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An exploration of coronavirus-related online antisemitism in Hungary using quantitative topic model and qualitative discourse analysis

Authors:
  • ELTE University Faculty of Social Science/ELTE Research Center for Computational Social Science

Abstract

Soon after the outbreak of the pandemic, antisemitism connected to the coronavirus appeared in the world. In our research we analyzed a large Hungarian online text corpus from December 1, 2019, to July 10, 2020 to examine whether coronavirus-related antisemitism was present in the Hungarian online space, and if so, what its content was. We differentiated between two layers of communication: the professionalized layer represented by online articles, and the lay one represented by comments and posts. After providing the conceptual background regarding conspiracy theories and conspiratorial- and coronavirus-related antisemitism, we present the mixed-method approach that we employed. This approach includes quantitative LDA topic models, human annotation, and the qualitative analysis of various discourses. Our research indicates that coronavirus-related antisemitism appeared in the Hungarian online space at the very beginning of the pandemic. However, at this time, until July, it was present almost solely at the lay level. Its content was mainly related to various tropes (conspiracy theories) about Jews. However, additional content was also identified. Based on our results and international examples, we propose a comprehensive typology that proved to be a suitable means of analyzing coronavirus-related antisemitic content.
INTERSECTIONS. EAST EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIETY AND POLITICS, 7(3): 80–100.

An exploration of coronavirus-related online
antisemitism in Hungary using quantitative
topic model and qualitative discourse analysis
[barna.ildiko@tatk.elte.hu] (Eötvös Loránd University, Faculty of Social Sciences, Research Center for
Computational Social Science (RC2S2))
[knap.arpad@tatk.elte.hu] (Eötvös Loránd University, Faculty of Social Sciences, Research Center for
Computational Social Science (RC2S2))
Abstract
-

-
 


         

    




          
-
-

Keywords:   

1. Introduction

       


      
-
Intersections. EEJSP
7(3): 80–100.
DOI: 10.17356/ieejsp.v7i3.801
http://intersections.tk.mta.hu
An exploration of coronavirus-related online antisemitism in Hungary
INTERSECTIONS. EAST EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIETY AND POLITICS, 7(3): 80–100.

1




-

      

           
          
           

      


 
-


 
   








-
-



2. Conceptual and social context
2.1 Conspiracy theories


-
        

              

 
INTERSECTIONS. EAST EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIETY AND POLITICS, 7(3): 80–100.


 


           
-

-
-

        
     




-

2.2 Conspiratorial antisemitism
     
-
            




           




          -
        




-
tocols of the Elders of Zion



           

An exploration of coronavirus-related online antisemitism in Hungary
INTERSECTIONS. EAST EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIETY AND POLITICS, 7(3): 80–100.

 




Der ewige Jude 

-




     


  
-



    -

-



  


-
-








2.3 Coronavirus-related antisemitism

       
          
         
 
INTERSECTIONS. EAST EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIETY AND POLITICS, 7(3): 80–100.
             



          





-
-

-



Arbeit macht frei


        
-

          



Arbeit macht frei-

3


-

  -
  

-
       -


       

 
 -
  


 European Commission, 2019.
An exploration of coronavirus-related online antisemitism in Hungary
INTERSECTIONS. EAST EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIETY AND POLITICS, 7(3): 80–100.
3. Corpus and methodology



 
-



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              
  


   
Kuruc.info-
 HVG.hu  Facebook

Kuruc.info.
 
 
INTERSECTIONS. EAST EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIETY AND POLITICS, 7(3): 80–100.
      





    
         


         
10
  

3.2 Topic models


  
11
   


          

  

     


-

    



 

10             

 




11 


An exploration of coronavirus-related online antisemitism in Hungary
INTERSECTIONS. EAST EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIETY AND POLITICS, 7(3): 80–100.
3.3 Annotation
        



  
            
       
       -









-



     


 






13



-
-




4. Results
-

 
13 
88 
INTERSECTIONS. EAST EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIETY AND POLITICS, 7(3): 80–100.
       



-









 






-
-

 



-








-
    -


  

        
 
An exploration of coronavirus-related online antisemitism in Hungary
INTERSECTIONS. EAST EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIETY AND POLITICS, 7(3): 80–100.
 
  

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          
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      
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      
kuruc.info, and nemzeti.net
origo.hu, vadha-
jtasok.hupestisracok.hu



 -

-



 
-


 
INTERSECTIONS. EAST EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIETY AND POLITICS, 7(3): 80–100.






4.2 A typology for analyzing coronavirus-related antisemitic content

-
            



    



-
  



17

Jews created or engineered the coronavirus or contributed to its development





Jews spread the coronavirus










       
17 
An exploration of coronavirus-related online antisemitism in Hungary
INTERSECTIONS. EAST EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIETY AND POLITICS, 7(3): 80–100.
      


-
-
-
libsi
18

         
-
 


-

Jews as victims

     -


                

 
-



         

  

-


-
             -


        



-

18 libsibibsi 
 
INTERSECTIONS. EAST EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIETY AND POLITICS, 7(3): 80–100.

-


     





-



        

          
     





      




To overcome or destroy their enemies








     


Coronavirus as Jews’ revenge on non-Jews
       


An exploration of coronavirus-related online antisemitism in Hungary
INTERSECTIONS. EAST EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIETY AND POLITICS, 7(3): 80–100.
5. Conclusion

-

-





-


-






  








     
-
-


 

     

            


Acknowledgement
          

 
INTERSECTIONS. EAST EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIETY AND POLITICS, 7(3): 80–100.

-
ciety
      .


     Coronavirus Crisis Elevates Antisemitic, Racist
Tropes 

          
   -

-
man-

       


         
History, 66
           




of Human Rights 
-


-

Text mining 

  
Learning Research, 3



, 

          
protester’s Nazi resistance comparison -
 

An exploration of coronavirus-related online antisemitism in Hungary
INTERSECTIONS. EAST EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIETY AND POLITICS, 7(3): 80–100.


, 
             -
      , 26  



-
   -
-

           .
  

        -
           
 -


Review, 
         
-
ies, 23
British Journalism Review, 31


         , 2 


,    



 



, 
          

, 12
-
, 
-
chology, 2
 
INTERSECTIONS. EAST EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIETY AND POLITICS, 7(3): 80–100.
-
, 


Journal of
, 

Anti-semitism and the young elite in Hungary-

-
, 


, 4
-


Journal of Democracy, 
.



           


       
 -

     
, 

-
  



-
, 26

        
(Conspiracy theories, fake news and superstition in public opinion in Hungary) 
 -


  
Democracies 

An exploration of coronavirus-related online antisemitism in Hungary
INTERSECTIONS. EAST EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIETY AND POLITICS, 7(3): 80–100.

          




Rou-

        -
    -
      ,   

-
portunity-

  Anti-
, 4
-
 , 26

   
, 43

-

, 113


   .


 -


        -
navirus to cops, Jews, FBI says   -
 

How Bill Gates became the voodoo doll of Covid conspiracies

Historian: Comparing Idaho’s Coronavirus Restrictions
     -
 
INTERSECTIONS. EAST EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIETY AND POLITICS, 7(3): 80–100.
 


Concentration Camp -

.
-

Coronavirus: How German protesters are trivializing Na-
zi-era persecution-


at-

          
       

    

-



            


     

-




   



            
-



      

           

An exploration of coronavirus-related online antisemitism in Hungary
INTERSECTIONS. EAST EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIETY AND POLITICS, 7(3): 80–100.
-

           

           



            
-

          -
     
-
 

       

     -



-




            
    Reuters -

-
         -
-

      
vagy sem-

Republican compares coronavirus lockdown to Holocaust and
  -
 -

-
ural selection

Iran’s regime pushes antisemitic conspiracies about coro-
navirus -

100 
INTERSECTIONS. EAST EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF SOCIETY AND POLITICS, 7(3): 80–100.
-
-



women, to lure Arabs-

    Conspiracy theory that Jews created virus spreads on
social media, ADL says-

     


    
  -

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The co-occurrence of COVID-19 conspiracy theories (CCT) and fear of the coronavirus (FCV) can be linked to how safe people feel and how much they endorse vaccinations. School teachers were one of the vaccination priority groups in Poland. We conducted three cross-sectional studies (N1 = 1006; N2 = 1689; N3 = 627) to find out the potential interactive effects of CCT belief and FCV in predicting sense of safety (SoS; Studies 1-3), opinions about vaccinations efficacy (Studies 2-3) and endorsement of vaccinations of children (Study 3) among school teachers. In all three studies, the belief in CCT was related to lower SoS only when FCV was low. For low CCT belief, although the belief in vaccination efficacy was higher than for CCT endorsers, it was unrelated to FCV. However, for high and average CCT belief, FCV was linked to belief in vaccination efficacy. FCV was positively related to acceptance of vaccinating children on all levels of CCT endorsement. The results are discussed in light of the available literature and their potential use in public health.
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Belief in conspiracy theories about Jews is a prototypical example of how a naïve theory can serve as a universal explanation of “all the bad things happening in society.” Such a theory often arises in times of political unrest that tend to breed feelings of uncertainty in politics and a lack of control over politics. As both uncertainty (a sense-making deficit) and lack of control (an agency deficit) can relate to conspiracy-based antisemitism, this research examines which of the two processes plays a pivotal role in the belief in Jewish conspiracy. Specifically, we hypothesize that political uncontrollability, rather than political uncertainty, is a critical factor in triggering conspiracy theories about groups. In Study 1 (N = 812) we found that lack of control, but not uncertainty, in the political domain predicted belief in Jewish conspiracy, and subsequently led to increased discriminatory attitudes toward Jews. The results of longitudinal Study 2 (N = 476) revealed that only political uncontrollability led to an increase in conspiracy-related stereotypes of Jews. In Study 3 (N = 172) we found that experimental induction of political uncontrollability increased belief in Jewish, German, and Russian conspiracy, whereas induction of political uncertainty did not. Finally, Study 4 (N = 370) replicated this pattern in another cultural context with more general measures of uncontrollability and uncertainty. It was lack of personal control, rather than uncertainty, that increased belief in Jewish conspiracy – and indirectly predicted other conspiracy theories. Our findings consistently support the critical role of political uncontrollability, not uncertainty, in triggering a conspiracy theory of Jews.
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This paper addresses the global phenomenon of anti-Soros conspiracy theories, focusing on the Central European region between 2017 and 2019. It surveys how these theories have been employed by two populist leaders, Viktor Orbán in Hungary and Róbert Fico in Slovakia. It further discusses these leaders’ motivations for developing conspiracy narratives and the channels through which they spread them. The author argues that the usage and effectiveness of anti-Soros conspiracy narratives in influencing political supporters and the general population has been determined by the type of crisis during which leaders have found themselves and the degree of concentration of power in their hands respectively. The article is distinguished from most of the academic literature on conspiracy theories by focusing on ‘mainstream’ populist leaders, instead of extremist political parties or authoritarian regimes that often use conspiracy theories as well. Limited number of free copies is available via: https://www.tandfonline.com/eprint/K52DERGYESTBPSMIHTDK/full?target=10.1080/13569775.2020.1781332
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The more than a million, mostly Muslim, arrivals in the European Union in recent years have given mainstream politicians an opportunity to generate and exploit the public racist, xenophobic and ultra-nationalist urges of the sort that had previously been the exclusive preserve of the extreme right. This successful vote-getting strategy hingeS on disassociating ethno-religious hatred, which Islamophobia is, from its most stigmatized example in Europe: antisemitism. Nowhere has this process been clearer than in Hungary, infamous for ‘solving’ the migration crisis by erecting a wire fence along its borders. Viktor Orbán and his ruling Fidesz party have stolen the racist thunder of the far-right Jobbik party, but without the latter’s once open antisemitism. Jobbik has responded by also seemingly renouncing antisemitism, ignoring the protests of its more die-hard neo-Nazi supporters. Kalmar’s article focuses on the government’s use of a conspiracy theory about the Jewish financier George Soros as an example of exploiting antisemitism while claiming to oppose it. It suggests that the process of rejecting antisemitism, if disingenuously, in order to legitimize Islamophobic racism in Hungary is a useful model for examining similar processes in much of the Euro-Atlantic world.
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The Czech Republic is considered to be a country with low levels of antisemitism. This does not mean, however, that anti-Jewish attitudes have disappeared from Czech society. While it is not an immediate threat, the phenomenon persists in certain specific political and cultural circles. The first section of this article examines the major characteristics of Czech antisemitism through statistics, polls, and other indicators. The second section explores the ideological sources and visual forms of Czech antisemitism. Unlike Western Europe and the United States, the Czech Republic faces challenges involving more traditional forms of antisemitism, such as conspiracy theories and even the blood-libel, which do not respect partisan political divisions and often lead to unexpected alliances.