale (Paradinas et al., 2022): pre-expansion, shell expansion, kernel expansion and kernel maturation (Table 1). ...
Since 2015, the number of hazelnuts damaged by insects in France has increased exponentially. Palomena prasina, Pentatoma rufipes (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), and Gonocerus acuteangulatus are common insect species on hazel trees. In France, their pest status is unclear, and consequently limited data are available on their impact on French hazelnut cultivars. In 2016 and 2017, bugs were collected in orchards, and in 2018, specimens were isolated from hazelnut branches in net sleeve bags at different developmental stages throughout the season. At harvest, nuts shells were removed, and symptoms of feeding analyzed. Pe. rufipes, Pa. prasina, and G. acuteangulatus represented 34, 28, and 6%, respectively, of all the bugs found in hazel orchards in 2016. In 2017, Pe. rufipes represented only 5%, while Pa. prasina was 48%, and G. acuteangulatus was 29%. While P. prasina and G. acuteangulatus are well-known as hazelnut pests in other areas, populations of P. rufipes are more erratic. Pe. rufipes caused the same amount of damage as Pa. prasina even though it penetrated deeper for feeding. Blank nuts, shrivelled, and corked kernels were the main injury symptoms. Brown spots caused by feeding mainly appeared during kernel expansion. However, white spots occurred when bugs fed on the kernels later in the season when they were fully developed. The study shows that Pa. prasina and Pe. rufipes are secondary hazelnut pests and need to be carefully monitored.
... Field surveys were conducted during November and December of 2020 and 2021 in nine orchards located in Piedmont, Northern Italy. A total of 420 nut samples were collected from defective hazelnuts (moldy, black rotted, and necrotic) at BBCH 89 (nuts separated from the husk at the basal scar; Paradinas et al. 2022) (Fig. 1). Symptomatic kernels cut in half were disinfected in 1% sodium hypochlorite for 1 min, rinsed in sterile water for 1 min, and dried on sterile filter paper. ...
Hazelnut (Corylus avellana), a nut crop that is rapidly expanding worldwide, is endangered by a rot. Nut rot results in hazelnut defects. A survey was conducted in north-western Italy during 2020 and 2021 to identify the causal agents of hazelnut rots. Typical symptoms of black rot, mold, and necrotic spots were observed on hazelnut nuts. The prevalent fungi isolated from symptomatic hazelnut kernels were Diaporthe spp. (38%), Botryosphaeria dothidea (26%), Diplodia seriata (14%), and other fungal genera with less frequent occurrences. Among 161 isolated Diaporthe spp., 40 were selected for further analysis. Based on morphological characterization and multi-locus phylogenetic analysis of the ITS, tef1- α, and tub2, seven Diaporthe species were identified as D. eres, D. foeniculina, D. novem, D. oncostoma, D. ravennica, D. rudis, and D. sojae. D. eres was the main species isolated from hazelnut rots, in particular from moldy nuts. Pathogenicity test performed on hazelnut nuts ‘Tonda Gentile del Piemonte’ using a mycelium plug showed that all the Diaporthe isolates were pathogenic on their original host. To our knowledge, this work is the first report of D. novem, D. oncostoma and D. ravennica on hazelnut nuts worldwide. Diaporthe foeniculina, D. rudis, and D. sojae were reported for the first time as agents of hazelnut nut rot in Italy. Future studies should focus on the comprehension of epidemiology and climatic conditions favoring the development of Diaporthe spp. on hazelnut. Prevention and control measures should target D. eres, representing the main causal agents responsible for defects and nut rot of hazelnuts in Italy.
... Indeed, recent studies brought to light interesting features of C. colurna rootstocks, including their deeper root development (Portarena et al., 2022). However, while the leafing phenology of C. avellana is receiving increasing attention and efforts for its systematization (Paradinas et al., 2022), the phenology of C. colurna has been little studied. At the same time, matching observations of leaf and radial growth phenology could shed light on hidden ecophysiological mechanisms a E-mail: gaia.pasqualotto@.unipd.it ...
... The phenological growth stages of commercially grown woody species such as Lychee (Litchi chinensis) [23]; Longan (Dimocarpus longan) [24]; Sugar apple (Annona squamosa) [10]; Capuli cherry (Prunus serotina subsp. capuli) [25]; Kiwi (Actinidia deliciosa) [26], Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) [27]; Hazelnuts (Corylus avellana) [28]; ʻBarcelona' hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) [29]; Saucer Magnolia (Magno-lia×soulangeana) [30]; Jamun (Syzygium cumini) [21] and Mango (Mangifera indica) [31,32]; Rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum L.) [33] have been described using the BBCH scale. ...
The precise knowledge of the seasonal influence on phenology, timing and duration of different growth stages (phenophases) exhibited in a life cycle of a plant is crucial for undertaking several crop management decisions. The reproductive growth stages hold a particular relevance in this regard that conveys a ‘seasonal shift’ and also a ‘shift’ in the timing, duration and intensity of vegetative and reproductive growth stages due to subnormal micro-climate induced by climate change. The present study investigates the phenological growth stages of Tecoma stans - a drought tolerant, yellow flowering shrub with a versatile use for urban greening and beautification. Till date, the phenological characteristics in T. stans have never been codified or described so far. The study was undertaken with an objective to codify the seasonal change in the phenological growth stages of T. stans using bi-numeric BBCH (Biologische Bun-desantalt, Bundessortenamt und Chemische Industrie) scale under subtropical climatic conditions of North West India. The experiment was planned on T. stans planted as a shrubbery block in a randomized block design layout. The distinct phenological growth stages of this shrub were represented through photographs. The year-round phenological calendar was also evolved exhibiting the time lapse of different phenophases along with their frequency and intensity of occurrence. Seasonal variation in mean temperature and precipitation markedly affected the phenological behavior of T. stans that exhibited seven major phenological growth stages namely, seed germination, leaf development, elongation of lateral shoots, inflorescence emergence, flower development, pod development and maturity of seed. The investigations undertaken are of vital interest to the urban landscape managers for the selection of species not only based on their aesthetic attributes but also to consider their functionality associated with the site-specific conditions. In addition, the salient findings will help deepen the understanding of weather-induced ‘eventful’ interactions of pollinators and flowers of T. stans that greatly benefit in a symbiotic manner, ensuring the survival and perpetuation of the species. The newly developed scale provides a unified standard for describing and identifying the phenological growth of T. stans that can potentially be utilized as a reference scale for undertaking future phenological studies.
... The phenological growth stages of commercially grown woody species such as Lychee (Litchi chinensis) [23]; Longan (Dimocarpus longan) [24]; Sugar apple (Annona squamosa) [10]; Capuli cherry (Prunus serotina subsp. capuli) [25]; Kiwi (Actinidia deliciosa) [26], Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) [27]; Hazelnuts (Corylus avellana) [28]; ʻBarcelona' hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) [29]; Saucer Magnolia (Magno-lia×soulangeana) [30]; Jamun (Syzygium cumini) [21] and Mango (Mangifera indica) [31,32]; Rambutan (Nephelium lappaceum L.) [33] have been described using the BBCH scale. ...
... Chen et al., 2022S. C. Pereira et al., 2022), chestnut Li et al., 2022), hazelnut (Ayvaz et al., 2022;Paradinas et al., 2022;Sun et al., 2022), macadamia (Shabalala et al., 2022;Shuai et al., 2022), peanut (Yuan et al., 2022;Zhen et al., 2022), pecan (Feng andKong 2022;McKay et al., 2022), pine nut (Jin et al., 2021;E. F. R. Silva et al. 2022), pistachio (Homayouni et al. 2022;Saeedi et al. 2022) or walnut (Akça et al., 2020;Chatrabnous et al. 2018;Sarikhani et al., 2021;Vahdati, 2014), all with a very marked influence on food markets al regional level and also for world trade. ...
Chestnuts have been consumed in Portugal for immemorial times. These fruits are highly appreciated, not only due to their organoleptic characteristics but also due to their nutritional and functional values. For the nutrients to be more accessible and for the chestnuts to have better flavour and digestibility, it is necessary to heat, cook or roast them, for example. Chestnuts are a very versatile food, in terms of preparation, and can be cooked, roasted, as an accompaniment to dishes, replacing rice, pasta or potatoes, in the base of soups or the preparation of appetizing desserts and cakes. In Portugal the use of chestnuts to produce differentiated food products is traditional, but also new and innovative products are appearing on the market, either made with chestnuts or even with some residues of their processing, in the context of a circular economy. Examples of traditional usages of chestnut in Portugal include chestnut soup, or roasted chestnuts, which are typically consumed in the colder months of autumn and winter. In what concerns more modern trends, the use of chestnut flour to incorporate into a variety of foods, like bread, cookies or pasta is highlighted. This article explores the value of the chestnut sector in Portugal and the use of these fruits to obtain either traditional or innovative foods, such as bread, biscuits, pasta and beverages.
... The BBCH codification scale has been widely used to describe plant growth stages in various fruit trees [30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39], more commonly in northern latitudes. Although the BBCH scale of black (M. ...
Mulberry (Morus L.; Moraceae; Rosales) is an economically important tree with a long history in China and valued for its rich nutrient, flavor content, medicinal value and useful ecological functions. Morus species are widely distributed in Asia, Europe, North and South America and Africa and exhibit obvious differences in morphological characteristics and phenological stages due to being distributed in diverse climate zones. The morphological description of the phenological stages of black mulberry (Morus nigra L.) has been established in Mediterranean climates and this study extended the BBCH scale for application in different Morus species, especially for mulberry trees grown in subtropical monsoon climates. In this study, we used the BBCH (Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt and CHemische Industrie) scale to describe in detail the phenological growth stages for Morus species in Wuhan, China (a subtropical monsoon climate). Based on this general scale, eight principal stages, i.e., bud, leaf and shoot development stage, inflorescence emergence stage, flowering stage, fruit development stage, fruit maturation stage, senescence and beginning of dormancy stage, were described. We provide photographic images of some primary and secondary developmental stages to better define and standardize morphological characteristics and phenological descriptions of these mulberries (Morus spp.). In addition, because the color of mulberry fruit varies from white, purple, black, or pink to red at maturity, with mostly monosexual flowers, we have also presented detailed descriptions of morphological traits of flower sexuality and fruit color among these four species. In addition, two late phenological germplasms (late bud sprouting associated with late blooming and late fruit ripening) were screened out according to the BBCH scale. Overall, this study will contribute to advance the field of mulberry breeding and implementation of agronomic practices and facilitate convenient communication between mulberry cultivators and researchers in different areas.
... Интерес к лещине обыкновенной в последние годы значительно возрос -причем как в Российской Федерации [1,4,9], так и за рубежом [10][11][12][13][14]. Интродукция сортов и форм в регионы с более суровыми условиями не всегда успешна, что обусловлено их недостаточной зимостойкостью [4,11]. ...
Biodiversity is one of the stand sustainability criteria. The study of the biodiversity of common hazel in the Voronezh region will make it possible to control the conservation of the genetic potential, as well as update information on the state of populations and forms in order to develop recommendations for the effective cultivation of this breed. Interest in common hazel in the Russian Federation has increased significantly in recent years - more and more attention is paid to breeding work not only in areas of industrial cultivation, but also in the Volga region, the Central regions of the Russian Federation, Siberia and the Urals. The article considers biodiversity and assesses the state of common hazel growing in different types of forest conditions on the territory of the Prigorodny and Somovsky forestries of the Voronezh region. The studies were carried out using standard methodological approaches and current regulatory documents. The study area was 17580.7 ha, incl. with the presence of hazel - 4595.5 ha (26% of the total area). Field survey was carried out on more than 5% of the total area. In terms of relative and absolute density of growth, common hazel reaches its maximum in fresh oak forests. In the course of biodiversity assessment studies, it was revealed that common hazel occurs in a very wide range of forest conditions, and therefore, can grow together with most forest-forming species of the Voronezh region. Mostly found in fresh oak forest conditions - the most common TLU S2D (occurrence about 83%) and D2 (77%). At the same time, with a certain degree of success, it can grow in both dry and wet forest conditions. In the course of assessing the state of common hazel plantations, no significant differences were found depending on the growth in the types of forest conditions. The exception is excessively wet and very dry conditions. The revealed tolerance to growing conditions must certainly be taken into account when increasing the biodiversity of forests in the Voronezh region.
... Field sampling and UAV data acquisition were conducted at the tillering stage (23 August, corresponding to Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt, Chemische Industrie (BBCH) phenological stage 23), panicle initiation stage (10 September, corresponding to BBCH 32), and heading stage (9 October, corresponding to BBCH-57) in 2020. UAV data and plant samples were only acquired at the panicle initiation stage (13 September, corresponding to BBCH 32) in 2019 [33,34]. ...
Grain protein content (GPC) is an important indicator of nutritional quality of rice. In this study, nitrogen fertilization experiments were conducted to monitor GPC for high-quality Indica rice varieties Meixiangzhan 2 (V1) and Wufengyou 615 (V2) in 2019 and 2020. Three types of parameters, including photosynthetic sensitive vegetation indices (VIs), canopy leaf area index (LAI), and crop plant nitrogen accumulation (PNA), obtained from UAV hyperspectral images were used to estimate rice GPC. Two-dimensional and three-dimensional GPC indices were constructed by combining any two of the three types of parameters and all three, respectively, based on the Euclidean distance method. The R2 and RMSE of the two-dimensional GPC index model for variety V1 at the tillering stage were 0.81 and 0.40% for modeling and 0.95 and 0.38% for validation, and 0.91 and 0.27% for modeling and 0.83 and 0.36% for validation for variety V2. The three-dimensional GPC index model for variety V1 had R2 and RMSE of 0.86 and 0.34% for modeling and 0.78 and 0.45% for validation, and 0.97 and 0.17% for modeling and 0.96 and 0.17% for validation for variety V2 at the panicle initiation stage. At the heading stage, the R2 and RMSE of the three-dimensional model for variety V1 were 0.92 and 0.26% for modeling and 0.91 and 0.37% for validation, and 0.96 and 0.20% for modeling and 0.99 and 0.15% for validation for variety V2. These results demonstrate that the GPC monitoring models incorporating multiple crop growth parameters based on Euclidean distance can improve GPC estimation accuracy and have the potential for field-scale GPC monitoring.
Walnut trees are grown worldwide for their edible fruits of high nutritional value. To address climate change, researchers have studied walnut phenology to create cultivars adapted to warmer climates. The standardisation of walnut phenological observations is needed and the Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt und CHemische Industrie (BBCH) scale is the most accurate and internationally accepted for this purpose. Here, the principal growth stages (PGS) of Persian walnut (Juglans regia L.) are described using stages from a previously available alphanumerical scale. This standardised phenological scale describes Persian walnut growth from the dormant vegetative state through reproductive budding to senescence. This phenological scale is expected to increase the efficiency of walnut phenological monitoring. Fifty-seven stages were used to describe the life cycle of Persian walnut in this BBCH scale. Of these 57 stages, 3 stages are dedicated to seed germination (PGS-0), 4 stages to bud development (PGS-0), 7 stages to leaf development (PGS-1), 4 stages to stem elongation (PGS-3), 8 stages to inflorescence emergence (PGS-5), 5 stages to male flowering (PGS-6), 5 stages to female flowering (PGS-6), 5 stages to fruit development (PGS-7), 12 stages to fruit ripening (PGS-8) and 4 stages to leaf senescence (PGS-9).
The selection of promising forms of common hazel (Corylus avellana L.) for forestry and fruit growing in the Voronezh region is the most important task of breeding work. Despite the high economic value of this breed, the yield and quality of fruits depending on growing conditions remain unstudied, which is important for breeding work. The purpose of the work is to study the phenological characteristics, determine the size of the harvest (depending on forest conditions) and assess the quality of the fruits of common hazel (Corylus avellana L.) to identify and select the highest quality initial breeding materials. The objectives of the research included: determining optimal forest conditions for the growth of common hazel (Corylus avellana L.), allowing for the greatest amount of harvest; establish the timing of the onset of phenological phases to predict the amount of harvest and indirectly assess the adaptive potential; assess the quality of fruits depending on the types of forest conditions. The onset of phenological phases of common hazel (Corylus avellana L.) begins in mid-March and ends in June. Despite the danger of spring frosts, which limit the cultivation of common hazel (Corylus avellana L.) in the Voronezh region, the identified phenological features make it possible to indirectly recommend widespread breeding of the most resistant forms. The average yield in C2D reaches 2.6±0.12 kg. In addition, in these forest growing conditions, the greatest variation in the amount of harvest was noted, which will allow for the selection of the best forms. It was revealed that the largest quantity of harvest and the best quality of common hazel fruits (Corylus avellana L.) prevail in the types of forest growing conditions C2D and D2.
Temperature is one of the ecological factors limiting yield and quality in the care of the region where fig will be grown, as in many fruit species. The effective temperature total demand is one of the important parameters in determining the cultivation potential of a fruit species in any region. Temperature values are needed for the establishment of new orchards in the commercially important Bursa Siyahı fig variety. This study was carried out with the aim of determining the effective temperature total demand of Bursa Siyahı fig variety in Aydın conditions between the years 2019-2021. Although the sum of the effective temperature from bud burst to main crop ripening date on years, it was between 1314 oC-days, and the average of three years from bud bloom to leaf fall was 2506.18 oC-days. According to the BBCH scale, the main crop ripening date was 207 ± 2 days and 219 ± 2 days, although it varied between years. The total effective temperature during the harvest period was 1.040,07 oC-days, on average over three years. Optimum climate values should be taken into account in the garden facilities to be established in different regions with the table Bursa Siyahı fig variety, which has a high export value and economic importance.
Crop yield forecasting activities are essential to support decision making of farmers, private companies and public entities. While standard systems use georeferenced agro-climatic data as input to process-based simulation models, new trends entail the application of machine learning for yield prediction. In this paper we present HADES (HAzelnut yielD forEcaSt), a hazelnut yield prediction system, in which process-based modeling and machine learning techniques are hybridized and applied in Turkey. Official yields in the top hazelnut producing municipalities in 2004–2019 are used as reference data, whereas ground observations of phenology and weather data represent the main HADES inputs. A statistical analysis allows inferring the occurrence and magnitude of biennial bearing in official yields and is used to aid the calibration of a process-based hazelnut simulation model. Then, a Random Forest algorithm is deployed in regression mode using the outputs of the process-based model as predictors, together with information on hazelnut varieties, the presence of alternate bearing in the yield series, and agro-meteorological indicators. HADES predictive ability in calibration and validation was balanced, with relative root mean square error below 20%, and R² and Nash-Sutcliffe modeling efficiency above 0.7 considering all municipalities together. HADES paves the way for a next-generation yield prediction system, to deliver timely and robust information and enhance the sustainability of the hazelnut sector across the globe.
Chestnuts (Castanea spp.) are ecologically and economically important forest and fruit trees. They are cultivated for their nutritious nuts. To select varieties to be cultivated in chestnut orchards, their phenology needs to be considered. In this work, we adapt the international BBCH system to chestnuts by building on an existing phenological scale used in some European countries for these species. The proposed BBCH scale uses eight of the ten principal growth stages for fruit trees and secondary growth stages that are specific to chestnut trees. We tested it by monitoring chestnut trees phenology during three growing seasons, illustrating its suitability for high-throughput phenotyping studies. Overall, the approach used, despite its inherent limitations, is straightforward, accessible and flexible, allowing particularly precise description of the complex flowering phenology of these trees.
Chilean hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) industry has been recently experiencing a solid development and nut production is consistently increasing. Corylus avellana is subjected to strong inter-annual yield fluctuations, which raise the issue of price predictability. In alternate bearing, a high fruit load hinders flower initiation thus leading to a smaller fruits production in the following year. This suggests the use of pollen airborne concentration as a proxy for flowers number to predict hazelnut irregular bearing. We addressed this question using high-resolution yield and pollen data collected on four hazelnut plantations located in Central Chile, and three hazelnut cultivars. Pollen parameters were calculated from modelled and non-modelled pollen seasons, after selecting the best modelling approach. An alternate bearing index was calculated to characterize hazelnut biennial bearing and to select plots with high yield variability. The calculated pollen parameters were then correlated with yield data. Significant correlations were found between pollen parameters and nut yields, with stronger relationship when alternate bearing was higher. The modelled peak of the pollen season presented the highest variability (average CV = 81 %) and its positive correlation with crop production (ρ = 0.45) was consistent across sites and cultivars. Our results support the integration of airborne pollen data in hazelnut yield prediction systems, as predictors of alternate bearing and to forecast annual yield.
Pecan (Carya illinoensis) is heterodicogamous, which often leads to unstable yield of its nut crops. Relating pecan orchard management to the phenological stage of the trees is the key to increasing yields; however, describing morphology alone does not lead to an orchard management system that is simple and practical. In this work, we extend the BBCH (Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt und Chemische Industrie) coding method to describe the morphology of the protogynous Mahan pecan cultivar over two consecutive years in southern China. Eight main growth stages, from vegetative bud dormancy to fruit harvest, were described and each phenological period was photographed. Pecan orchard management activities were listed for each stage in pecan BBCH scale to allow orchard managers to better manage their trees. This codification will facilitate breeding, conservation of genetic resources and general orchard management of this commercial crop. As well, recording the dates of various morphological stages over time will allow the influence of global climate change on pecan development to be tracked.
Synchrony between seed growth and oogenesis are suggested to largely shape trophic breadth of seed-feeding insects and ultimately contribute to their co-existence by means of resource partitioning or in the time when infestation occurs. Here we investigated: i) the role of seed phenology and sexual maturation of females in the host specificity of seed-feeding weevils (Curculio spp) predating in hazel and oak mixed forests and ii) the consequences that trophic breadth and host distribution have in the genetic structure of the weevil populations. DNA analyses were used to establish unequivocally host specificity and to determine the population genetic structure. We identified four species with different specificity, namely C. nucum females matured earlier and infested a unique host (hazelnuts) while three species (C. venosus, C. glandium, C. elephas) predated upon the acorns of the two oaks (Q. ilex and Q. humilis). The high specificity of C. nucum coupled with a more discontinuous distribution of hazel trees resulted in a significant genetic structure among sites. Also, the presence of an excess of local rare haplotypes indicated that C. nucum populations went through genetic expansion after recent bottlenecks. Conversely, these effects were not observed in the more generalist C. glandium predating upon oaks. Ultimately, co-existence of weevil species in this multi-host-parasite system is influenced by both resource and time partitioning. To what extent the restriction in gene flow among C. nucum populations may have negative consequences for their persistence in a time of increasing disturbances (e.g. drought in Mediterranean areas) deserves further research.
Growth and development of the pistillate flower and fruit in Corylus avellana L. cv. Barcelona, was studied from anthesis (January) to maturity (September). Ovary growth is very slow for about 4.5 months, proceeds very rapidly for about 6 weeks, during which time 90% of the increase in diameter occurs, and then abruptly ceases. Ovule development, megasporogenesis, megagametogenesis, and fertilization are described. At the time of pollination (January) the pistillate flower consists of a pair of stigmatic styles joined at their bases by a minute ovarian meristem. Pollen tubes reach the base of the style in 4 to 7 days. The sperm nucleus remains in the pollen tube tip in a resting stage until mid-June (about 5 months). During this period the basal meristematic cells develop into a mature ovary. Multiple megasporocytes, derived directly from archesporial cells, give rise to several megaspores, partly developed embryo sacs, and one normal embryo sac. When the sac is mature a secondary pollen tube, bearing the sperm, grows basipetally from the resting site in the upper tip of the ovary. It proceeds through the funiculus of the anatropous ovule, along the single integument, enters the nucellus through the chalazal end, and penetrates the micropylar end of the embryo sac where the sperm is ejected. While pollination is necessary to initiate ovary development, only a small percentage of the pollinated pistils develop into a full size nut. Fertilization is necessary for the formation of normal nuts with embryos. Full size nuts which are empty at maturity result from pollination without fertilization or from embryo abortion.
There are a lot of insects and mite pests in hazelnut orchards in Turkey. Most pests affect hazelnut production through direct or indirect injury, but a few affect kernel quality and reduce yields by feeding on the nuts themselves.recent years, hazelnut exporters have begun to complain about this kind of damage reducing kernel quality because it has a negative effect on exports. It was established that more than 15 bug species could affect kernel quality (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae, Coreidae and Acanthosomatidae) in Turkish hazelnut orchards. This study determined fluctuations in the population of these bugs in six hazelnut orchards and on three main cultivars. Palomena prasina and Gonocerus acuteangulatus were found to be the main species. The pest population was above the economic damage threshold.a cage experiment with P. prasina, three types of injury were determined.addition to field and cage experiments, quite significant data about bug-related kernel damage were obtained from hazelnut factories. Kernel damage varied according to variety, locality and sample, reaching levels of around 20% of the total crop.
In the course of 5 year investigations (1981-1985) considerable differences were found in the resistance of 24 hazel cultivars to hazelnut weevil (Curculio nucum L.). The resistance was determined on the basis of the percentage of nuts damaged by larvae in the total yield. Six classes of resistance were established, from class I - very resistant cultivars, to class VI - very susceptible cultivars. In feeding experiments a positive correlation, significant at the 1% and 5% level was found between the frequency of beetle feeding on hazel fruitlets during the time of oviposition (July), and the class of resistance of cultivars; a negative correlation between these parameters was found in August, i.e. during hatching and development of larvae in the nuts. In July the beetles fed more readily and more frequently on nuts of susceptible cultivars, whereas they avoided them in August, i.e. in the period when larvae developed in many fruits of these cultivars.
The growth stages of development of many cultivated plants have been described by numerous scientists according to the principles of the extended BBCH scale within the last 19 years. The BBCH scales are now well- known worldwide and are used by research, administration and practise in agriculture and horticulture, as in the phenology as an integrative science in environment, meteorology and climatology.
This fact indicates that the basic objectives and hope have been reached, justifying the practical approach taken by the authors of this scale. The BBCH scale is a contribution to improve the communication between different groups of scientists and to allow the interchange of data and scientific results in a transparent way. The BBCH scales have turned out helpful and practical. The aim to cause the harmonisation in the application of decimal codes for the description of the phenological growth stages of plants and weeds was reached. They also fulfilled the hope of the initiators to contribute with it to the improvement of the international agrarian-scientific and interdisciplinary communication.
This paper will describe the history and background of the BBCH scales. The original publications are described and explained with reference of the original literature sources. The paper will describe the different area of use of the scales and list the different scientific disciplines using them. The worldwide success of the BBCH scales is the work of many scientists around the globe.
Three microsatellite-enriched libraries of the european hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) were constructed: library A for CA repeats, library B for GA repeats, and library C for GAA repeats. Twenty-five primer pairs amplified easy-to-score single loci and were used to investigate polymorphism among 20 C. avellana genotypes and to evaluate cross-species amplification in seven Corylus L. species. Microsatellite alleles were estimated by fluorescent capillary electrophoresis fragment sizing. The number of alleles per locus ranged from 2 to 12 (average = 7.16) in C. avellana and from 5 to 22 overall (average = 13.32). With the exception of CAC-B110, di-nucleotide SSRs were characterized by a relatively large number of alleles per locus (≤5), high average observed and expected heterozygosity (Ho and He > 0.6), and a high mean polymorphic information content (PIC ≤ 0.6) in C. avellana. In contrast, tri-nucleotide microsatellites were more homozygous (Ho = 0.4 on average) and less informative than di-nucleotide simple sequence repeats (SSRs) as indicated by a lower mean number of alleles per locus (4.5), H e (0.59), and PIC (0.54). Cross-species amplification in Corylus was demonstrated. These microsatellite markers were highly heterozygous and polymorphic and differentiated among genotypes of C. avellana irrespective of geographical origin. They will aid in fingerprinting genotypes of the european hazelnut and other Corylus species, genome mapping, and genetic diversity assessments.
Growth and development of nuts and kernels were measured every ten days in 18 cultivars of hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) from when clusters were first seen until nut maturity and drop. At harvest, shell thickness and force to penetrate the shell were determined and related to the incidence of nut weevil damage. The force to penetrate the shells increased when the nuts reached 80-90% of their final size, and increased until the kernels reached full size. During nut growth, shell hardness and kernel size were highly correlated (R2=0.921). At maturity, values of force ranged from 46.7 N in ‘Closca molla’ to 185.7 N in ‘Nocchione’. Values of nut weevil damage ranged from 0.6% (‘Merveille de Bollwiller’) to 24.4% (‘Cosford’). The force required to penetrate the shell was highly correlated with the shell thickness (R=0.945), while it was negatively correlated with the percentage of nut weevil damage at harvest (R=-0.564). Late onset of nut development was associated with a high percentage of nut weevil damage (R=0.638). Knowledge of nut development and shell hardening times is valuable information that can be used to model nut development and provide important tools for planning orchard management activities.
Significant differences were found among the 22 studied hazel cultivars (Corylus avellana L.) in their resistance to hazelnut weevil (Curculio nucum L.) which is the main pest of this crop in Europe. The study investigated the relationships between the resistance of the cultivars to the pest and the physicochemical properties of the pericarp, i.e. the lignification dynamics, changes in thickness and hardness during nut development and the rate of nutlet development. Correlation analysis showed that there was no dependence between the physicochemical properties of the pericarp and the resistance of the hazel cultivars to the hazelnut weevil. Nut development dynamics were also found to be unrelated to resistance to the pest. Laboratory feeding experiments showed that during the initial feeding phase and at the time the insect searches for an oviposition site, it seems to prefer cultivars with the largest nutlets. However, in the period of intensive oviposition, traits other than nutlet size seem to be decisive for the beetles choice of cultivar.
Halyomorpha halys Stål, the brown marmorated stink bug (Hemiptera: Pentatomidae), is an invasive pest with established populations in Oregon. The generalist feeding habits of H. halys suggest it has the potential to be a pest of many specialty crops grown in Oregon, including hazelnuts, Corylus avellana L. The objectives of this study were to: 1) characterize the damage to developing hazelnut kernels resulting from feeding by H. halys adults, 2) determine how the timing of feeding during kernel development influences damage to kernels, and 3) determine if hazelnut shell thickness has an effect on feeding frequency on kernels. Adult brown marmorated stink bugs were allowed to feed on developing nuts for 1-wk periods from initial kernel development (spring) until harvest (fall). Developing nuts not exposed to feeding by H. halys served as a control treatment. The degree of damage and diagnostic symptoms corresponded with the hazelnut kernels' physiological development. Our results demonstrated that when H. halys fed on hazelnuts before kernel expansion, development of the kernels could cease, resulting in empty shells. When stink bugs fed during kernel expansion, kernels appeared malformed. When stink bugs fed on mature nuts the kernels exhibited corky, necrotic areas. Although significant differences in shell thickness were observed among the cultivars, no significant differences occurred in the proportions of damaged kernels based on field tests and laboratory choice tests. The results of these studies demonstrated that commercial hazelnuts are susceptible to damage caused by the feeding of H. halys throughout the entire period of kernel development.
© 2014 Entomological Society of America.
Unlike most angiosperms, in which fertilization occurs within several days after pollination, fertilization in hazel (Corylus Spp.) is delayed by two to three and a half months. However, the female inflorescences or young fruits are too hard or lignified to be dissected according to regular paraffin sectioning technique. So, what the nature of development during the extended progamic phases of hazel remains unknown. The female inflorescence development and pollen tube growth mode during the delayed fertilization stage in hazel were investigated by improved paraffin sectioning and aniline blue staining of pollen tubes. The results showed ovaries and ovules of hazel were invisible at the time of blooming. Early ovary and ovule primordium began to form from 15 to 20 days after blooming, respectively. Integument and mature embryo sacs differentiated from the nucellus on 40th and 55th day after blooming, respectively. Pollen tubes were retarded in the bottom of the style or the pollen tube cavity (PTC, a specifical lignified cavity structure at the bottom of style for pollen tube to rest during progamic phase) for about 26 days. Then, the pollen tubes were observed to leave the PTC and began to enter the ovary. After that, a single pollen tube passed through the vicinity of the micropyle. Finally, pollen tubes turned a corner and penetrated the embryo sac through the tissue of the chalaza instead of micropyle on 52 and 55 days after blooming, respectively. The results of more in-depth information will be beneficial to better understanding of the delayed fertilization process in hazel.
[Eng]The different phenological stages of mature apricot trees (Prunus armeniaca L., cv. Búlida), drip irrigated and grown under typical Mediterranean conditions are described using the traditional nomenclature of Baggiolini and according to the BBCH General Scale. The predominant dates of each stage are indicated in days and as the number of accumulated growing degree hours (GDH). When the annual pattern of root, shoot and fruit growth was studied, alternating root and shoot growth was evident, and also a relative separation between the main periods of shoot and fruit growth, which is an advantageous characteristic when applying deficit irrigation. This study will improve apricot culture by expressing the timing of most agricultural operations on a standardised scale. [ Fra] Stades phénologiques et croissance végétative de l’abricotier. 2 Les stades phénologiques de l’abricotier (Prunus armeniaca L., cv. Búlida) irrigué en goutte à goutte et cultivé dans des conditions méditerranéennes ont eté etudiés d’après les stades de Baggliolini et le BBCH General Scale. Les dates prédominantes de chacun des stades-repères sont indiquées en degré-heure de croissance (growing degree hours, GDH). Si l’on considère la croissance annuelle des racines, des rameaux et des fruits, onconstate une croissance alternative des racines et des rameaux, et aussi une nette séparation entre le période de croissance principales des rameaux et des fruits. Cette étude va améliorer la culture de l’abricotier avec l’utilisation de l’echelle standard des téchniques agronomiques. The authors are grateful to JP Pérez-Abellán, M García, and J Soto for their assistance. The study was supported by CICYT (HID1999-951; AGL2000-0387- C05-04) grant to the authors. A. Pérez-Pastor was a recipient of a research fellowship from the Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia of Spain.
The reason leading to the high blank fruit ratio of Corylus heterophylla Fisch was elucidated by investigating pollen compatibility, ovule and embryo development. It was showed that the female flowers bloomed in the middle of April and the ovary did not develop until 1 month later. In late May, two ovules were found in an ovary. On 22 June, the ovule wall differentiated into integument, and nucellus endosperm were clearly observed in the ovules, suggesting the starting of fertilization event. Globular, heart, torpedo and cotyledon embryo developed step by step from 28 June to 12 July. The ovule grew rapidly in filled fruit since 12 July. Ovule in blank fruit ceased growth from 12 July although the full embryo with cotyledon could be observed. The blank fruit could be distinguished from the filled one for its undeveloped ovule and large amount of parenchyma. There was no significant difference in ovary size between the filled and empty nuts, but the weight of blank nut was only about one half of the filled one. It is concluded that formation of blank fruit of C. heterophylla Fisch is closely related to embryo abortion, but not incompatibility between the pollen and stigma.
This study was carried out in Samsun during a 2-year period to examine the relationship between reproductive and yield loses in the ‘Tombul’ and ‘Palaz’ hazelnut cultivars. In hazelnuts, male and female flowering occur in winter after the breaking of inflorescence dormancy. In the present study, growth of the ovary of the hazelnut started in April and continued until mid-June. At the time of flowering the ovary did not form. The ovule growth showed a rapid increase at the end of June. Change in the diameter of the ovary and ovule with time showed a simple sigmoid growth curve. Fertilization occurred during the period between mid-May and the beginning of June, namely, 3.5–5 months after pollination. At this time, the diameter of the nut was 9.54 mm. Twin kernel was not observed. The ratio of double kernels was close to zero. The time period from fertilization to harvest was 89 days in 1997 and 96 days in 1998 for Tombul cultivar. For the Palaz, this period was 84 days in 1997 and 86 days in 1998. The rate of pistillate flower clusters which dropped in April–May was more than those dropped in June–August.
The place and time of European hazel (Corylusavellana L.) domestication is not clear, although it was already cultivated by the Romans. In this study, 75 accessions from Spain,
Italy, Turkey, and Iran were analysed using 13 chloroplast microsatellite to investigate the origin and diffusion of hazelnut
cultivars. Four loci were polymorphic and identified a total of four different chlorotypes. Their distribution was not uniform
in each geographical group. The most frequent chlorotype A was present in all groups. An increase in chlorotype number and
diversity from Spain eastward to Italy, Turkey, and Iran was observed. Results suggest that some spread of cultivars occurred
from East to West and that hazelnut cultivation was not introduced from the eastern Mediterranean basin into Spain and southern
Italy by Greeks or Arabs. Moreover, the results suggest considerable exchange of germplasm between Italy and Spain, probably
by the Romans. Hazelnut appears to have been domesticated independently in three areas: the Mediterranean, Turkey, and Iran.
The Corylus genus of the family Betulaceae represents a diverse group of useful woody plants, ranging from small, multi-stemmed shrubs
to tall, stately trees, all of which produce edible nuts. The most widely known and well-studied species is the European hazelnut
of commerce, Corylus avellana L., with most of the others being underutilized and underrepresented in world germplasm collections, breeding, and research
efforts. Hazelnuts are a very low-input, high-value crop adapted to a wide variety of climates and soils, the production of
which has many economic and ecological benefits. In addition, recent epidemiological and clinical studies have provided strong
evidence that frequent tree nut consumption, including hazelnuts, is associated with favorable plasma lipid profiles and a
reduced risk of heart disease, cancers, strokes, inflammation, and other chronic health issues. These positive economic, environmental,
and health factors are driving increased production and market demand worldwide, with production acreage increasing nearly
14% over the past 10 years. Until only recently, world production has been based entirely on traditional selections made from
local populations, whose exact origins have been largely lost with antiquity. As such, genetic diversity remains high and
rapid genetic gains are expected through breeding. In addition, the interspecific hybridization potential within Corylus is significant, and wild species can contribute important characteristics toward developing improved and more widely adapted
new cultivars to meet increasing demand for high-quality nut production, as well as for ornamentals and other end uses. In
this chapter, Corylus genetic resources and breeding potential are discussed, stressing the need to conserve and study the wild species, some of
which are threatened or may be experiencing unchecked genetic erosion.
Three native hazelnut varieties from Turkey, namely, Tombul, Palaz, and Badem, were examined for their proximate composition, minerals, and fatty acid profiles, as well as polyphenol oxidase (PPO), peroxidase (POD), and lipase activities during fruit development stages (early stage: ES, middle stage: MS, and harvest stage: HS). Proximate composition varied considerably (dry weight basis) from ES to MS. Fat was the predominant component at all stages and showed increasing trends. Six essential minerals (calcium, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, and zinc) were analysed (dry weight basis). Consuming recommended daily amount of 42.5 g hazelnut at HS supplies 23.3–25.0% of phosphorus, 11.6–18.1% of magnesium, 7.0–18.9% of iron, 4.9–8.9% of zinc, 5.1–5.7% of calcium, and 5.1–5.3% of potassium for recommended dietary allowances or adequate intake for adults. Significant (P < 0.05) decreasing trends were found in all mineral contents from early development to maturity, with some exceptions. Sixteen fatty acids were identified, among which 18:1ω9 was by far the most predominant one, followed by 18:2ω6, 16:0, and 18:0. As expected, total monounsaturated fatty acids constituted the main group of fatty acids ranging from 75.51 to 81.07% in Tombul, from 78.21 to 82.71% in Palaz, and from 73.69 to 81.65% in Badem through the maturation stages. In contrast, total polyunsaturated fatty acids showed decreasing trends from ES to HS. No significant changes (P > 0.05) were observed in total saturated fatty acids at different maturation stages. Tombul variety had the lowest PPO activity compared to those of Palaz and Badem. Badem showed highest POD activity compared to Tombul and Palaz at three stages of maturation and significant decreases (P < 0.05) in all hazelnut samples were observed in POD activity from ES to HS. No lipase activity was detected in any hazelnut samples at ES and MS, except in Badem at MS. In contrast, lipase activity was detected in all hazelnut samples at HS. These results suggest that some proximate compositions, minerals, and fatty acids gave good indications during fruit development stages, whereas enzymatic activities of PPO, POD, and lipase behaved differently among varieties and fruit development stages.
Knowledge of plant–weather relationships can improve crop management, resulting in higher quality and more stable crop yields. The annual timing of spring phenophases in mid-latitudes is largely a response to temperature, and reflects the thermal conditions of previous months. The effect of air temperature on the variability of hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.) phenophases (leafing, flowering) was investigated. Meteorological and phenological data for five cultivars were analysed over the periods 1969–1979 (P1) and 1994–2007 (P2) in Maribor, Slovenia. Phenological data series were correlated strongly to the temperature of the preceding months (R
2: 0.64–0.98) and better correlated to daily maximum and mean temperatures than to daily minimum temperatures. About 75% of phenophases displayed a tendency towards earlier appearance and a shorter flowering duration during P2, which could be explained by the significant temperature changes (+0.3°C/decade) from December to April between 1969 and 2007. An increase in air temperature of 1°C caused an acceleration in leafing by 2.5–3.9 days, with flowering showing higher sensitivity since a 1°C increase promoted male flowering by 7.0–8.8 days and female flowering by 6.3–8.9 days. The average rate of phenological change per degree of warming (days earlier per +1°C) did not differ significantly between P1 and P2. An estimation of chilling accumulation under field conditions during 1993–2009, between 1 November and 28 February, showed that all four of these months contributed approximately similar amounts of accumulated chilling units. The growing degree days (GDD) to flowering were calculated by an estimated base temperature of 2°C and 1 January as a starting date, given the most accurate calculations. In general, thermal requirements were greater in P2 than in P1, although this difference was not significant. Longer-time series data extended to other agricultural and wild plants would be helpful in tracking possible future changes in phenological responses to local climate.
Owing to the absence of the ovary when the female inflorescence blooms, hazel pollen tubes show an obvious intermittent growth pattern, which has an important impact on the number of fruits per cluster and yield, but little is known about the mechanisms governing this process. Spray treatments of Ca²⁺ and Ca²⁺-ATPase activator 5-aminolevulinic acid (ALA) in field experiment showed that Ca²⁺ treatments inhibited pistillate inflorescence drop and produced more fruits, while the effects of ALA treatments was just opposite to that of calcium treatments. Highly accumulated Ca²⁺ was observed at the rear part of the stigma and in the ovary primordial cell layers. Under in vitro culture conditions, pollen germination ratio and tube length were promoted and inhibited by Ca²⁺ and ALA, respectively. ALA treatment reduced the Ca²⁺ concentration in pollen tube, which was not conducive to the formation of a tip-focused Ca²⁺ gradient in pollen tube. The hazel genome encoded 17 Ca²⁺-ATPases, including 14 auto-inhibited Ca²⁺-ATPases and three ER-type Ca²⁺-ATPases. Hazel Ca²⁺-ATPase family proteins, including 11 common transmembrane domains, were highly conserved. Of 17 Ca²⁺-ATPases, qRT-PCR analysis showed that ChACA1 and ChECA2 were highly expressed in pollen tubes. In the range of 0–1.3 mM Ca²⁺, Ca²⁺ fluorescence intensity in pollen tubes, expression of ChACA1 continued to rise simultaneously, and they reached their maximum at 1.3 mM Ca²⁺, then declined at 1.6 mM Ca²⁺, which was consistent and inconsistent with changing trends of pollen tube length and ChECA2 respectively. Analysis of enzyme activity in pollen tubes showed that Ca²⁺-ATPase activity was promoted by both Ca²⁺ and ALA treatments significantly. Our findings suggested that ChACA1 may act as a key regulator of pollen germination and pollen tube development in hazel, and provide new insight into the mechanisms of unique pollen tube intermittent growth in hazel.
Phenological stages of the “Pero de Cehegín” (Malus domestica Borkh) are described here according to the BBCH scale. Based on this general scale, the phenology of “Pero de Cehegín” showed 8 of the 10 main stages (0–9): bud development, leaf development, shoot development, inflorescence emergence, flowering, fruit development, fruit maturity and senescence. The correct identification of the phenological stages in plants is greatly important for the characterization of the variety, the management of the crop and the management of diseases and plagues as well. Thus, this study will provide knowledge and will help in the dissemination of knowledge of this peculiar apple variety among growers and scientists.
Almond is the most important tree nut grown commercially worldwide. It is cultivated for its edible kernel of high nutritional and economic values.
From an agronomic standpoint and thanks to international breeding
programs, several commercial cultivars were released mainly for better
kernel quality, self-compatibility, and delayed blooming time to avoid
frost risks. Almond phenology also attracted the interest of many
researchers but no detailed and specific scale was conceived. To
standardize phenological observations among scientists and growers on one hand and accurately schedule timing of agronomic managements on the bother hand, a precise phenological scale is needed. To date, BBCH (Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt Chemische Industrie) phenological scale is the most accurate and the widely accepted. In this research work, we characterized almond phenological growth stages using the BBCH scale.
Eight of the ten principal developmental stages (0 − 9) from BBCH scale
were codified and described. The almond principal growth stages were
categorized into reproductive and vegetative phenology. Vegetative
phenology included: bud development (stage 0), leaf development (stage
1), shoot development (stage 3), and senescence and beginning of the rest
period (stage 9). The reproductive phenology encompassed the four
following stages: inflorescence emergence (stage 5), flowering (stage 6),
fruit development (stage 7), and fruit maturity (stage 8). To better
define these phenological growth stages, illustrative pictures were
provided along with codification and description. In addition, we used
phenological records over three growing seasons from the main production
regions of northern Morocco to draw a schematic representation of thechronological progression of principal growth stages in five widely grown
almond cultivars: 'Ferraduel', 'Ferragnès', 'Fournat de Brézenaud',
'Marcona', and 'Tuono'. Some agronomical managements intended to be
applicable in an almond orchard were discussed.
Phenological studies are important to understand the influence of climate dynamics on vegetative and reproductive growth of pineapple. In this study, 10 principal stages (0-9) and 48 secondary stages in the entire growth cycle of pineapple were accurately detailed using the extended Biologische Bundesantalt, Bundessortenamt and Chemische Industrie scale. This study focused on the entire flower and fruit development stages of pineapple and presented the correlation between phenophase and temperature. Normative descriptions can facilitate the implementation of production management measures and guidance for scientific experimental design.
The worldwide increase in the hazelnut demand and cultivated area are explained by the rising importance of this species for the food industry. However, no simulation models are available to support the analysis of the impact of environmental conditions and management practices on hazelnut production. This paper presents two modelling solutions to simulate hazelnut tree growth and development under potential and water-limiting conditions, partly based on generic approaches used in tree modelling and on new modules specifically developed to address hazelnut tree peculiarities. The two solutions differed in the simulation of the photosynthetic rate, in one case reproduced using a Farquhar-type model (gross photosynthesis), whereas a radiation use efficiency approach (net photosynthesis) was used in the other. The coherence of simulation outputs at leaf, organ and plant level and the models responsiveness to weather conditions was verified and discussed with literature data, and the performances of the modelling solutions were evaluated using experimental data collected between 2002 and 2013 growing seasons in Piedmont region (northern Italy). Results highlighted the reliability of both the solutions in reproducing phenological development (mean relative root mean squared error, RRMSE = 8.61%), as well as the time trend of specific leaf area (RRMSE = 26.32%) and leaf area index (RRMSE = 18.46%). Also, the simulation of the temporal dynamics of soil water content and temperature along the soil profile led to outputs very close to observations (RRMSE = 14.02% and 10.32%, respectively). The solution based on gross photosynthesis resulted slightly more accurate in reproducing the year-to-year fluctuation in yields (RRMSE = 25.03%) compared to the one based on net photosynthesis (RRMSE = 30.40%). These results proved the suitability of these modelling solutions to be used as simulation engines within a variety of applications, ranging from decision support systems for the management of the orchard to complex yield forecasting systems.
In recent years, a growing interest to widen the cherry (Prunus avium L.) production calendar results in cultivation out of the traditional cultivation areas. Since cherry has high chilling requirements, this often causes erratic cropping related to phenological alterations. However, appropriate phenological characterisation and comparison is hampered, due to the lack of a consensus phenological scale for this species. In this work, we have characterised flower development in sweet cherry, framing it in the BBCH scale. For this purpose, the phenology of two cherry cultivars has been characterized over 2 consecutive years and adapted to the BBCH code, and flower development has been framed within the principal growth stages of this code. This provides a unified standardised approach for phenological comparative studies.
Corylus heterophylla Fisch typically produces high ratio of blank nut in Northeast China. Structure changes of female flower cluster and fruit were observed and patterns of disodium fluorescein transport into ovule and funiculus from fruit stalks were studied in the year of 2010–2012. The results indicated that early ovary and ovule of hazelnut were visible on about 20 and 45 days after blooming respectively, and the sizes of two ovules within an ovary were equal prior to 55 days after blooming, then the differences in ovule size became obviously along with development of the fruit. Ovules within blank fruit had little changes in size and maintained 2.0–4.0 mm in length until harvest. However, the ovary size of blank was much closed to that of filled one during the whole fruit development stage. For filled nut, disodium fluorescein transport obstacle occurred at junction point of ovules and funiculus and led to the abortion of one ovule from 60 to 90 days after blooming, while bright fluoresce could be observed in funiculus until near harvest. For the blank fruit, fluorescein transport obstacle happened at junction point of ovules and funiculus first on 55 day after blooming, then the funiculus failed to execute the transport function from 60 to 90 days after blooming. In conclusion, transport obstacle occurred at junction point of ovules and funiculus first, and then happened in funiculus, and these phenomena were closely related with blank fruit formation in C. heterophylla Fisch.
The phenological growth stages of Hayward kiwifruit vines are described using the BBCH scale. Detailed descriptions of principal growth stages for bud, leaf and shoot development, inflorescence emergence, flowering, fruit development, maturity of fruit, and senescence, and 34 secondary growth stages are provided. Some practical applications of the BBCH scale for kiwifruit orchard management are discussed.
Macadamia is a widely-grown tree crop that produces edible kernels with high oil content. The macadamia kernel is the single embryo of the fruit, and so factors that influence fruit set and embryo development are critical regulators of yield and quality. This review summarises over 75 years of research on floral induction, floral structure, pollen transfer, the breeding system and fruit development of macadamia, highlighting features such as insect pollination and partial self-incompatibility that limit orchard productivity and affect kernel quality.
The nut weevil Curculio nucum (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) is responsible for high yield losses in several hazelnut-growing areas of Europe and Turkey, if not regularly controlled using pesticides. The resistance of hazelnut varieties to the nut weevil is known but poorly investigated so far. Thus a 2-year study was carried out to investigate factors affecting C. nucum attacks on two cultivars [Tonda Gentile delle Langhe (TGL), Ennis] and four selections (Daria, 101, B6, L35) in a 15-year-old orchard of northwestern Italy. Nut developmental stages and shell characteristics, such as hardness and thickness, were measured and correlated to the biological cycle of the nut weevil and to the damage by its larvae. During the 2-year sampling, nut weevil adults were collected on all cultivars and selections, but in greater quantities on TGL and Daria, and in lower quantities on 101 and B6. In 2005, by female dissection, mature eggs were observed from late June, when the mean temperature exceeded 18°C. Differences between cultivars and selections were found in nut and kernel development, and in shell hardening; in particular, the kernel development was directly related with the shell hardness. At harvest, the damage varied on average from 2.57% in cultivar TGL to 51.84% in selection 101 of total nuts harvested, so independently of the numbers of the collected weevil adults. These two varieties were the earliest and the latest in kernel development and shell hardening, respectively. Therefore, the susceptibility to nut weevil attacks was strictly related to shell hardening; in fact, a rapid hardening of the shell can hamper the oviposition of C. nucum females. By contrast, no correlation was found between shell thickness and damage at harvest.
The detailed crop specific descriptions of the phenological growth stages of grapevine are supplementary to the general BBCH-scale. It will be instrumental in standardising the national and international experimentation in viticulture. The phenological development of the grapevine is divided into growth phases (principal growth stages 0–9) and each growth phase is subdivided into growth steps (secondary growth stages 0–9). A two-digit code is attached to each growth stage. The description and coding of the phenological growth stages covers the period between dormancy and leaf fall.
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L'échelle BBCH Pour le Maïs
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