Content uploaded by Bolajoko Ibiyemi Malomo
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Bolajoko Ibiyemi Malomo on Dec 27, 2021
Content may be subject to copyright.
SecurityandSafety Reviews.2(2), 87-92, 2018
Psycho-Social Correlates of Tolerance for Disagreement among Road Traffic Officers
on Nigerian Highways.
Bolajoko I. Malomo1, Samuel E. Oladipo2, Sikiru, A. Balogun³
1. Dept. of Psychology, University of Lagos, Nigeria.
2. Dept. of Counselling Psychology, Tai Solarin University of Education, Ogun State.
3. Federal Road Safety Corp Academy, Udi, Enugu.
Corresponding email: bolajokomalomo@yahoo.com
Abstract: This study investigated age, gender, self-esteem and job locus of control as
correlates of tolerance for disagreement among 458 randomly selected road traffic officers in
Nigeria. Though disagreement between road traffic officers and road users occur on a daily
basis, minimal research attention has been paid to it; hence the need for this study.
Participants’ age ranged between 20-35years (M=27.84; SD=1.98); married participants were
47 and never married were 411. Lowest academic qualification of participants was Ordinary
National Diploma, while the highest was Master’s degree. Validated scales were used for
data collection and data collected were analysed with appropriate test statistics using version
21 of the SPSS statistical software. Results suggested significant positive correlations
between self-esteem (r = 0.221, p<0.01), job locus of control (r = 0.141, p<0.01) and
tolerance for disagreement. However, age and gender of participants did not show any
significant influence on their tolerance for disagreement. These results suggest that
identification of psycho-social variables among potential road traffic officers will aid relevant
1
agencies in introducing pre-intervention programs as a post screening measure for traffic
officers.
Keywords: Psycho-social, tolerance for disagreement, road traffic officers, Nigerian
highways.
INTRODUCTION
“To most road users, Vehicle Inspection Officers popularly known as VIO and those
of the Federal Road Safety Commission, FRSC are enemies on the highways for
obvious reasons” (Zidok, 2014)
The above quote presumably describes the relationship between a high percentage of
road users and road traffic officers in Nigeria. This is not unconnected with the demands that
road traffic officers make on road users regarding stipulated safety standards required to
ensure safety of the road users. Reports have been made concerning verbal aggression or
physical violence (Uildriks & van Reenen, 2003); threats (Quintal, 2015; Uildriks & van
Reenen, 2003); deaths (Mail online, 2015; Zadok, 2014; Fauna, 2015) for instance on road
traffic officers. Similarly, road traffic officers have also been guilty of attacking road users
resulting in deaths (Olatunji, Vanguard, 2012; Fauna, 2015). It is surprising therefore that
presently and to the best knowledge of the authors of this present study, there are no
empirical studies that have investigated tolerance for disagreement among road traffic
officers in Nigeria and across the globe.
Disagreements ensue basically because both the road safety officers and road users
each deny the other’s claim or point of view. When this is not properly handled, an ugly
situation may develop. Offences such as speeding beyond acceptable limits, none-use of
2
safety belts, conveying an unacceptable number of people in the vehicle at the same time and
other offences are daily being committed by drivers. In such situations, there will always be
interactions between the road traffic officers and road users whereby the road traffic officers
perform their responsibilities with the intention of ensuring that traffic rules and regulations
are obeyed. As affirmed by Teven, McCroskey and Richmond (2009), interactions between
people in a relationship more often than not leads to disagreement although disagreement
may not necessarily lead to destructive consequences and may in fact be constructive (Coser,
1956; Deutsch, 1973 in Teven et al. 2009).
Disagreement has been defined as “a difference of opinion on substantive or
procedural matters” (Knutson et al., 1978). This study embarks on investigating the
relationship between psycho-demographic variables of age, gender, self-esteem and job locus
of control and tolerance for disagreement among road traffic officers. As at the time of this
present study, an online search of literature on the correlates of tolerance for disagreement
among road traffic officers did not yield any result. A search in literature for studies on
tolerance for disagreement in traffic situations produced numerous articles relating to stress
among traffic officers, specifically police officers. This is believed to be a major gap in
literature because road traffic officers and road users are constantly interacting with each
other on a daily basis on the road and one would have expected that at least a few research
work would have been done in this regard.
Road traffic officers are inundated with challenges typical of on-road driving
situations. Long hours of patrolling the highways and major roads in the cities can be a
source of low tolerance for disagreement due to stress. The development of stress (Deb,
Chakraborty, Chatterjee and Srivastava, 2008; Collins & Gibbs, 2003) by road traffic officers
have been investigated extensively. Several other variables that have been investigated
3
extensively include: exposure to noise (Sliman, Ibrahim & Ahmed, 2015) and pollution
(Kamal, Qamar, Anwar & Malik, 2014). Additionally, these studies investigated Police traffic
officers but none investigated other agencies that monitor and enforce road traffic rules and
regulations.
The possibility for road traffic officers and road users to express different perspectives
on compliance to traffic rules and regulations is high. Thus, this may increase the likelihood
for low tolerance and eventually a disagreement between the two groups. Tolerance is a
personal attribute that explains the level of people’s positive or negative disposition to the
views of others. When the views of an individual are opposed to those of others, it leads to
disagreement especially so when the threshold for tolerance is low. The continued interaction
between road traffic officers and road users will be a recurring event because the possibility
of the commission of traffic violations and offences on a daily basis all over the world will be
high.
In Nigeria, majority of drivers disrespect traffic rules and regulations (Maduagwu,
1998). If the road traffic officers are to perform their role as law enforcers, then disagreement
with road users may be inevitable because road users commit offences regularly with reasons
given for such offences.
By investigating tolerance for disagreement among road traffic officers, the
management of the lead agency for road safety will be able to utilise the findings of the
investigation for recruitment and selection processes. Ultimately, this may ensure that
officers that possess acceptable level of tolerance for disagreement will be selected for
employment and for those whose tolerance for disagreement is low, appropriate intervention
strategies can be developed. The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between
psycho-demographic variables and tolerance for disagreement. The psychological variables
4
consist of job locus of control and self-esteem, while the demographic variables are age and
gender.
Tolerance for disagreement
The construct, Tolerance for Disagreement was developed by Knutson, McCroskey,
Knutson and Hurt, (1978) and represents the personality trait that endures throughout life
span in individuals (Knutson, et al., 1978). Basically, it was developed to reveal the reasons
why some individuals are more prone to disagreements than others. It is a common
phenomenon to experience disagreements in social, political (Testa, Hibbing & Ritchie,
2014) as well as in business (Richmond & McCroskey, 1979) relationships. Tolerance for
disagreement has been studied in organizational settings to understand its relationship with
employee satisfaction (Richmond and McCroskey, 1979). This is because in organisational
settings, interaction is a common occurrence and where two or more people are associated in
a relationship, disagreement may be unavoidable.
When road traffic officers apprehend road users for committing traffic offences, the
approach utilised by the traffic officers to communicate with the traffic offenders may
determine the onset of disagreement between the two parties. In this case, tolerance for
disagreement entails the level of endurance exhibited by the traffic officer towards the
opinion of the road user regarding the offence committed.
Empirical studies on tolerance for disagreement is limited. However, the outcome of
disagreement between two individuals could either be positive or negative depending on the
level of tolerance for disagreement (Richmond & McCroskey, 1979) between the parties.
The conclusion by McCroskey and Wheeless (1976) is that disagreement can be amicably
resolved when the degree of “affinity” between the disagreeing parties is increased. The
result obtained in this study will fill a gap in traffic literature where studies on the level of
tolerance for disagreement possessed by road traffic officers is sparse. Additionally, the
5
findings of this study will serve as reference point for other researchers who may be willing
to investigate the correlates of tolerance for disagreement among road traffic officers. The
benefits of the outcome of this study will be far reaching because if individual level of
tolerance for disagreement vary, the identification of predisposing variables will be of
immense contribution to knowledge.
Self-esteem
Self-esteem refers to an individual’s appraisal of his or her abilities, self-worth (Blascovich &
Tomaka, 1991), feelings and overall sense of value. Self-esteem therefore may serve as a
motivator of human behaviour and can also be perceived as the outcome of occupational
successes and interpersonal relationships (Ladipo, Malomo & Kulele-Sabiti, 2014;
Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger & Vohs (2003). According to McCrae and Costa (1988),
self-esteem is stable across situations but this is contrary to the assertion of Gergen (1971)
who muted a different opinion on the stability of the sense of worth of an individual.
One consensus however is the existence of two levels of self-esteem: high and low.
Individuals high in self-esteem have been associated with feelings of happiness (Baumeister,
et al., 2003; Harter, 1993); confidence; which motivates people to be bold enough to speak
while in a group of people and challenge group approach (Baumeister, et al., 2003); high
tolerance for criticism and utilizing non problematic communication methods (Raynes,
2001); and sense of identity and well-being, (Guindon 1994). Individuals low in self-esteem
therefore should be expected to have low tolerance for criticism and may thereby be quick to
disagree with people who share a different opinion to theirs. This assertion is reiterated by
Hamachek (1987) who concurs to the fact that individuals with low self-esteem rarely change
their opinion on issues and would rather fault other people.
6
Studies on the relationship between self-esteem and performance at work has revealed
that employees with low self-esteem are less creative, less ambitious and are unlikely to treat
other people with respect (Branden, 1993). Research results have also indicated that people
with low self-esteem will find a way of communicating their feelings. For instance,
individuals with low self-esteem communicate by yelling, bullying and are argumentative
(Raynes, 2001). This they do to hide the inadequacies they feel. Paradoxically, as revealed by
some research studies, individuals with high self-esteem who may seem to be confident may
also be critical of other people’s opinion because they believe so much in themselves. This
may reflect in their style of communication. For instance, Rosenberg (1965) reported that
self-esteem correlated positively with hostility and bullying. This may be connected to the
fact that people with high self-esteem are confident to speak up and are critical of other
people.
This present study seeks to find out if self-esteem correlates with tolerance for
disagreement. This will enable the prediction of the level of tolerance for disagreement
possessed by individuals based on their self-esteem.
Job Locus of Control
Locus of control is a term that was first credited to Rotter (1966). It is a psychological
concept that highlights the notion that individuals readily attribute internal and external
sources as being responsible for their behaviour. Locus of control represents the basis on
which people explain the source of the motivation that spurs them on to do what they do. For
instance, the occurrence of an automobile accident may be attributed to inattention on the part
of the driver (internal) or the unskilful driving of other drivers (external) (Halpent & Hill,
2010). This suggests that locus of control requires the adequate understanding of one’s
7
environment; hence, the initial perception that locus of control originated from Social
Learning Theory (Rotter, 1966; Rubin, 1993).
The connection between locus of control and social leaning theory is that the
experiences of an individual determines his or her locus of control. However, due to the
perception of one’s control of life’s events over a period of time, locus of control develops
and becomes a trait. Rotter (1966) identified and differentiated two levels of locus of control;
internal and external locus of control which can also be referred to as high and low, and it is a
variable that is measured along a continuum. Internal locus of control presupposes that
individuals high on it will exhume lasting confidence in dealing with their environment
(Kobassa & Puccetti, 1983). For instance, Grimes, Millea and Woodruff (2004); Miller,
Fitch and Marshall (2003) reported that when internal locus of control is dominant in a
person, life’s stressful situations can be successfully managed with problem-solving
strategies. External locus of control on the other hand will be dominant in an individual when
the consequences of that person’s actions are attributed to external factors such as fate or
chance and external powers (Swart, 2004). As a result, the feelings of depression (Jaffe,
1998), anger, frustration and aggression (Stevens, 2002; Perlow & Latham, 1993) develops in
individuals with external locus of control because of the hopelessness of not been able to
handle life’s situations.
Thus, individuals whose actions are attributed to external events such as stress report
higher negative moods than individuals who attribute events in their lives to be under their
control (Arsenault, Dolan & Ameringe, 1991). This affirms the association of locus of control
and personality characteristics. While personality characteristics and job locus of control have
received some attention (Darshani, 2014), research studies on job locus of control and
tolerance for disagreement is sparse.
8
Road Traffic Officers on Nigerian Highways.
The presence and services of road traffic officers on Nigerian highways are highly
essential owing to such situations as traffic logjams and non-compliance to traffic rules and
regulations by road users (Popoola, Abiola & Adeniji, 2013). This can be attributed to factors
such as bad roads, on-going road construction, upsurge in the volume of vehicles, inadequate
road network to accommodate the volume of vehicles, social and cultural trips and road user
behaviour. Research into the institutional dimensions of road safety in Nigeria is therefore
long overdue.
The functions of the FRSC are numerous. However, these functions are people-
related. In other words, the smooth interaction of the FRSC officers with the different
categories of active road users determines the successful implementation of the policies
formulated by the agency. Section 10(2) of the FRSC (Establishment Act) 2007 outlines
among other things the functions of the FRSC as: preventing road crashes, determining and
enforcing speed limits, educating drivers and other road users on the proper use of the
highways and formulating policies to promote road safety. In all of these functions,
interaction with road users is paramount because the use of the automobile and other related
means of transportation has become one of the characteristic lifestyle of modern day man.
The need to regulate vehicular movement in order to reduce road accidents was
reiterated by the Vice-President of Sierra Leone, Alhaji Sam Sumana at the 2nd West African
Road Safety Organization Conference (2010). Regulating the volume of vehicles on existing
roads is necessary because over the years, almost all countries across the globe have
witnessed an upsurge in the number of vehicles on the highways with its attendant negative
9
consequences outweighing the benefits. For example in India, economic growth and progress
enabled the purchase of vehicles by more individuals and corporate entities (Mittall, 2008).
Active Traffic Management (ATM) techniques such as variable speed limits, hard-
shoulder running and ramp-metering controller which are practiced in countries such as
Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States to reduce traffic accidents (Wikipeadia,
2013) are non-existent in Nigeria. Also, computerised system monitors, sensor loops and
electronic speed limit signs have been adopted on highways in the U.K. The installation of
these monitoring systems has reduced the rate of accidents on highways from over five
accidents a month to 1.5 accidents per month on average in those countries (Meikle, 2007). In
the absence of ATM techniques in Nigeria, traffic flow on the highways in Nigeria is left to
the management of road traffic officers and inadequate road signs that are displayed in
languages that may not be understood by all road users. These officers usually are limited in
number and work with inadequate equipments.
Low tolerance for disagreement among RTO in Nigeria may be common for the
following reasons: presence of aggressive drivers, drunk drivers, road users who break traffic
rules, kidnappers and so on. The tropical weather conditions take its toll on RTO due to
fatigue and stressful emotions. These road situations may aggravate their reduced tolerance
for disagreement with road users because people have limits above which they cannot tolerate
further discomfort (Edward, 2002). In a bid to educate road users, a disagreement may
eschew which requires the application of personal traits to deal with the situation.
Research Hypotheses
10
The following research hypotheses were tested:
1. There will be significant correlations among psycho-social variables of job locus of
control, self-esteem and tolerance for disagreement among road traffic officers.
2. Male participants will significantly score higher on tolerance for disagreement than
female participants.
3. Road traffic officers between 20-27 years of age will score significantly higher on
tolerance for disagreement than road traffic officers between 28-35years.
METHOD
Design and participants
This study utilised a survey research design. Thus, participants who volunteered to
participate in this study consisted of 458 newly recruited non-police, traffic agents who were
randomly selected during a training programme in Nigeria. The ages ranged between 20-
35years (M=27.84; SD=1.98). A total of 371 (81%) of the participants were males while 87
(19%) (M=1.19; SD=.39) were females. Married participants were 47 while single
participants were 411. Lowest academic qualification of participants was Ordinary National
Diploma, while the highest was Master’s degree.
Measures
The instruments of data collection consisted of three validated scales. The 15-item
Tolerance for Disagreement Scale developed by Teven, McCroskey and Richmond (1998);
the 10-item Self-esteem Scale developed by Rosemberg (1965) and the 17-item Job Locus of
Control Scale developed by Rotter (1966). Data collected was analysed with appropriate test
statistics using version 21 of the SPSS statistical software. The first hypothesis was analysed
11
using correlation statistic, while the second and third hypotheses were analysed using the t-
test for independent samples. by Knutson, McCroskey, Knutson and Hurt, (1978).
RESULTS
Table 1.
Summary Table of Descriptive Statistics
N % n % n %
Male 371 81 Christians 344 75.2 Hausa 108 23.6
Female 87 19 Muslims 110 24 Ibo 120 26.2
Age
20 – 27yrs Traditionalists 2 .4 Yoruba 106 23.1
28 – 35yrs Others 2 .4 Others 124 27.1
Single 411 89.7 OND 3 .7
Married 47 10.3 HND 260 56.7
Ist Degree 190 41.5
MSc 5 1.1
Hypothesis 1: There will be significant positive correlation among psycho-social variables
and tolerance for disagreement among road traffic officers.
Table 2.
Correlation matrix on all variables of study
12
Sex Age
Marita
l
status
Family
Type
Religious
affiliatio
n
Educational
.
qualificatio
n
Ethnicit
y
Tolerance
for
disagreement
Self-
esteem
Age -.198**
Marital status -.109*.139**
Family type .123** -.116*-.827**
Religious
affiliation -.184** .016 .161** -.177**
Educ qualifica -.110*.148** .038 -.011 .064
Ethnicity -.038 .025 -.142** .139** -.307** .052
Tolerance for
disagreement -.070 -.012 .109*-.066 .146** .028 -.117*
Self-esteem -.131** -.021 -.017 .026 .031 -.030 .031 .221**
Job locus of
control .004 .043 .051 -.025 .171** .039 -.139** .141** .103*
**Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2- tailed)
The first hypothesis which tested the significant positive correlations between psycho-
social variables and tolerance for disagreement indicated significant and positive correlations.
Self-esteem correlated positively (r = 0.221, p<0.01) with tolerance for disagreement which
implies that the higher the level of one’s self-esteem, the higher the individual will most
likely exhibit high tolerance for disagreement. Job locus of control also correlated positively
(r = 0.141, p<0.01) with tolerance for disagreement which implies that the more an individual
perceives that his job is influenced by external factors, the higher will be his level of
tolerance for disagreement.
The second hypothesis which stated that male participants will significantly score
higher on tolerance for disagreement than female participants indicated no significant
differences in scores (M=38.04, SD=4.743; M=37.20, SD=4.665). This means that males and
females are comparable on their tolerance for disagreement. In other words, the condition of
being male or female does not necessarily impact on participants’ level of tolerance for
disagreement.
Table 3.
13
Summary t-test for independent samples for male and female participants
N Mean SD df T p
Tolerance for
disagreement
Male 370 38.04 4.743 455 1.495 .934 Not sig.
P > .05
Female 87 37.20 4.665 1.511
The third hypothesis which stated that road traffic officers between the ages of 20-
27years will score significantly higher on tolerance for disagreement than road traffic officers
between the ages of 28-35years. Results indicated no significant mean differences between
the two age groups. Thus, participants aged between 20-27 years did not score significantly
higher on tolerance for disagreement than participants between 28-35 years (M=38.09;
SD=5.248, M= 37.74; SD=4.387) respectively. This means that participants who are older
and younger will exhibit the same level of tolerance for disagreement.
Table 4.
Summary t-test for independent samples for age
N Mean SD df T p
Tolerance for
disagreement
20-27 177 38.09 5.248 455 .764 .043 Not sig.
P > .05
28-35 280 37.74 4.384 .734
DISCUSSION
The objective of this study was to fill a gap in literature on the construct of tolerance for
disagreement amongst road traffic officers which to the best knowledge of this researcher is
non-existent. It is further envisaged that the relationship between the variables of self-esteem,
locus of control, gender, age and tolerance for disagreement will be identified and utilised for
further studies.
14
The table of correlations indicated significant positive correlations between self-esteem and
tolerance for disagreement. The implication of this finding is that road traffic officers who are
high on self-esteem will also be highly tolerant of disagreement. This empirical finding is of
utmost importance to the selection of traffic officers because interaction between road users
and road traffic officers are inevitable.
The behaviour of Nigerian drivers on the highways is associated with all forms of
traffic offences ranging from speeding beyond acceptable limits to driving through red traffic
lights. Apprehending such drivers by law enforcement agents more often than not results in
verbal exchanges which may degenerate into arguments and disagreements. The approach
adopted by the law enforcement agents, which may be determined by the level of tolerance
for disagreement possessed by the traffic officer goes a long way in determining the outcome
of the situation.
It is pertinent therefore that high premium be placed on the officers who are recruited
as road traffic officers. Identifying the level of self-esteem of such officers prior to
employment will determine their level of tolerance for disagreement. Such officers who are
high on self-esteem will possess high tolerance for disagreement thereby exuding self-
confidence (Rosemberg, 1965) which makes it easier to deal with other people.
Individuals with low self-esteem on the other hand are less likely to treat other people
with respect (Branden, 1993) and this may be expressed in behavious like yelling, whining
and intimidation which are behaviours that are counterproductive when dealing with the
public (Branden, 1993). People with high self-esteem have also been found to display a high
level of forgiveness, (Eaton, Struthers & Santelli, 2006). When this is related to road traffic
officers however, this may also be counterproductive because forgiving offenders of traffic
15
offences may result in more offences being committed. On the negative end, self-esteem,
problematic communication styles and aggressive traits have been associated (Baumeister,
Heatherton & Tice, 1993). This result should therefore be used with caution.
Job locus of control also correlated positively with tolerance for disagreement which
implies that the more an individual perceives that his/her job is influenced by external factors,
the higher will be his level of tolerance for disagreement. This finding is germane going by
the various environmental challenges experienced by road traffic officers and also the
behaviour and driving culture of majority of Nigerian drivers. For instance, harsh weather
conditions, inadequate road monitoring equipments, bad roads, with odd and long working
hours are common factors that may serve as externals. If therefore the road traffic officers
experience and accept these challenges as common occurrences associated with their jobs, the
likelihood that their tolerance for disagreement will be high is guaranteed.
The implication of this is that if the tolerance for disagreement of the road traffic
officers is high, differences in opinion expressed by both the officers and road users
regarding road safety and road traffic offences committed will be adequately handled.
Consequently, negative outcomes such as verbal aggressiveness often exhibited by
individuals low in tolerance for disagreement (Teven et al., 2009) will be reduced to the
barest minimum in the case of road traffic officers who are high on external locus of control.
This finding do not lend support to some past research findings (Taylor, 2010). For instance,
research indicates that individuals who are high on internal locus of control are good
communicators, would endeavour to initiate communication and seek to commit themselves
to a satisfactory relationship (Rubin & Rubin, 1992). The variation in the findings may be
attributed to sample characteristics.
16
To the best knowledge of the authors of this present study, no study has investigated
the relationship between self-esteem, locus of control and tolerance for disagreement. The
ability of self-esteem and job locus of control to predict the level of tolerance for
disagreement among road traffic officers has been confirmed in this study. Relevant
authorities can avail themselves of this opportunity by making efforts to utilize appropriate
tests of locus of control in predicting the level of tolerance for disagreement of their
personnel.
The demographic factors of gender and age did not impact on the level of tolerance
for disagreement. In this study, 81 percent of the participants were males while 19 percent of
the participants were females. The wide gap in the ratio of females to males should ordinarily
indicate differences in the level of tolerance for disagreement. The reason for the indifference
may be attributable to acquiescence; the need to portray positive attributes of the self on
behalf of the participants. The differences in the level of tolerance for disagreement was also
not significant among all ages probably because the age range was insignificant for
differences to be indicated.
REFERENCES
Arsenault, A., Dolan, S., & Ameringen, M. (1991). Stress and mental strain in hospital work.
Journal of Organizational Behaviour. 12, 483-493.
Balogun, S. K., Shenge, N. A., & Oladipo, S. E. (2012). Psychological factors influencing
aggressive driving among commercial and private automobile drivers in Lagos
metropolis. The Social Science Journal, 49, 83-89
17
Baumeister, R. F., Campbell, J. D., Krueger, J. I., & Vohs, K. Z. (2003). Does high self-
esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier
lifestyle? Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 4, 1-44.
Berko, R., Aitken, J. E., & Wolvin, A. (2010). ICOMM: interpersonal concepts and
competencies: Foundations of interpersonal communication. Retrieved from
http://books.google.com.ng/ICOMM-Interpersonal-Competencies....
Collins, P. A., & Gibbs, A. C. C. (2003). Stress in Police Officers: a Study of the Origins,
Prevalence and Severity of Stress-related Symptoms within a County Police Force.
Occupational Medicine, 53, pp. 256-264
Coser, L. (1956). The functions of social conflict. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
Darshani, R. (2014). A review of personality types and locus of control as moderators of
stress and conflict management. International Journal of Scientific and Research
Publications, 4(2), 1-8
Deutsch, M. (1973). The resolution of conflict: constructive and destructive processes. New
Haven, Cinnecticut: Yale University
Deb, S., Chakraborty, T., Chatterjee, P., and Srivastava, N. (2008). Job-related stress, causal
factors and coping strategies of traffic constables. Journal of the Indian Academy of
Applied Psychology, 34(1), 19-28.
Eaton, J., Struthers, C. W., & Santelli, A. G. (2006). The mediating role of perceptual
validation in the repentance-forgiveness process. Personality and Social Psychology
Bulletin, 32, 1389-1401.
18
Edward, A. (2002). Stress management and control. Michigan: Guernsey Press Co. Ltd.
Fauna, (2015). Shanghai traffic police officer dragged to death (Wed. March 18th 2015).
Retrieved from http://www.chinasmack.com/2015/videos/shanghai-traffic-police-
dragged-to-death.html on April 28th, 2015
FRSC Establishment Act (2007). An article on FRSC Establishment Act retrieved from
www.Frsc.gov.ng, December 15th, 2007.
Gergen, K. (1971). The concept of self. New York: Holt, Reinhart & Winston, Inc.
Grimes, P. W., Millea, M. J., & Woodruff, T. W. (2004). Grades – who’s to blame? Student
evaluation of teaching and locus of control. Journal of Economic Education, 35(2),
129-147.
Guindon, M. (1994). Understanding the role of self-esteem in managing communication
quality. IEEE Transactions on professional Communication, 37(1), 21-27.
Harpent, R., & Hill, R. (2010). The Locus of Control construct’s various means of
measurement: A researcher’s guide to some of the more commonly used Locus of
Control scales. WILL POWER PRESS, Beach Haven, NJ.
Jaffe, M. F. (1998). Adolescence. New York: Willey.
Kamal, A., Qamar, K. Anwar, M. A., & Malik, R. M. (2014). PAH exposure and oxidative
stress indicators of human cohorts exposed to traffic pollution in Lahore city
(Pakistan). Chemosphere, 120, 59-67.
Knutson, P. K., McCroskey, J. C., Knutson, T., & Hurt, H. (1978). Tolerance for
disagreement. Interpersonal conflict reconceptualised. Paper presented at the Annual
Convention of the Western Speech Communication, Los Angeles.
19
Kobassa, S., & Puccetti, M. (1983). Personality processes and individual differences. Journal
of Personality and Social Psychology, 43, 839-850.
Maduagwu, M. O. (1998). Road safety and accident reduction in Nigeria. (a blueprint for the
year 2010). Poc of national workshop (Eds) NIPPS, Kuru, Nigeria.
Mail, (2015). Traffic officer shot dead by driver. Mail online (Tuesday, April 28th 2015).
Retrieved from http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-204708/Traffic-officer-shot-
dead-driver.html#ixzz3YclWeQWU on April 28th, 2015.
McCrae, R. R. & Costa, P. T. (1988). Age, personality, and the spontaneous self-concept.
Journal of Gerontology, 43(6), S177-S185.
Meikle, J. (2007). “Kelly extends experiment to let drivers use hard shoulder”. The Guardian.
(Guardian News and Media Limited). Retrieved from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_traffic_management on 28-1-2015.
Miller, C. A., Fitch, T., & Marshall, J. L. (2003). Locus of control and at-risk youth: A
comparison of regular education high school students and students in alternative
schools. Education, 123(3), 548.
Mittal, N. (2008). Policies and programs for road safety in developing India. Journal of
Emergencies, Trauma and Shock, 1(1), 42-49.
Ogunsanya, A. A. (2002). National transport policy for Nigeria - highlights of issues. Report
of the 5th meeting of the national council of transport 29th-31st August
Ladipo, S. E., Malomo, B. I., & Kulele-Sabiti, I. (2014). Exploring the suitability of
Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale for adult use in South Western Nigeria. Gender and
Behaviour, 12(1), 6027-6034.
20
Olatunji, D. (2012). Ogun traffic officers kill okada rider for driving on uncommissioned
road. Vanguard, May 24th, 2012. Retrieved from
http://www.vanguardngr.com/2012/05/ogun-traffic-officers-kill-okada-rider-for-
driving-on-uncomissioned-road/#sthash.jkhGOwuE.dpuf on April 28th, 2015.
Perlow, R., & Latham, L. L. (1993). Relationship of client abuse with locus of control and
gender: A longitudinal study in mental retardation facilities. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 78(5), 831-834.
Popoola, M. O., Abiola, S. O., & Adeniji, W. A. (2013). Traffic congestion on highways in
Nigeria. Cause, effects and remedies. International Journal of Civil, Structural,
Construction and Architectural Engineering, 7(11), 516-521.
Quintal, G. (2015). Taxi drivers plan to kill traffic officers. Retrieved from
http://www.news24.com/South Africa/News/Taxi-drivers-plan-to-kill-traffic-officers-
says-City-of-cape-Town-20150409.
Raynes, B. L. (2001). Predicting difficult employees: The relationship between vocational
interests, self-esteem and problem communication styles. Applied Human Resource
Management Research, 6(1), pp. 33-66.
Richmond, V. P., & McCroskey, J. C. (1979). Management Communication Style, Tolerance
for Disagreement and Innovativeness as predictors of Employee Satisfaction: A
Comparison of Single-Factor, Two-Factor and Multiple-Factor Approaches
Rotter, J. B. (1966). Generalised expectancies for internal versus external control of
reinforcement. Psychological Monographs, 80(1).
21
Rubin, A. M. (1993). The effect of locus of control on communication motivation, anxiety
and satisfaction. Communication Quarterly, 41, 161-171.
Rubin, R. B., & Rubin, A. M. (1992). Antecedents of interpersonal communication
motivation. Communication Quarterly, 40, 305-317. Retrieved from
http://ezproxy.bloomu.edu/login?url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?
direct=ttrue&db=ufh&AN=18449138&site=ehost-live
Sliman, A. A., Ibrahim, O. M., & Ahmed, A. A. (2015). Noise exposure among traffic police
officers in Khartoun locality, Sudan. European Scientific Journal, 11(6), 131-135.
Stevens, T. G. (2002). You can choose to be happy: Rise above anxiety, anger, and
depression. Seal Beach: Wheeler-Sutton.
Swart, B. (2004). The relationship between stage of moral development and locus of control
by a group of Afrikaanssprekende adolescent. Stellenbosch: University of
Stellenbosch.
Taylor, M. (2010). Does locus of control predict young adult conflict strategies with
superiors? An examination of control orientation and the organizational
communication conflict instrument. North American Journal of Psychology, 12(3).
Teven, J. J., McCroskey, C., & Richmond, V. P. (2009). Measurement of tolerance for
disagreement. Communication Research Reports, 15(2), 209-217.
Testa, P. F., Hibbing, M. V., & Ritchie, M. 2014. Orientations toward conflict and the
conditional effect of political disagreement. The Journal of Politics, 76(3), pp. 770-
785.
22
Uildriks, N., & van Reenen, P. (2003). Policing Post-communist societies: Police-public
Violence, Democratic Policing and Human Rights. Retrieved from
http://books.google.com.ng/books?isbn=9050952992.
Wikipedia. (2013). Active traffic management. Retrieved from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Active_traffic_management on April 3rd, 2015.
Zadok, Z. (2014). Why we avoid traffic officers – Commercial drivers. Leadership
Newspapers, 14th October. Retrieved from
http://leadership.ng//features/387480/avoid-traffic-officers-commercial-drivers on
April 28th, 2015
23