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The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ – Regional Assessment
THE CONSERVATION STATUS AND
DISTRIBUTION OF THE BREEDING
BIRDS OF PREY OF NORTH AFRICA
J.R. Garrido, C. Numa, V. Barrios, A. Qninba, A. Riad, O. Haitham, H.B. Hasnaoui,
S. Buirzayqah, A. Onrubia, A. Fellous-Djardini, M. Saheb, K. Rousselon, S.I. Cherkaoui,
I. Essetti, M. Noaman, M. Radi, F. Cuzin, A. Irizi, G. Monchaux, N. Hamdi, F. Monti,
P. Bergier, R. Ouni, K. Etayeb, M.A. Chokri, H. Azafzaf, P. Gyenge, A. Si Bachir and B. Bakass
NORTH
AFRICA
About IUCN
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THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™ – REGIONAL ASSESSMENT
THE CONSERVATION STATUS AND
DISTRIBUTION OF THE BREEDING
BIRDS OF PREY OF NORTH AFRICA
J.R. Garrido, C. Numa, V. Barrios, A. Qninba, A. Riad, O. Haitham, H.B. Hasnaoui,
S. Buirzayqah, A. Onrubia, A. Fellous-Djardini, M. Saheb, K. Rousselon, S.I. Cherkaoui,
I. Essetti, M. Noaman, M. Radi, F. Cuzin, A. Irizi, G. Monchaux, N. Hamdi, F. Monti,
P. Bergier, R. Ouni, K. Etayeb, M.A. Chokri, H. Azafzaf, P. Gyenge, A. Si Bachir and B. Bakass
The designation of geographical entities in this book and the presentation of the material do not imply the expression
of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN or other participating organisations concerning the legal status of any
country, territory, or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
The views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of IUCN or other participating organisations.
IUCN is pleased to acknowledge the support of its Framework Partners who provide core funding; Ministry of Foreign
Affairs of Denmark; Ministry for Foreign Affairs of Finland; Government of France and the French Development Agency
(AFD); the Ministry of Environment, Republic of Korea; the Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation (Norad); the
Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida); the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation
(SDC); and the United States Department of State.
Published by: IUCN, Gland, Switzerland
Produced by: IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation, Málaga, Spain
Copyright: © 2021 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
Reproduction of this publication for educational or other non-commercial purposes is
authorised without prior written permission from the copyright holder provided the source is
fully acknowledged.
Reproduction of this publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited
without prior written permission of the copyright holder.
Red List logo: © 2008
Recommended citation:
Report
Garrido, J.R., Numa, C., Barrios, V., Qninba, A., Riad,A., Haitham, O., Hasnaoui, H., Buirzayqah, S., Onrubia, A.,
Fellous-Djardini, A., Saheb, M., Rousselon, K., Cherkaoui, S.I., Essetti, I., Noaman, M., Radi, M., Cuzin, F., Irizi, A.,
Monchaux, G., Hamdi, N., Monti, F., Bergier, P., Ouni, R., Etayeb, K., Chokri, M.A., Azafzaf, H., Gyenge, P., Si Bachir A.
and Bakass, B. (2021). The conservation status and distribution of the breeding birds of prey of North Africa.
IUCN: Gland, Switzerland. xvi + 102pp.
Species assessment sheets, e.g.:
Bergier, P., Rousselon, K., Cherkaoui, I., Monti, F. & Garrido López, J.R. (2021). Dark chanting-goshawk, Melierax
metabates, pp 35-36. In: Garrido, J.R., Numa, C., Barrios, V., et al. (2021). The conservation status and distribution
of the breeding birds of prey of North Africa. IUCN: Gland, Switzerland. xvi + 102pp.
Cover photo: In North Africa the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopeterus) breeds throughout North
Africa from Morocco to Egypt and is considered Endangered because of the serious decline
in its numbers due mainly to poisoning. ©Tarek Nagah
All photographs used in this publication remain the property of the original copyright holder
(see individual captions for details).
Photographs should not be reproduced or used in other contexts without written permission
from the copyright holder.
Layout by: miniestudio.es
Printed by: SOLPRINT S.L.
The text of this book is printed on 115 gsm environmentally friendly paper.
III
Contents
Acknowledgements _______________________________________________________________________________________________ VI
Foreword __________________________________________________________________________________________________________ VII
Executive summary _______________________________________________________________________________________________ VIII
Résumé exécutif ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ X
Executive sum ____________________________________________________________________________________________________ XII
Contributors _____________________________________________________________________________________________________ XIV
1. Introduction ___________________________________________________________________________________________________ 1
1.1 The assessment region _________________________________________________________________________________ 1
1.2 Raptors of North Africa _________________________________________________________________________________ 5
1.3 Objectives of the assessment _________________________________________________________________________ 7
2. Assessment methodology ___________________________________________________________________________________ 8
2.1 The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species ____________________________________________________________ 8
2.2 The IUCN Red List of North African Raptors _________________________________________________________ 9
2.3 Geographical scope ____________________________________________________________________________________ 9
2.4 Taxonomical scope _____________________________________________________________________________________ 9
2.5 Preliminary assessments and review process ______________________________________________________ 10
2.6 Assessment review process _________________________________________________________________________ 11
3. Assessment results _________________________________________________________________________________________ 12
3.1 Conservation status of North African raptors _______________________________________________________ 12
3.2 Regionally Extinct species ___________________________________________________________________________ 16
3.3 Threatened species __________________________________________________________________________________ 17
3.4 Near Threatened species ____________________________________________________________________________ 19
3.5 Least Concern species ______________________________________________________________________________ 20
3.6 Patterns of species richness _________________________________________________________________________ 20
3.7 Major threats to raptors in North Africa _____________________________________________________________ 22
4. Conservation actions _______________________________________________________________________________________ 25
4.1 International instruments potentially relevant to the conservation and management
of North African birds of prey ________________________________________________________________________ 25
5. Conclusions and recommendations _____________________________________________________________________ 28
6. Regionally Extinct, Threatened and Near Threatened species assessment sheets ____________ 30
Cinereous vulture, Aegypius monachus _________________________________________________________________ 30
Spanish imperial eagle, Aquila adalberti ________________________________________________________________ 32
Dark chanting goshawk, Melierax metabates ___________________________________________________________ 35
Northern goshawk, Accipiter gentilis ____________________________________________________________________ 37
Tawny eagle, Aquila rapax _______________________________________________________________________________ 40
Bearded vulture, Gypaetus barbatus ____________________________________________________________________ 43
Rüppell's vulture, Gyps rueppelli ________________________________________________________________________ 46
Red kite, Milvus milvus ___________________________________________________________________________________ 49
Lappet-faced vulture, Torg o s tracheliotos _______________________________________________________________ 52
Marsh owl, Asio capensis ________________________________________________________________________________ 55
Montagu's harrier, Circus pygargus _____________________________________________________________________ 58
Egyptian vulture, Neophron percnopterus ______________________________________________________________ 61
Osprey, Pandion haliaetus _______________________________________________________________________________ 65
Griffon vulture, Gyps fulvus ______________________________________________________________________________ 68
Eurasian hobby, Falco subbuteo _________________________________________________________________________ 71
Short-toed snake-eagle, Circaetus gallicus _____________________________________________________________ 74
Western marsh harrier, Circus aeruginosus _____________________________________________________________ 77
Sooty falcon, Falco concolor _____________________________________________________________________________ 79
Eleonora's falcon, Falco eleonorae ______________________________________________________________________ 80
7. Least Concern (LC) and marginal species Not Applicable (NA) ____________________________________ 85
References ______________________________________________________________________________________________________ 90
IV
V
In North Africa the bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) only breeds
in Morocco and Egypt and is considered Critically Endangered
because of its small and isolated population. © Justo Martín Martín
CR
VI
Assessing species for the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ relies on the willingness of dedicated experts
to contribute and pool their collective knowledge to make the most reliable estimates of the conservation status
of species. This work would not have been possible without their enthusiastic commitment to species conserva-
tion. Additionally, we would like to thank the Tunisian Ministry of Local Affairs and the Environment for providing
logistical and administrative support and making sure the evaluation workshop ran smoothly.
We would especially like to thank Hannah Wheatley (BirdLife International) for helping facilitate the workshop and
all the North Africa raptors experts who have subsequently been involved in reviewing the assessments.
David Allen (IUCN), James Westrip (IUCN), Anna Staneva (BirdLife International) and Ian Burfield (Birdlife Interna-
tional) provided guidance, support and good advice throughout the project. Special thanks to Maher Mahjoub
(IUCN) and Hélene Willem (IUCN) for their valuable support for organising the validation workshop in Tunis.
We would like to thank the following people who gave their time and valuable expertise to evaluate the assess-
ments, with apologies to anyone whose name has inadvertently been omitted or misspelled: Rachid El Khamlichi
(ASARA), Mohamed Amezian (ASARA), Nibani Houssine (AGIR), Andre Botha (SSC Vulture Specialist Group),
Faouzi Maamouri (WWF North Africa), Íñigo Fajardo (Government of Andalucia, Spain) and Jesús Bautista (Gov-
ernment of Andalucía, Spain.
We are grateful to Daniel Burón, Iñigo Fajardo, Brahim Bakass, Rafael Benjumea, Alex Colorado, Jose Rafael
Garrido, Tarek Nagah, Jaume Caselles, Andres de la Cruz, Rachid El Khamlichi, Leovigildo Flox, Justo Martin,
Karim Rousselon and Manuel Talavera for providing photographs.
The work presented in this report was coordinated by the IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation and the
IUCN Species Programme (Red List Unit). This project was funded by the MAVA Foundation and Red Eléctrica
España, with contributions from the Spanish Ministry for the Ecological Transition and the Demographic Challen-
ge and the Junta de Andalucía.
Acknowledgements
VII
North Africa is a region rich in natural and cultural heritage, characterised by high levels of species diversity and
endemism. The IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation (IUCN-Med) works to leverage its knowledge, stan-
dards and tools to influence policy and to support action in the Mediterranean region, particularly where these
measures are undertaken by IUCN Members. Better knowledge about biodiversity, including threats and conser-
vation measures, will help drive action. In that context, Regional Red Lists are an important tool for scientifically
assessing and communicating the status of species. They provide comprehensive information about the situation
of biodiversity in the region and are an important practical mechanism for implementing national and regional
strategies for biodiversity conservation under the Convention on Biological Diversity. The Red List in North Africa
will help to contribute to the post-2020 global biodiversity framework, in particular to those targets which call for
the prevention of extinction of known threatened species and improvement of their conservation status. Mediter-
ranean Red List assessments are carried out in partnership with organisations and individuals around the region
and will help to deliver these various targets.
Birds of prey are key organisms for ecosystem functioning, providing several environmental services vital to hu-
man well-being, such as rodent pest control, removal of dead animal remains through scavenging, and wealth
generation through ecotourism. Furthermore, they are fundamental elements in the food web as apex predators
and scavengers, which make them good indicators of ecosystem’s health. They are thus species that can be
used as flagships to encourage the protection and proper management of the territory in which they live. How-
ever, they are also a group highly impacted by human activities due to competition for game prey and livestock,
especially in the case of larger species such as the great eagles. For this reason they are often persecuted and
their populations in many cases have come close to extinction. This report presents a review of the conservation
status of 36 species of birds of prey that breed in North Africa by experts from across the region. Since its cre-
ation in 2001, IUCN-Med’s main role has been to assess the regional conservation status of selected taxonomic
groups. The Red List of North African Birds of Prey is the 14th publication in the series. The assessment shows
that almost half of the species that currently breed are threatened with extinction in the region, with three species
even recently becoming extinct. Unfortunately, the factors driving these declines are still in place. Direct and in-
direct persecution, poisoning by pesticides and rodenticides, and collision with and electrocution on power lines
are direct mortality factors. But without doubt, the main threat to North African raptors is the increase and spread
of the human population, which has resulted in habitat destruction and disturbance, especially of forests. This
Red List is further evidence that efforts to halt biodiversity loss in the region need a major boost in the coming
years to safeguard our natural capital for future generations.
Antonio Troya
Director
IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation
Foreword
VIII
Aim
This report summarises the results of a review of the conservation status of the 36 species of birds of prey that are con-
sidered to breed in North Africa according to the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria. It identifies those species that
are threatened with extinction at the regional level to guide appropriate conservation actions for improving their status.
Scope
All birds of prey having current or historic breeding populations in North African countries (Morocco, Algeria,
Tunisia, Libya and Egypt)
Conservation status assessment
The conservation status of species was assessed using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria 3.1 (IUCN
Species Survival Commission, 2001). The assessments followed the guidelines for application of the Categories
and Criteria at regional levels 4.0 (IUCN Species Survival Commission, 2003). They were compiled by a network
of 34 regional experts, reviewed during a workshop held in Tunis (Tunisia) in February 2020 and followed up
through correspondence until completion.
North African birds of prey
There are 46 species of birds of prey within the assessment region. Of these, 10 species were excluded from this
study as their distribution in the region is marginal, wintering or passage. The conservation status of the remaining
36 species was assessed and analysed. There are no species endemic to North Africa, though there are two
(5.5%) possibly near-endemic species (defined as having ≥70% of their global range in the region): the Pharaoh
eagle-owl Bubo ascalaphus and the sooty falcon Falco concolor. All species are typically from the Palearctic, but
there are five breeding species (13.9%) with an Afrotropical origin, all of which very rare.
Results
Overall, 12 of the 36 breeding raptors evaluated are threatened in North Africa. Four species are classified as
Near Threatened (NT), three species are assessed as Regionally Extinct (dark chanting-goshawk Melierax me-
tabates, cinereous vulture Aegypius monachus and Spanish imperial eagle Aquila adalberti) and 17 species as
Least Concern.
The current main threats to North African birds of prey are illegal killing, illegal trade, poisoning, and death be-
cause of human infrastructure such as power lines, which are reducing breeding populations. Another important
threat is the use of pesticides and rodenticides in agriculture, which can have a negative impact on breeding
success, reduce prey density and lead to secondary poisoning by consumption of contaminated corpses. In
addition, loss of forest habitats, agroecosystems and wetlands due to the growth and spread of the human pop-
ulation is another major threat to raptors in the North African region, in one way or another potentially affecting
most or possibly almost all of the species present there.
There is a significant lack of information on distribution, population size and trends, as well as threats, with 42 %
of species with unknown population trends. There is an urgent need for collaborative research and monitoring,
especially on the size and distribution of breeding populations and the specific impact of threats on them.
Executive summary
IX
This assessment can be considered a baseline for developing conservation actions and monitoring breeding and
dispersing populations in order to understand their conservation status and to determine, protect and manage
potential breeding sites and key dispersal areas.
Conclusions and recommendations
Despite their importance as predators and scavengers and their key role in food web dynamics, the breeding
populations of birds of prey in North Africa are poorly known. Current information gaps regarding population
status, trends and geographical distribution reflect how little we know about them. However, this regional assess-
ment has revealed that 48.5% of breeding raptors in North Africa are threatened, due to illegal killing, accidents
involving power lines and wind farms, and habitat loss. It means that failure to act soon could result in the collapse
of the regional populations of birds of prey, particularly vultures, all species of which are threatened. Threatened
species are concentrated in the northernmost part of Maghreb, from Morocco to Algeria, but also in Gebel Elba,
the southern Nile valley and southern Sinai in Egypt. Despite the current lack of data, the results of this assess-
ment show that without urgent conservation actions the region could face a mass extinction of birds of prey,
which could destabilise ecosystems, as key scavenging and predatory species disappear.
Recommended conservation actions to improve species status include:
➜ Initiating monitoring of breeding populations in the various countries, because only regular counts provide
reliable data for monitoring bird of prey populations;
➜ Revising national and international legislation to protect the threatened species identified in this assessment;
➜ Drawing up species action plans for threatened species;
➜ Developing legislation and mitigation actions to avoid mortality due to collision with and electrocution on
power lines;
➜ Developing strategies against illegal killing and trade, ensuring the continuation of regional cooperation among
experts and starting new cooperation initiatives with experts from countries where information is scarce, so
that this assessment can be updated as new information becomes available;
➜ Raising awareness about the importance of birds of prey in maintaining healthy ecosystems.
Key messages
■ Birds of prey are key organisms for the functioning of North African ecosystems, as they provide important
ecosystem services such as rodent pest control and removal of dead animal remains, and play a wealth-gen-
eration role through ecotourism.
■ Informatio n about the conservati on status of these populations i n North African cou ntries is very limited, and 42 %
of species have unknown population trends. There is an urgent need for collaborative research and monitoring,
especially on the size and distribution of breeding populations and the specific impact of threats on them.
■ Birds of prey are impacted by illegal killing and trade, habitat loss and degradation, and energy infrastructures
such as power lines and wind farms. Coordinated strategies need to be developed and implemented to re-
duce these impacts on raptor populations.
X
Objectif
Ce rapport résume les résultats d’une évaluation de l’état de conservation de 36 espèces d’oiseaux de proie nicheurs
en Afrique du Nord, selon les catégories et critères de la Liste rouge de l’UICN. Il identifie les espèces menacées
d’extinction au niveau régional afin de guider les mesures de conservation appropriées pour améliorer leur statut.
Cadre d’étude
Tous les oiseaux de proie ayant des populations nicheuses actuellement ou historiquement dans les pays d’Af-
rique du Nord (Maroc, Algérie, Tunisie, Libye et Egypte).
Évaluation de l’état de conservation
L’état de conservation des espèces a été évalué à l’aide des catégories et critères de la Liste rouge de l’UICN (Com-
mission de survie des espèces de l’UICN, 2001). Les évaluations ont suivi les lignes directrices pour l’application des
catégories et critères à l´échelle régionale (Commission de survie des espèces de l’UICN, 2003). Les résultats ont
été compilés par un réseau de 34 experts régionaux, qui ont procédé aux évaluations lors d’un atelier tenu à Tunis
(Tunisie) en février 2020 et ont par la suite assuré son suivi par correspondance jusqu’à sa finalisation.
Oiseaux de proie d’Afrique du Nord
Il y a 46 espèces d’oiseaux de proie dans la région évaluée. Parmi celles-ci, 10 espèces ont été exclues de cette
étude car leur répartition dans la région sont migratrices de passage ou hivernantes. L’état de conservation des
36 autres espèces a été évalué et analysé. Cet échantillon ne présente pas d’espèce endémique à l’Afrique du
Nord, bien que deux parmi les 36 (5,5 %) soient potentiellement des espèces quasi endémiques (c.a.d. définies
comme ayant >70% de leur aire de répartition mondiale dans la région concernée); le Grand-duc ascalaphe Bubo
ascalaphus et le Faucon concolore Falco concolor. La plupart des espèces proviennent du Paléarctique, mais
cinq des 36 étudiées (13,9%) sont des espèces nidificatrices rares d’origine afrotropicale.
Résultats
Au total, 12 des 36 rapaces nicheurs évalués sont menacés en Afrique du Nord. Quatre espèces sont classées
comme quasi menacées (NT), trois espèces ont été évaluées comme étant éteintes au niveau régional (Autour
sombre Melierax metabates, Vautour moine Aegypius monachus et Aigle ibérique Aquila adalberti) et 17 espèces
ont un statut de préoccupation mineure.
Les principales menaces actuelles pour les oiseaux de proie d’Afrique du Nord sont l´abattage et le commerce
illégaux, l’empoisonnement et les infrastructures humaines telles que les lignes électriques qui sont sources
de collision et d’électrocution, et réduisent les populations reproductrices. Une autre menace importante est
l’utilisation de pesticides et de rodenticides dans l’agriculture, qui peut avoir un impact négatif sur le succès de
reproduction, réduire la densité des proies et conduire à un empoisonnement secondaire par la consommation
de cadavres contaminés. En outre, les pertes d’habitats forestiers, d’agroécosystèmes et de zones humides
associées à la croissance et propagation de la population humaine peuvent également être considérées comme
une autre grande menace pour les rapaces de la région de l’Afrique du Nord. D’une manière ou d’une autre, ces
facteurs peuvent potentiellement affecter la plupart, voire la quasi-totalité, des espèces présentes dans la région.
Résumé exécutif
XI
Il y a un manque important d’information sur l´aire de répartition, la taille et la tendance des populations ainsi que
sur les menaces ; les tendances en matière de population étant inconnues pour 42 % des espèces. Il existe un
besoin urgent de collaborer dans le domaine de la recherche et du suivi, en particulier sur la taille et la répartition
des populations reproductrices et sur l’impact spécifique que peuvent avoir les menaces.
Cette évaluation peut être utilisée comme référence à partir de laquelle développer des actions de conservation
et surveiller la reproduction et dispersion des populations, afin de comprendre l’état de conservation et de déter-
miner, protéger et gérer les sites de reproduction potentiels et les principales zones de dispersion.
Conclusions et recommandations
Malgré leur importance en tant que prédateurs et charognards, et leur rôle clé dans la chaîne alimentaire, les
populations nicheuses d’oiseaux de proie sont mal connues en Afrique du Nord. Les lacunes actuelles en matière
d’information sur l’état de la population, les tendances et la répartition géographique, reflètent le peu de connais-
sances à leur sujet. Et pourtant, l’évaluation régionale des rapaces nicheurs a révélé que 48,5 % des rapaces
nicheurs en Afrique du Nord sont menacés en raison d’abattages illégaux, de collision avec des lignes électriques
et éoliennes, et de la perte d’habitat. Cela signifie que le fait de ne pas agir rapidement pourrait entraîner l’ef-
fondrement des populations régionales d’oiseaux de proie, en particulier dans le cas des vautours (dont toutes
les espèces sont menacées). Les espèces menacées sont concentrées dans la partie la plus septentrionale du
Maghreb, du Maroc à l’Algérie, mais aussi à Gebel Elba, dans le sud de la vallée du Nil et au sud du Sinaï en
Egypte. Malgré le manque actuel de données, les résultats de cette évaluation montrent que sans des mesures
de conservation urgentes, la région pourrait faire face à l’extinction massive d’oiseaux de proie, ce qui pourrait
déstabiliser les écosystèmes à mesure que les principales espèces prédatrices disparaissent.
Les mesures de conservation recommandées pour améliorer l’état des espèces comprennent :
➜ La mise en place d’un suivi des populations nicheuses dans les différents pays. Seuls les comptages réguliers
fournissent des données fiables pour surveiller les populations d’oiseaux de proie.
➜ Réviser la législation nationale et internationale pour protéger les espèces menacées identifiées dans cette
évaluation.
➜ L’élaboration de plans d’action pour les espèces menacées.
➜ L’élaboration d’une législation et de mesures d’atténuation pour éviter la mortalité due aux collisions et à
l’électrocution par les lignes électriques.
➜ Développer des stratégies contre l´ abattage et le commerce illégaux, assurer la continuité de la coopération
régionale entre les experts et commencer une nouvelle coopération avec des experts de pays où il reste un
manque l’information afin que cette évaluation puisse être mise à jour au fur et à mesure que de nouvelles
informations seront disponibles.
➜ Sensibiliser le public à l’importance des oiseaux de proie dans le maintien d’écosystèmes sains.
Messages clés
■ Les oiseaux de proie sont des organismes clés pour le fonctionnement des écosystèmes nord-africains, car
ils fournissent d'importants services écosystémiques tels que la lutte contre les rongeurs nuisibles, l'élimina-
tion des cadavres d'animaux et le rôle de génération de richesse grâce à l'écotourisme.
■ L´information sur l'état de conservation dans les pays d'Afrique du Nord est très limitée, avec 42 % des es-
pèces dont les tendances des populations sont inconnues. Il existe un besoin urgent de recherche collabo-
rative et de surveillance, en particulier sur la taille et la répartition des populations reproductrices et l'impact
spécifique des menaces sur elles.
■ Les oiseaux de proie sont touchés par l'abattage et le commerce illégaux, la perte et la dégradation de leur
habitat et les infrastructures énergétiques telles que les lignes électriques et les parcs éoliens. Il est néces-
saire de développer et de mettre en œuvre des stratégies coordonnées pour réduire ces impacts sur les
populations de rapaces.
XII
Executive summary (arabic)
x
36
.
.
3.1 )
2001
4.0 2003
342020
.
46 10
36
70 Bubo
ascalaphus)Falco concolor)
.
1236
NT)
Melierax metabates Aegypius monachus)
Aquila adalberti 17.
XIII
xi
.
42
.
.
.
:
.
.
▪
.
▪ 42
▪
XIV
Jose Rafael Garrido, Environment and Water Agency, Department of Agriculture, Livestock, Fisheries and
Sustainable Development, Government of Andalucía, Spain
Catherine Numa, Mediterranean Species Programme, IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation, Spain
Violeta Barrios, Sahara Conservation Fund, France
Abdeljebbar Qninba, Scientific Institute, Mohammed V University, Morocco
Ahmed Riad, Nature Conservation Egypt, Egypt
Omar Haitham, Raptor Club Egypt, Egypt
Haféda Benmammar Hasnaoui, Tlemcen National Park, Algeria
Salih Buirzayqah, Alhaya Organization for Protection of Wildlife and Marine Organisms in Libya, Libya
Alejandro Onrubia, Migres Foundation, Spain
Amina Fellous-Djardini, Mouvement Écologique Algérien, Algeria
Menouar Saheb, Oum El-Bouaghi University, Algeria
Karim Rousselon, Association Marocaine pour la Protection des Rapaces, Morocco
Sidi Imad Cherkaoui, Soltane Moulay Slimane University, Morocco
Imed Essetti, Tunisia Wildlife Conservation Society, Tunisia
Mohamed Noaman, Water and Forestry Department, Morocco
Mohamed Radi, Groupe de Recherche pour la Protection des Oiseaux au Maroc (BirdLife Morocco), Morocco
Fabrice Cuzin, Consultant, Morocco
Ali Irizi, Association des Amis des Rapaces, Morocco
Geoffrey Monchaux, Emirates Center for Wildlife Propagation, Morocco
Nabil Hamdi, University of Tunis El Manar, Tunisia
Flavio Monti, MedWet, France
Patrick Bergier, Go-South, France
Ridha Ouni, Tunisia Wildlife Conservation Society, Tunisia
Khaled Etayeb, Libyan Society for Birds, Libya
Mohamed Ali Chokri, University of Gabès, Tunisia
Hichem Azafzaf, Association des Amis des Oiseaux, Tunisia
Peter Gyenge, Mediterranean Species Programme, IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation, Spain
Abdelkrim Si Bachir, University of Batna 2, Algeria
Brahim Bakass, Groupe d’ornithologie du Maroc, Morocco
Contributors
XV
LC
The Long-legged buzzard has a large range and an abundant
breeding population throughout North Africa. The population
trend is not known, but the population is not believed
to be decreasing rapidly enough to approach
the thresholds for a threatened category.
It is evaluated as Least Concern. © Daniel Burón
XVI
The golden eagle (Aquila chryssaetos) is a widespread species in North Africa
breeding from Morocco to Egypt. Although its population is small, it is not considered
to be declining and it is assessed as Least Concern. © Jose Rafael Garrido
Pharaoh eagle-owl is abundant
and widespread in North Africa.
It is not thought to warrant listing
as threatened under any criterion.
Therefore, it is evaluated as
Least Concern. © Íñigo Fajardo
LC
LC
1
1. Introduction
This report comprises a summary of the regional conservation status of breeding birds of prey in North Africa.
The IUCN Centre for Mediterranean Cooperation, in collaboration with the IUCN Species Programme and a key
group of regional experts, presents the overall results and findings of the regional Red List assessment.
The objective of this report is to provide the baseline status of this group of birds in the region. It includes in-
formation about their distribution and natural history, and highlights those species that have been found to be
of greatest conservation concern. It also reveals that very little or no information is available for a large number
of species, for which more research and awareness is urgently needed. It is envisaged that the information
contained within this report will facilitate the development of priority research, conservation and management
actions for the region.
1.1 The assessment region
The assessment region covers the whole of northern Africa bordering the Mediterranean Sea (Figure 1). The five
countries of North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Libya, Morocco and Tunisia) cover a total area of 5,275 million km².
Their total human population was estimated at about 156 million in 2012 and is expected to reach 184 million
by 2025 (IUCN-Med 2016).
While these countries show considerable diversity in their environments, they share many similarities and face
similar problems and challenges in the use and conservation of their natural resources.
North Africa is home to great marine and terrestrial biological diversity associated with its geomorphological
variability and the diversity of its flora and fauna. The region’s ecosystems and landscapes are also remarkably
diverse. Much of this territory has for centuries been subject to increasing human use of resources, particularly
in the coastal areas.
Figure 1. The
North Africa
region as
defined in the
current report.
Map based
on FAO GAUL. © IUCN
2
The North African Region lies in the Western Palaearctic biogeographic realm and borders the Afrotropical realm
to the south, which is reflected in the existence of elements of the tropical flora and fauna along its borders. It is
a hot spot of endemism for both fauna and flora. Moreover, many species considered threatened at international
level or that have disappeared in other parts of the world are still present.
Although many types of ecosystems exist in the region, a large part of it is made up of arid or sub-arid zones
with large areas of desert. The arid conditions to which much of North Africa is subjected accentuate the vul-
nerability of the region’s species and ecosystems, despite the adaptations to aridity shown by many animal and
plant species. The region’s ecosystems may be grouped into the following main categories:
● Arid and sub-arid ecosystems
● Steppe ecosystems
● Forest ecosystems
● Wetland ecosystems
● Marine ecosystems
Arid and sub-arid ecosystems exist in all five countries; they are located mainly in the southern part of the
region, but they also exist in some of its Mediterranean coastal zones. Although their natural productivity is rel-
atively low, the arid and sub-arid zones of the region are home to a wide diversity of fauna and flora with a high
degree of vulnerability and they are particularly sensitive to human impacts. Steppe ecosystems, although
widespread in the region, exist mainly in Algeria, Morocco and Tunisia, where they often form a transition be-
tween hyper-arid or Saharan and humid and sub-humid environments. Forest ecosystems are present in all
the North African countries apart from Egypt. In Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, mountain and/or forest areas
cover appreciable areas of the territory and are the site of diversified human activities, with great dependence on
natural resources and often relatively low standards of living and little basic infrastructure development. A large
part of the wetlands of North Africa consists of artificial environments created by damming rivers during the
last 50 years; however, there are also natural wetlands, many of which are of international importance and play a
significant social and economic role at local and national level. As in many other regions, North Africa’s wetlands
are subject to great pressures, most of which are caused by human activities either in the wetlands themselves
or in their catchment basins. Marine ecosystems constitute a significant component of the biodiversity of
North African countries. All these countries face onto the Mediterranean Sea; furthermore, Morocco and Egypt
have long coastlines not only on the Mediterranean but also on the Atlantic in the case of Morocco (2,500 km)
and on the Red Sea in the case of Egypt (1,500 km).
A great diversity of landscapes such as desert and forest ecosystems are present in North Africa. Northern
Sahara desert (left, © Jose Rafael Garrido) and northern Moroccan forest (right, © Daniel Burón), Morocco.
3
Afrotropical elements can be found in the south of the assessment region, such as Acacia forests. ©Daniel Burón
4
Bonelli’s eagle (Aquila fasciata) is the most common large eagle in
North Africa and is assessed as Least Concern (LC). © Íñigo Fajardo
LC
5
In addition to these common, widespread ecosystems, other types such as oases, mangroves, caves, etc. also
exist in North Africa; they are hot spots of biodiversity even though they are limited in terms of the areas they cover.
While providing services that greatly contribute to the economic and social well-being of the populations, eco-
systems in North Africa have for decades been overexploited and subject to other unsustainable forms of natural
resource use and management. As a result, the status of ecosystems in the region is often reported as critical
by specialists and national organisations (IUCN-Med, 2016).
The economy of the North African countries is greatly dependent on natural resources, and most of the active
population is employed in activities that are linked to the primary sector, such as agriculture and stock raising.
For a long time, the agriculture sector has been neglected in the development programmes of certain countries
in the region, although this sector could drive growth and development. Agriculture is currently not very produc-
tive and has weak competitiveness in world trade. Rural people do not have easy access to loans and cannot
handle natural hazards, including those resulting from climate change. Certain forms of natural resource use
have led to overexploitation, as in the case of water resources and some stocks of living marine resources. The
sustainability of such use can only be guaranteed through approaches that enable the declines to be reversed.
1.2 Raptors of North Africa
There are 46 species of birds of prey within the assessment region. Ten of these species have marginal, wintering
or passage distributions in the region. The remaining 36 species are breeding birds of prey belonging to three
orders: Accipitriformes (22 species), Falconiformes (seven species) and Strigiformes (seven species) (Table 1).
Table 1. Total number of breeding raptor species occurring in the North African region
There are no species endemic to North Africa, although there are two possibly near-endemic species (defined
as having ≥70% of their global range in the region): the Pharaoh eagle-owl Bubo ascalaphus and the sooty
falcon Falco concolor.
Many of the breeding species (16, 44.4%) are typically from the Palaearctic: 10 Accipitriformes (Spanish impe-
rial eagle Aquila adalberti, Bonelli’s eagle Aquila fasciata, short-toed snake-eagle Circaetus gallicus, western
marsh-harrier Circus aeruginosus, Montagu's harrier Circus pygargus, red kite Milvus milvus, griffon vulture
Gyps fulvus, cinereous vulture Aegypius monachus, northern goshawk Accipiter gentilis, and Eurasian sparrow-
hawk Accipiter nisus), three Falconiformes (lesser kestrel Falco naumanni, Eleonora's falcon Falco eleonorae,
and Eurasian hobby Falco subbuteo) and three Strigiformes (northern long-eared owl Asio otus, Eurasian scops-
owl Otus scops, and tawny owl Strix aluco).
Order Family Number of species
Accipitriformes Accipitridae 21
Pandionidae 1
Falconiformes Falconidae 7
Strigiformes Strigidae 6
Tytonidae 1
Total 36
6
The tawny eagle (Aquila rapax)
is one of the five Afrotropical
breeding raptors in Nor th
Africa. It is classified as
Critically Endangered (CR)
because it only breeds in
Algeria in very small numbers.
© Andres de la Cruz
The osprey breeds on the western coast of Algeria and
the eastern Mediterranean coast of Morocco and along
the Red Sea coast and South Sinai in Egypt. It is assessed
as Endangered (EN). Together with Eleonora’s falcon
(Falco eleonorae), it is one of the two raptors breeding
on coastal cliffs in North Africa. © Rafa Benjumea
EN
CR
7
There are also five breeding species (13.9%) of Afrotropical origin, which are very rare: the tawny eagle Aquila
rapax, lappet-faced vulture Torgos tracheliotos, marsh owl Asio capensis, Rüppell's vulture Gyps rueppelli and
dark chanting-goshawk Melierax metabates.
The remaining 15 species (41.7%) have a wider global distribution. The osprey and Eleonora’s falcon are the only
two breeding species (5.5%) found exclusively on marine cliffs, while the rest (34 species, 94.5%) are distributed
mainly inland.
The long-legged buzzard Buteo rufinus deserves a special mention, since its subspecies Buteo rufinus cistenis
is a common, widespread resident in North Africa, but recent studies have found that its taxonomy is not clear
and it is closer to Buteo buteo than to Buteo rufinus (Jowers et al., 2019). It has been suggested it should be
called the North African buzzard instead of the long-legged buzzard because of the importance of North Africa
in its geographical distribution (Jowers et al., 2019; MaghrebOrnitho, 2019a).
1.3 Objectives of the assessment
This assessment has two main objectives:
• To contribute to regional conservation planning by providing a baseline dataset describing the conservation
status and distribution of North African birds of prey, and
• To develop a network of regional experts to support future assessments and update the information on these
species.
The assessment provides two main direct outputs:
• A report on the status of the breeding raptors of the North African region, including a comprehensive species
list of all North African birds of prey, a Red List assessment of all the species, an identification of the main
threats to each species and recommendations for the future conservation of the species and their habitats.
• A database that provides a baseline for monitoring the status of the breeding birds of prey of North Africa.
The data presented in this report provides a snapshot based on the knowledge available at the time of the
assessment.
The database will continue to be updated and made freely available. IUCN will ensure that these data are dis-
seminated widely to relevant decision makers, NGOs and scientists to inform the implementation of conserva-
tion actions on the ground.
8
2. Assessment methodology
2.1 The IUCN Red List of Threatened SpeciesTM
The IUCN Red List of Threatened SpeciesTM (IUCN Red List) is widely recognised as the most comprehensive,
scientifically based source of information on the global conservation status of plant and animal species. IUCN
Red List Categories and Criteria are applied to individual taxon assessments (which contain information on as-
pects such as ecology and life history, distribution, habitat, threats, current population trends and conservation
measures), to determine their relative threat of extinction. Threatened species are listed as Critically Endangered
CR , Endangered EN or Vulnerable VU . Taxa that are either close to meeting the threatened thresholds or
would be threatened were it not for ongoing conservation programmes, are classified as Near Threatened NT .
Taxa evaluated as having a relatively low risk of extinction are classified as Least Concern LC . Also highlight-
ed within the IUCN Red List are taxa that cannot be evaluated due to insufficient knowledge, and which have
therefore been assessed as Data Deficient DD . This category does not necessarily mean that the species is not
threatened, only that its risk of extinction cannot be assessed from current data (IUCN 2012a).
Additionally, when regional or national assessments are conducted, the IUCN Red List Regional Guidelines
(IUCN 2012b) are applied, and two additional categories are used: Regionally Extinct RE and Not Applicable
NA (see Figure 2).
Figure 2. IUCN Red List Categories at the regional level (IUCN 2012b). For a description of each of the global IUCN Red
List Categories go to: http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/categories-and-criteria/2001-categories-criteria.
Extinct (EX)
Extinct inthe Wild (EW)
Regionally Extinct (RE)
Critically Endangered (CR)
Endangered (EN)
Vulnerable (VU)
Near Threatened (NT)
Least Concern (LC)
Data Decient (DD)
Not Applicable (NA)
Not Evaluated (NE)
Extinction
risk
Adequate data
Evaluated
All species
Elegible for Regional
Assessment
Threatened categories
9
2.2. The IUCN Red List of North African Raptors
The extinction risk of a species can be assessed at a global, regional, or national level. A taxon can be in dif-
ferent categories in the Global Red List and a Regional Red List. For instance, a species which is common
worldwide and listed as Least Concern LC in the Global Red List could face a high level of threat and meet the
criteria of a threatened category, for example Endangered EN , in a particular region. To avoid an over- or un-
derestimation of the regional extinction risk of a species, the guidelines for application of IUCN Red List Criteria
at regional level (IUCN 2012b) should be applied.
Therefore, the present regional assessment examines the regional conservation status of all raptors species
breeding in the North African region. The status of each species has been assessed according to the IUCN Red
List Categories and Criteria (IUCN 2012a) and the Guidelines for Application of IUCN Red List criteria at Regional
Levels (IUCN 2012b).
2.3. Geographical scope
The assessment covers the entire territory of the countries of the North Africa region that border the Mediterra-
nean Sea: Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Libya and Egypt (Figure 1).
2.4 Taxonomical scope
This regional assessment evaluates a total of 46 native North African species of raptors. The scope of the North
Africa assessment covers only native breeding raptor species confirmed in the region, including those breeders
that have become Regionally Extinct in the last 100 years: the dark chanting-goshawk, cinereous vulture and
Spanish imperial eagle (Chapter 6). The last two of these species could re-colonise North Africa in the near
future due to population growth in the northern Mediterranean. The list also includes 10 species that are con-
sidered Not Applicable for regional assessment because their occurrence in the region is marginal or uncertain,
there are no recent confirmed records or they are only wintering or migrant species (Chapter 7).
Non-native species that may have established breeding populations as a result of escapes, deliberate introduc-
tions or arrival on ships were not individually assessed as part of this project, in accordance with the guidelines
of the IUCN Standards and Petitions Committee (2019).
Rüppell's vulture deserves a special mention. The species was originally distributed in savanna in the Sahel,
Ethiopia and Somalia, but it seems to have been extending its range into the North African region in the last 10
years because of global change and habitat degradation in its breeding areas in the southern Sahel (Chapter 6).
The black kite has been assessed as including the subspecies Milvus migrans aegyptius (yellow-billed kite),
which has very recently been treated as a separate species on the global Red List (BirdLife International, 2020a);
therefore, in future assessments it will be assessed separately.
Extinction
risk
10
2.5 Preliminary assessments and review process
A provisional species list of raptors breeding in the region was compiled in 2019 by the experts of BirdLife In-
ternational and IUCN-Med. Information on habitats and ecology, distribution, threats, conservation measures,
etc. was sourced and collated for all the native breeding raptors occurring in the North African region. All the
available relevant information on each species was input into the IUCN species database (Species Information
Service–SIS). Spatial data were sourced to produce species distribution maps.
Key distribution and status information and population estimates were obtained from the IUCN Red List of
Threatened Species (IUCN, 2020) and more than 100 literature references, of which the following should be
highlighted: The birds of Egypt (Goodman and Meininger, 1989), Oiseaux d'Algérie–Birds of Algeria (Isenmann
and Moali, 2000), The birds of Morocco: an annotated checklist (Thévenot et al., 2003), Oiseaux de Tunisie–
Birds of Tunisia (Isenmann et al., 2005), Oiseaux de Libye–Birds of Libya (Isenmann et al., 2016), Oiseaux du
Sahara Atlantique Marocain (Bergier et al., 2017), African Raptors (Clark and Davies, 2018), The OSME Region
List of Bird Taxa, Part A: Non-passerines. Version 5.1: July 2019 (OSME, 2019) and eBird: An online database of
bird distribution and abundance [web application] (eBird, 2020).
The species information was then reviewed at a regional workshop held in Tunisia in February 2020, where each
species’ assessment was evaluated by regional and international experts to ensure that the information present-
ed was complete and correct, and that the Red List category had been applied correctly.
CR
Rüppell's vulture (Gyps rueppelli) is one of the five Afrotropical raptors breeding in North Africa. It was originally distributed
in the Sahel and eastern Africa, but it seems to be colonising North Africa. It is classified as Critically Endangered (CR).
© Sahara Conservation Fund
11
IUCN Red List assessments for 46 native species of raptors present in North Africa were reviewed and validated
during the Tunisia workshop by the best regional experts. The status of each species was assessed according
to the IUCN basic Red Listing procedures and documents, including the IUCN Red List categories and criteria
(IUCN, 2012a) and the Guidelines for application of IUCN Red List criteria at regional and national levels (IUCN,
2012b). Following the workshop, the assessments were reviewed and supplementary information added from re-
cent publications where appropriate; any remaining issues were resolved through communication with workshop
participants.
2.6. Assessment review process
Experts from North African countries as well as on some raptor species were then asked to review the species
summary reports using a peer-review methodology. Their comments, together with any additional up-to-date
information, were included in the assessments.
Supported by relevant data sources and the scientific literature, these final regional assessments are therefore
the outcome of information exchange and agreement among the numerous North African raptor specialists
involved and their networks of informed colleagues.
Exper t participants at the North African breeding raptors Red List workshop, February 2020, Tunisia. © IUCN-Med
12
3. Assessment results
3.1. Conservation status of North African raptors
A full list of the breeding raptor species of North Africa, their regional IUCN Red List status and criteria, and a
rationale is given in Table 2 and Chapters 6 and 7. The list also includes 10 species that were considered Not
Applicable for regional assessment (see 2.4). The numbers and proportions of species in the various IUCN Red
List Categories are presented in Table 3.
Altogether, 12 species (33.3%) fall into one of the three categories (Critically Endangered, Endangered and Vulner-
able) which are collectively regarded as ‘threatened’. Seven are Critically Endangered CR (one of them Possibly
Regionally Extinct), four species are Endangered EN and one Vulnerable VU . A further four species are listed as
Near Threatened NT and 17 as Least Concern LC . Three species (Dark Chanting-goshawk, Cinereous Vulture
and Spanish Imperial Eagle) are Regionally Extinct. Each species classed as threatened (Critically Endangered,
Endangered and Vulnerable), Near Threatened and Regionally Extinct has an explanatory sheet in Chapter 6.
Table 2. Breeding birds of prey of North Africa and their Red List Status. Species considered Not Applicable (NA)
for regional assessment have also been included. (PRE = Possibly Regionally Extinct).
FA M I LY Common name Binomial taxonomic_authority Category
ACCIPITRIDAE Cinereous vulture Aegypius monachus (Linnaeus, 1766) RE
ACCIPITRIDAE Spanish imperial eagle Aquila adalberti Brehm, 1861 RE
ACCIPITRIDAE Dark chanting goshawk Melierax metabates Heuglin, 1861 RE
ACCIPITRIDAE Northern goshawk Accipiter gentilis (Linnaeus, 1758) CR
ACCIPITRIDAE Tawny eagle Aquila rapax (Temminck, 1828) CR
ACCIPITRIDAE Bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus (Linnaeus, 1758) CR
ACCIPITRIDAE Rüppell's vulture Gyps rueppelli (Brehm, 1852) CR
ACCIPITRIDAE Red kite Milvus milvus (Linnaeus, 1758) CR
ACCIPITRIDAE Lappet-faced vulture Torgos tracheliotos (Forster, 1791) CR
STRIGIDAE Marsh owl Asio capensis (Smith, 1834) CR
ACCIPITRIDAE Montagu's harrier Circus pygargus (Linnaeus, 1758) EN
ACCIPITRIDAE Egyptian vulture Neophron
percnopterus (Linnaeus, 1758) EN
PANDIONIDAE Osprey Pandion haliaetus (Linnaeus, 1758) EN
ACCIPITRIDAE Griffon vulture Gyps fulvus (Hablizl, 1783) VU
FALCONIDAE Eurasian hobby Falco subbuteo Linnaeus, 1758 VU
ACCIPITRIDAE Short-toed snake-eagle Circaetus gallicus (Gmelin, 1788) NT
ACCIPITRIDAE Western marsh harrier Circus aeruginosus (Linnaeus, 1758) NT
FALCONIDAE Sooty falcon Falco concolor Temminck, 1825 NT
FALCONIDAE Eleonora's falcon Falco eleonorae Géné, 1839 NT
ACCIPITRIDAE Eurasian sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus (Linnaeus, 1758) LC
13
Table 3. Summary of the Red List status of breeding species of raptors in the North African region.
The percentage in each category is given in parentheses.
IUCN Red List categories Species (%)
Regionally Extinct (RE) 3 (8.3%)
Critically Endangered (CR) Possibly
Regionally Extinct 1 (2.7%)
Critically Endangered (CR) 6 (16.7%)
Endangered (EN) 4 (11,1%)
Vulnerable (VU) 1 (2.8%)
Near Threatened (NT) 4 (11.1%)
Least Concern (LC) 17 (47.2%)
Total number of species assessed 36
The order Accipitriformes (eagles and vul-
tures) is the most threatened group (45.5% of
species), followed by Falconiformes (falcons
and kestrels) (14.3%) and Strigiformes (owls)
(14.3%).
FA M I LY Common name Binomial taxonomic_authority Category
ACCIPITRIDAE Golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos (Linnaeus, 1758) LC
ACCIPITRIDAE Bonelli's eagle Aquila fasciata (Vieillot, 1822) LC
ACCIPITRIDAE Long-legged buzzard Buteo rufinus (Cretzschmar, 1827) LC
ACCIPITRIDAE Black-winged kite Elanus caeruleus (Desfontaines, 1789) LC
ACCIPITRIDAE Booted eagle Hieraaetus pennatus (Gmelin, 1788) LC
ACCIPITRIDAE Black kite Milvus migrans (Boddaert, 1783) LC
FALCONIDAE Lanner falcon Falco biarmicus Temminck, 1825 LC
FALCONIDAE Lesser kestrel Falco naumanni Fleischer, 1818 LC
FALCONIDAE Peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus Tunstall, 1771 LC
FALCONIDAE Common kestrel Falco tinnunculus Linnaeus, 1758 LC
STRIGIDAE Northern long-eared owl Asio otus (Linnaeus, 1758) LC
STRIGIDAE Little owl Athene noctua (Scopoli, 1769) LC
STRIGIDAE Pharaoh eagle-owl Bubo ascalaphus Savigny, 1809 LC
STRIGIDAE Common scops-owl Otus scops (Linnaeus, 1758) LC
STRIGIDAE Tawny owl Strix aluco Linnaeus, 1758 LC
TYTONIDAE Barn owl Tyto alba (Scopoli, 1769) LC
ACCIPITRIDAE Eurasian buzzard Buteo buteo (Linnaeus, 1758) NA
ACCIPITRIDAE Hen harrier Circus cyaneus (Linnaeus, 1766) NA
ACCIPITRIDAE Lesser spotted eagle Clanga pomarina (Brehm, 1831) NA
ACCIPITRIDAE White-tailed eagle Haliaeetus albicilla (Linnaeus, 1758) NA
ACCIPITRIDAE European honey buzzard Pernis apivorus (Linnaeus, 1758) NA
FALCONIDAE Saker falcon Falco cherrug Gray, 1834 NA
FALCONIDAE Merlin Falco columbarius Linnaeus, 1758 NA
FALCONIDAE Red-footed falcon Falco vespertinus Linnaeus, 1766 NA
STRIGIDAE Short-eared owl Asio flammeus (Pontoppidan, 1763) NA
STRIGIDAE Eurasian eagle-owl Bubo bubo (Linnaeus, 1758) NA
14
Table 4. Regional Red List status by taxonomic order.
It is significant that the population trend of many species (15 of the 36 assessed species) is unknown (Figure
3). Ten species (30.3% of extant breeding species) show declining trends, all of which are threatened, and only
eight (24.4%) show increasing or stable trends (Figure 3).
Figure 3. Population trends of birds of prey currently breeding in Nor th African. Source data: IUCN Red List
Order
Number
of species RE CR EN VU NT LC % Threatened
Accipitriformes 22 3 6 3 1 2 7 45.5
Falconiformes 7 0 0 1 0 2 4 14.3
Strigiformes 7 0 1 0 0 0 6 14.3
Total number
of breeding
raptors assessed
36 3741417 33.5
Unknown
Decreasing
Stable
Increasing
Population trend
0 5 10 15
Number of species
LC and NT Threatened
15
The Spanish imperial eagle (Aquila adalberti) is Regionally Extinct in North Africa, but with
the increase of breeding subpopulations in Spain a growing number of young eagles like
this one have been visiting Morocco and even staying until breeding age. © Daniel Burón REGIONALLY
EXTINCT
RE
RE
16
3.2. Regionally Extinct species
Three species assessed in this report are Regionally Extinct as breeders, representing 8.3% of the native breed-
ing raptors of North Africa (Tables 2 and 3, Chapter 6). They are the cinereous vulture, Spanish imperial eagle
and dark chanting-goshawk, and are thought to have become Regionally Extinct in the last century. The first
two species are highly likely to recolonise Morocco because of the increasing Iberian subpopulations nearby,
but management measures to mitigate the impact of threats such as electrocution and disturbance need to
be implemented, and a possible translocation programme, reintroducing birds from the nearest healthy Iberian
populations, could be considered (IUCN/SSC, 2013).
The cinereous vulture and the Spanish imperial eagle were at the southern edge of their breeding range in North
Africa, especially in Morocco, and were never very abundant. These breeding populations are likely to have
survived because of immigration from the larger Spanish populations, but their decline during the 20th century
due to human persecution was too strong. Unintended poisoning, even resulting from Moroccan government
measures, was the main reason for the extirpation of raptors, including Spanish imperial eagles and cinereous
vultures, in the 20th century, but currently the most important threats are shooting, hunting, and habitat destruc-
tion and disturbance, especially in forests, due to the increase and spread of the human population.
Despite this, populations of both species are increasing in Europe, especially in Spain, and an increasing number
of immature individuals are visiting Morocco (Del Moral, 2017; Morandini et al., 2019) and staying until breeding
age (Godino et al., 2016; García and Garrido, 2017, 2019). The Spanish imperial eagle is a regular non-breeding
visitor to Morocco and Algeria, with few wintering areas in Morocco, mainly in the south but also in the east of the
country (Morandini et al., 2019). There are five main temporary settlement areas in Morocco (Kenifra, Mamora,
Low Draa, Missour and the western coast of Atlantic Sahara) and one in western Algeria around Tindouf (García
and Garrido, 2020). Therefore, there is potential for the re-establishment of a Moroccan breeding population if
the main threats (electrocution, low density of prey, and human persecution and disturbance) can be mitigated.
The dark chanting-goshawk is a widespread resident raptor occurring over large areas of sub-Saharan Afri-
ca, which used to have isolated subpopulations of the endemic subspecies M. m. theresae in south-western
Morocco. The original breeding range of the dark chanting-goshawk in North Africa included the argan forests
of the Souss Valley and adjacent Anti-Atlas foothills of Morocco (Vernon et al., 2005), but now it is Regionally
Extinct here with the last nesting record in 1979 (Heinze and Krott, 1979). The species was at the northern edge
of its range in North Africa and was never very abundant here: it was already considered rare by Lynes (1925).
In more recent years there have been only four sightings in the region of Souss but none since 2007, although
it has been actively searched for many times by many experienced ornithologists (Fareh et al., 2016), which in-
dicates that this species has definitely become extinct in Morocco. The species was extirpated due to changes
of land use in the Souss region (P. Bergier, 2020 pers. comm.).
What these three species have in common is that they nest in trees and are extremely sensitive to forest destruction
and human disturbance due to the intensity of human use, resulting in the abandonment of breeding territories.
17
3.3. Threatened species
Twelve species assessed in this report are threatened (33.3%), as they belong to one of the three IUCN threat
categories (Critically Endangered, Endangered and Vulnerable) (Tables 2 and 3, Chapter 6).
The most threatened species is the red kite, which is listed as Critically Endangered (Possibly Regionally Extinct)
because, after a decline in its breeding population since the end of 20th century due to poisoning, there has been
no evidence of breeding since 2004. Because it nests in trees, it is affected by forest destruction and human
disturbance due to the intensity of human use, resulting in the abandonment of breeding territories. Another
current limiting factor to the breeding population is climate change, because Morocco is at the southern limit of
the species' distribution and its breeding populations are moving to cooler northern areas.
There are six other Critically Endangered species: three vultures (bearded, lappet-faced and Rüppell´s), northern
goshawk, tawny eagle and marsh owl. All have small breeding populations.
The bearded vulture bred in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt in the past, but now the species is believed
to have only two small subpopulations of fewer than 30 mature individuals in the High Atlas of Morocco and in
Egypt, which have dramatically declined in recent decades because of human persecution. The lappet-faced
vulture has a small population in Egypt estimated at 20–40 mature individuals, which is declining because of
poisoning and human disturbance. It is extinct in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. The breeding population
of Rüppell’s vulture is very small (less than 20 mature individuals in Algeria), and it seems to have colonised
North Africa in the last 10 years. This could be assumed to be the beginning of a range displacement process
CR
The most threatened species in North Africa is the red kite (Milvus milvus), which is listed as Critically Endangered
(Possibly Regionally Extinct). © Daniel Burón
18
from the southern Sahel towards the southern Mediterranean region. Climate change and habitat degradation in
its original breeding areas have been proposed as the main causes (Kemp et al., 2020). The species is globally
assessed as Critically Endangered (BirdLife International, 2020b) and so it requires urgent conservation mea-
sures including a better understanding of the factors influencing changes in its distribution.
The northern goshawk also has a small population, with fewer than 40 mature individuals distributed in only
one subpopulation in northern Morocco. It has been in continuous decline in recent decades due to forest
destruction, human disturbance and nest robbery. The breeding population of tawny eagles is declining and
numbers fewer than 40 mature individuals in a single subpopulation in northern Algeria, because of poaching,
hunting, unintended poisoning, habitat destruction (especially of forests) and disturbance, due to an increase in
the human population. Finally, the marsh owl has a small and declining population estimated at 100–200 mature
individuals in one subpopulation in Morocco because of the drainage and degradation of marshlands, its main
suitable habitat.
Significantly, three of these CR species are also tree-nesting: the lappet-faced vulture, northern goshawk and
tawny eagle.
Four additional species are listed as Endangered: osprey, Egyptian vulture, Montagu’s harrier and Eurasian
hobby. The osprey has a small population in the northern Maghreb and along the Red Sea coast (< 150 mature
individuals), without any likelihood of immigration from nearby breeding sites in the Mediterranean region and
with ongoing major threats (human disturbance from fishing and tourism, power lines and windfarm develop-
ment). The Egyptian vulture still has a significant breeding population (750 pairs) from Morocco to Egypt, with
three separate subpopulations: a Maghreb subpopulation, including Mediterranean breeding populations in
Morocco, northern Algeria, Tunisia and northern Libya; a desert subpopulation in south-eastern Algeria and
Libya, which is more closely related to the Afrotropical population than to the Mediterranean one; and an Egyp-
tian subpopulation, isolated from the Mediterranean and desert subpopulations and more closely related to the
Arabian subpopulation. However, the species has declined by 50–79% over three generations (53 years) due
mainly to poisoning, except in Algeria. Montagu’s harrier occurs on the north-western coast and plains of east-
ern Morocco and north-western Algeria, with a small population of less than 105 breeding pairs that is declining
because of the conversion of its habitat to agricultural land. The Eurasian hobby is a local tree-nesting breeder
in forests in the northern half of the Maghreb, with an estimated 1,000–2,000 mature individuals, but all in one
declining subpopulation threatened by degradation of open wooded areas.
One native breeding raptor species is listed as Vulnerable in the region: the griffon vulture, which currently
breeds only in Algeria although an increasing number of individuals are immigrating from Europe to North Af-
rica. This species is extinct in Egypt, Tunisia and Morocco due to human persecution and the decline of wild
ungulates as food.
19
3.4. Near Threatened species
Overall, four species were assessed as Near Threatened (NT) (Tables 2 and 3, Chapter 6), reflecting concern
that they are close to qualifying for a threatened category and could do so in the near future. It is essential that
these species are monitored closely and, where possible, management action should be taken to avoid them
becoming listed as threatened in the future. One of them is a near-endemic species (with ≥70% of its global
range in the region), the sooty falcon, which occurs sparsely in Libya and Egypt. It has suffered from the collec-
tion of nestlings for falconry, and illegal killing may also affect the remaining population.
The short-toed snake eagle occurs over a wide range in three subpopulations, with 98% of individuals in the
Maghreb subpopulation. The loss of nesting sites due to logging (it nests in trees) as well as disturbance seem
to be the main threats. The western marsh-harrier has a wide range in marshes and reedbed wetlands in the
northern Maghreb, in a single subpopulation. Potential threats include wetland desiccation and drainage.
Lastly, Eleonora's falcon currently has a growing breeding population of more than 2,200 pairs, but they are
restricted to 10 islands and cliff sites in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, some of them highly dependent on
conservation actions, especially access restrictions to breeding colonies, and the population could decrease
drastically if these actions were to stop.
Though Eleonora’s falcon (Falco eleonorae) has a growing breeding population in North Africa, it is restricted to a few
islands and cliffs in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia and is highly dependent on conservation actions, especially access
restrictions to breeding colonies; it is listed as Near Threatened. © Daniel Burón
NT
20
3.5. Least Concern species
There are 17 native breeding raptor species (47.2%) listed as Least Concern (LC) in North Africa (Tables 2 and 3,
Chapter 7); they are not considered to be under any known major threat of extinction in the foreseeable future.
Many of these species are generally abundant and/or relatively widespread. Some of them may still benefit from
conservation management action, however, even though they are listed as LC.
Among the most common species, the nominal subspecies of black kite Milvus migrans migrans is a common
breeding migrant in north-western Africa, and is assessed as Least Concern, but the subspecies Milvus mi-
grans aegyptius (Yellow-billed Kite) is a scarce breeding resident in the Nile Valley and parts of the Nile Delta
in Egypt and has a very small population (150 mature individuals in one subpopulation), which is considered to
be gradually declining due to habitat degradation for agriculture and development. This subspecies has very
recently been treated as a separate species on the global Red List (BirdLife International, 2020a), and so any
future regional Red Lists should assess these subspecies separately, and it is likely that the yellow-billed kite will
be classed as regionally threatened.
3.6. Patterns of species richness
The North African breeding birds of prey assessed show a non-homogeneous geographical distribution. Most
species are distributed in the forests and steppes of the northern Maghreb, mainly from Morocco to Tunisia but
also in north-eastern Libya, coinciding with the area of greatest Mediterranean influence and the southern limit
of distribution for most of the Western Palaearctic species (Figure 4). It is also the area most densely populated
by humans. Only Bonelli's eagle and Eleonora's falcon are found further south in Morocco. Bonelli's eagle is the
most abundant large eagle in North Africa, and it is a characteristic raptor of Mediterranean environments. It is
well established in the Maghreb, including the northern Sahara, with a few pairs breeding in the eastern Red Sea
mountains and southern Sinai in Egypt. Eleonora’s falcon breeds in colonies on islands around the Mediterranean
Sea and along the north-west coast of Africa in the middle of Morocco.
Other important areas are located in the Sahara desert, including the Ahaggar mountains and Tassili n'Ajjer pla-
teau in southern Algeria; the Tibesti mountains, granite mountains and oasis of Kufra in south-eastern Libya; and
the Nile delta and valley, Sinai–Red Sea mountains and Gebel Elba in Egypt.
The spatial distribution of threatened birds of prey species has a similar pattern (Figure 5), with most of the threat-
ened species concentrated in the northernmost part of the Maghreb, in particular the Tingitana Peninsula in
Morocco and the Mediterranean forests of Algeria, but also in Gebel Elba, the southern Nile Valley and southern
Sinai in Egypt. Other areas with some threatened species occur along the coast from the Atlantic Sahara in Mo-
rocco to the Red Sea coast in Egypt, the whole Nile valley and some desert areas between Algeria and Morocco,
southern Algeria and south-eastern Libya.
It should be noted that the North Africa region hosts five species of breeding vultures (lappet-faced, bearded,
Egyptian, griffon and Rüppell's), all of them threatened at regional level, with very small populations in all countries
except Algeria. This country has the last breeding population of the tawny eagle, the only breeding populations of
the griffon and Rüppell's vultures in the region and an apparently large population of Egyptian vultures, suggest-
ing that it could act as a source of individuals for these three species to recolonise the region.
21
Figure 4. Species richness of breeding raptors of North Africa. Map based on the data collected by the authors.
Figure 5. Species richness of threatened breeding raptors of North Africa. Map based on the data collected
by the authors.
© IUCN
© IUCN
22
3.7. Major threats to raptors in North Africa
A summary of the major threats to breeding raptors in North Africa, according to the IUCN Threats Classification
Scheme, is presented in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Summary of threats to all native species assessed in the North African region.
The whole region of North Africa faces the problem of raptor poaching for illegal trade (Emile et al., 2014; Brochet
et al., 2016; MaghrebOrnitho, 2020). This is important for hawks and especially falcons, particularly sooty, lanner
and peregrine falcons, some of which are trapped for falconry (Brochet et al., 2016) and traded in international
and local markets. There is also evidence of illegal trade in all owl species in North Africa (Brochet et al., 2016),
but these can be considered anecdotal events (Red List Review Workshop Tunisia, 2020).
Illegal killing by poaching and shooting is a major threat confirmed at least for large eagles in Morocco and Libya
(Karim Rousselon, pers. comm., 2019; S. Buirzayqah, pers. comm., 2020).
Vultures and other scavenger raptors such as the Spanish imperial eagle, tawny eagle and red kite were extir-
pated from huge areas of North Africa in the 20th century because of their scavenging habits. They were often
unintended victims of poisons used for predator control by farmers (Garrido et al., 2014; Andevski, 2017; Botha
et al., 2017). Algeria appears to be the only country where this threat did not affect breeding populations, so it is
where the greatest diversity of birds of prey exists and it is the last refuge for many of the species, especially the
Egyptian vulture and tawny eagle.
Another important threat is the use of pesticides and rodenticides in agriculture, which can have a negative
impact on breeding success, reduce prey density and cause secondary poisoning through consumption of
Residential & commercial development - Commercial & industrial areas
Residential & commercial development - Tourism & recreation areas
Biological resource use - Fishing & harvesting aquatic resources
Natural system modifications - Other ecosystem modifications
Pollution - Garbage & solid waste
Climate change & severe weather - Other impacts
Inbreeding
Invasive & other problematic species & genes - Invasive non-native/alien species
Natural system modifications - Fire & fire suppression
Residential & commercial development - Housing & urban areas
Agriculture & aquaculture - Wood & pulp plantations
Natural system modifications - Dams & water management /use
Human intrusions & disturbance - Work & other activities
Invasive & other problematic species & genes - Problematic native species
Transportation & service corridors - Roads & railroads
Agriculture & aquaculture - Livestock farming & ranching
Biological resource use - Logging & wood harvesting
Human intrusions & disturbance - Recreational activities
Agriculture & aquaculture - Annual & perennia l non-timber crops
Energy production & mining - Renewable energy
Transportation & service corridors - Utility & service lines
Pollution - Agricultural & forestry effluents
Biological resource use - Hunting & trapping terrestrial animals
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Threatened
LC, NT
RE
23
poisoned corpses. Internationally banned organochlorine pesticides are locally available, poisoning animals and
polluting soils and water (Garrido et al. 2014). Cases of poisoning at rubbish dumps have been found in some
scavenger species. Nevertheless, these places are key feeding habitats when they are properly managed (JMM
and Associates, 2015). Additionally, veterinary application of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac,
which has caused the near-extinction of several Gyps vultures in India, may have a negative impact on vulture
species in this region too.
Habitat destruction and disturbance, especially of forests due to the use of wood as fuel for cooking and heating
and the felling of large trees to clear land for crops and livestock are also an important threat. This especially
affects raptors that nest in trees and may lead them to abandon their breeding territories (Stuart and Collar,
1988; Garrido et al., 2005; Vernon et al., 2005; Fellous, 2017; Tellería et al., 2019). This could be the reason why
Bonelli’s and golden eagles have apparently stopped nesting in trees in Morocco (Cuzin, 2019). The conversion
of grasslands to agricultural land is the main threat to Montagu’s harrier and the marsh owl. These species are
also affected by disturbance from farmers and pastoralists, and from birders in the case of the marsh owl. Finally,
vultures and other scavenger species can be affected by food scarcity. Though livestock is very abundant, local
traditions such as burying domestic ungulate carcasses decrease food resources for these species, especially in
Morocco (Garrido et al., 2014; Allaoui and Cherkaoui, 2018).
The expansion of the electric power network during the last 50 years has caused an increase in electrocutions
on power lines (Garrido, 2019) (Box 1). Electrocutions have been identified as a major threat in Morocco (Godino
et al., 2016; UICN and DEF, 2020) and Algeria (Abdelguerfi and Ramdane, 2003), but it must be common across
Poisoning could be limiting recovery of threatened populations of scavengers
species such as Egyptian vultures Neophron percnopterus, listed as EN in North Africa. © Íñigo Fajardo
EN
24
BOX 1
THE IMPACT OF POWER LINES ON BIRDS OF PREY
Although there is no estimate of bird mortality in North Africa, accidents involving raptors and electric
power lines are among the main causes of non-natural mortality for many species and in some cases
the greatest problem facing their conservation (Martín-Martín et al., 2019).
A well-documented recent case concerns a raptor electrocution black spot in south-western Morocco
(Amezian et al., 2015; Godino et al., 2016). A total of 70 electrocuted birds, including many young indi-
viduals, belonging to 7 different species were found during the inspection of 403 pylons: 4 white storks
(Ciconia ciconia), 4 Spanish imperial eagles, 5 golden eagles, 40 Bonelli’s eagles, 12 long-legged buz-
zards, 4 lanner falcons and 1 Pharaoh eagle-owl. Other areas with high rates of raptor electrocution
have since been found in various parts of the country, indicating that the problem is very widespread
and is likely to be just as serious in other areas of North Africa. The data collected on the impact of
power lines on birds, in particular raptors, revealed that power lines are a signicant threat for several
Regionally Extinct and threatened species, such as the Spanish imperial eagle and the griffon, Egyp-
tian and Rüppell’s vultures (Chapter 6).
Power lines may therefore be limiting the survival and population recovery of threatened species such as
red kites and vultures, and they may also be reducing the chances of the Spanish imperial eagle recol-
onising Morocco. Governments, companies, nancial institutions and other stakeholders must ensure
that existing and planned energy infrastructure that is harmful to birds is identied and subject to urgent
remediation. A practical guide to the identication and prevention of dangerous power lines for birds
in the Maghreb region (Martín Martín et al., 2019) is freely available through the IUCN library system.
To improve bird habitats and minimise or eliminate deaths of priority bird species from these causes,
the Safe Flyways project (https://mava-foundation.org/oaps/reducing-mortality-of-migratory-birds-
and-vultures/) operates in the Mediterranean region developing research to support action and inu-
ence policies and strategies, raising awareness amongst stakeholders about priority issues, develop-
ing the capacity of local authorities and civil society to play an active role at national level, advocating
the establishment of national policies and legislation, and implementing local activities to minimise
threats in the most problematic localities.
the rest of North Africa as well, due to the lack of policies to retrofit power lines. This threat affects breeding and
wintering populations of eagles, falcons, long-legged buzzards, vultures and owls (Godino et al., 2016; UICN and
DEF, 2020). Dangerous power lines may also limit the possibility of re-colonisation by Spanish imperial eagles
(Morandini et al., 2019) and the survival of red kites (Radi et al., 2020) in Morocco.
Collisions with vehicles cause mortality to most owls, kites and long-legged buzzards when they approach roads
to feed on roadkill.
Additionally, almost all species of diurnal breeding raptors are highly vulnerable to wind farm developments. The
increasing number of massive wind energy projects in the migratory corridors of northern Morocco, Tunisia and
Egypt could pose a huge threat to migrant and dispersing threatened species such as Spanish imperial eagles,
griffon, cinereous, Egyptian and Rüppell’s vultures, Montagu’s harriers, red kites and Eurasian hobbies. Similarly,
the conversion of large eagles’ feeding habitats to solar farms may also be an important potential threat.
Genetic erosion through inbreeding is a significant threat to the bearded vulture, tawny eagle, northern goshawk
and marsh owl.
25
4. Conservation actions
Landscapes of natural and agricultural habitats in the North African region are facing major losses of birds of
prey due to illegal killing, illegal trade, mortality caused by human infrastructures and poisoning, and habitat loss
especially of forests and wetlands.
Some conservation measures are in place for either species or ecosystems (Chapter 6), but they need to be
reinforced and effectively implemented to preserve and recover raptor populations. Their protection status varies
from one country to another, and there is an urgent need to implement conservation actions.
4.1. International instruments potentially
relevant to the conservation and management
of North African birds of prey
North African countries are signatories to a number of important treaties, conventions, agreements and regional
instruments aimed at conserving biodiversity. The following are the most relevant to the conservation and man-
agement of birds of prey. Currently, all birds of prey are legally protected and listed in the appendices of interna-
tional conventions (Table 5). More efforts are therefore needed to implement them more effectively.
CITES – the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora is an interna-
tional agreement between governments that aims to ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals
and plants does not threaten their survival. The species covered by CITES are listed in three Appendices, accord-
ing to the degree of protection they need. CITES is legally binding on the Parties and provides a framework to be
respected by each Party, which must adopt its own domestic legislation to ensure that CITES is implemented at
the national level. The five North African countries are signatory parties of this Convention.
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn
Convention or CMS)- CMS is an environmental treaty of the United Nations which brings together the
States through which migratory animals pass, the Range States, and lays the legal foundation for internationally
coordinated conservation measures throughout a migratory range. Migratory species threatened with extinction
are listed in Appendix I to the Convention. CMS Parties strive towards strictly protecting these animals, conserv-
ing or restoring the places where they live, mitigating obstacles to migration and controlling other factors that
might endanger them. Migratory species that need or would significantly benefit from international co-operation
are listed in Appendix II to the Convention. For this reason, the Convention encourages the Range States to con-
clude global or regional agreements.
CMS Memorandum of Understanding on the Conservation of Migratory Birds of Prey in Africa and
Eurasia (Raptors MOU), is one of several instruments operating under the CMS. It aims to promote internationally
coordinated actions to achieve and maintain the favourable conservation status of migratory birds of prey through-
out their range in the African-Eurasian region, and to reverse their decline when and where appropriate.
Multi-species Action Plan to Conserve African-Eurasian Vultures, adopted by CMS parties in 2017, it
provides a strategic conservation plan covering the geographic ranges (128 states) of all 15 species of migratory
African-Eurasian ("Old World") vultures and promoting concerted, collaborative and coordinated international
actions to save vultures species from further decline and extinction.
26
CMS Task Forces In response to serious problems with far-reaching international consequences and potentially
severe impacts on the conservation of migratory species, the Convention has established Task Forces in con-
junction with regular partners and other stakeholders. Two of them are tasked with reducing some of the main
threats to birds of prey in North Africa:
- The Intergovernmental Task Force on Illegal Killing, Taking and Trade of Migratory Birds (MIKT) is intended to
facilitate international cooperation and the implementation of existing guidelines and action plans for the eradi-
cation of illegal killing, trapping and trade of wild birds. All the countries of North Africa are members of this Task
Force and responsible for the implementation of the agreed plans in their territories.
- The Energy Task Force is a multi-stakeholder initiative which works towards reconciling renewable energy de-
velopments with conservation of migratory species by avoiding and minimising the negative impacts of energy
developments on migratory species. Only two North African countries, Morocco and Egypt, are members of
the Task Force. Given the known impacts of energy infrastructure on birds of prey, it would be advisable for the
other North African countries to join as members and work to apply best practices to avoid bird collisions with
and electrocutions on power lines and collisions with wind farms.
The growth of electrification in North Africa has
increased the number of dangerous power lines for
raptors resulting in deaths by collision with wires
and, especially, electrocution on poles. Bonelli’s
Eagle electrocuted in Morocco. © Íñigo Fajardo
27
Falcons
and
kestrels
Lanner falcon Falco biarmicus LC (2016) LC II II
Sooty falcon Falco concolor VU (2017) NT II II
Eleonora's falcon Falco eleonorae LC (2016) NT II II
Lesser kestrel Falco naumanni LC (2018) LC II I, II
Peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus LC (2016) LC I II
Eurasian hobby Falco subbuteo LC (2016) VU II II
Common kestrel Falco tinnunculus LC (2016) LC II II
Vultures
Cinereous vulture Aegypius monachus NT (2018) RE II II
Bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus NT (2016) CR II II
Griffon vulture Gyps fulvus LC (2016) VU II II
Rüppell's vulture Gyps rueppelli CR (2016) CR II I, II
Egyptian vulture Neophron
percnopterus EN (2019) EN II I
Lappet-faced vulture Torgos tracheliotos EN (2016) CR II I, II
Eagles,
hawks,
harriers,
kites and
buzzards
Northern goshawk Accipiter gentilis LC (2016) CR II II
Eurasian sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus LC (2016) LC II II
Spanish imperial eagle Aquila adalberti VU (2019) RE I I, II
Golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos LC (2016) LC II II
Bonelli’s eagle Aquila fasciata LC (2016) LC II -
Tawny eagle Aquila rapax VU (2018) CR II II
Long-legged buzzard Buteo rufinus LC (2016) LC II II
Short-toed
snake eagle Circaetus gallicus LC (2016) NT II II
Western marsh-harrier Circus aeruginosus LC (2016) NT II II
Montagu's harrier Circus pygargus LC (2016) EN II II
Black-winged kite Elanus caeruleus LC (2019) LC II -
Booted eagle Hieraaetus pennatus LC (2016) LC II II
Dark chanting-
goshawk Melierax metabates LC (2016) RE II -
Black kite Milvus migrans LC (2020) LC II II
Red kite Milvus milvus LC (2020)
CR (Possibly
Regionally
Extinct)
II II
Osprey Pandion haliaetus LC (2016) EN II II
Owls
Marsh owl Asio capensis LC (2016) CR II -
Northern
long-eared owl Asio otus LC (2018) LC II -
Little owl Athene noctua LC (2018) LC II -
Pharaoh eagle-owl Bubo ascalaphus LC (2016) LC II -
Common scops-owl Otus scops LC (2019) LC II -
Tawny owl Strix aluco LC (2016) LC II -
Barn owl Tyto alba LC (2016) LC II -
Common name Scientific name
IUCN Red List
Category at the
Global level
IUCN Red List
Category
at the north
African level
CMS
Appendices
CITES
Appendices
Table 5. Legal protection of birds of prey at international level in North Africa.
28
5. Conclusions
and recommendations
This report represents the first regional IUCN Red List assessment of the breeding birds of prey in North Africa.
Thirty-six of the 46 species occurring in the North African countries have breeding populations in the region, but
12 of them are threatened with extinction and 3 are considered extinct in the region. Threatened species are
concentrated in the northernmost part of the Maghreb, in particular the Tingitana Peninsula in Morocco and the
Mediterranean forests of Algeria, and in the Gebel Elba mountains, southern Nile Valley and southern Sinai in
Egypt. There is a significant lack of data on population status and trends for most of the species, highlighting the
need to regard census programmes as priorities for research and funding.
The outputs of this assessment can be used to inform conservation measures for individual species and suites of
species. They can also be applied at the regional scale to assist governments and organisations, such as IUCN,
in identifying important sites for conservation, including Key Biodiversity Areas, at national or regional scales.
To improve the conservation status of north African raptors urgent conservation measures are needed. In particular:
➜ Breeding and wintering populations of raptors, especially of threatened species, need to be surveyed
and monitored to determine, protect and manage existing and potential breeding areas. Only regular
counts can provide the data required to follow up raptor populations in detail.
➜ Satellite tracking of birds of prey should be carried out to locate key breeding, dispersal and wintering
areas and to identify causes of unnatural mortality and other threats in order to reduce them.
➜ National and international legislation should be fully implemented and revised to protect the threatened
species identified in this assessment and their habitats.
➜ Species/habitat action plans should be drawn up for the most threatened species to enable their popu-
lations to recover to the point where they can be downlisted in the regional Red List.
The provision of feeding stations is beneficial to recover breeding populations of scavengers species such Griffon and
Rüppell’s Vultures. Feeding Station at North Morocco (©Rachid El Khamlichi).
The provision of fee ding stations can help restore bree ding populations of scavenger species such griffon and Rüppell’s vultures.
Feeding station in northern Morocco. © Rachid El Khamlichi
29
➜ The strong regional cooperation between experts must continue and new cooperation efforts must be
initiated with experts from countries where information is scarce, so that the work carried out to produce
this first evaluation of the conservation status of native North African raptors can be updated as new
information becomes available.
➜ Links between IUCN and its partners and decision and policy makers must be maintained and strength-
ened, and the data must be made freely available to all individuals and organisations.
➜ Important nesting areas need to be identified and protected and human disturbance around nest sites
must be avoided, especially in the case of tree-breeding species. Appropriate management of wood-
lands should maintain old trees, prevent fires and mitigate the impact of road construction.
➜ Wide-scale habitat conservation measures are required, including the maintenance of low-intensity
farming with the preservation of hedges and careful management of pesticides. Any unavoidable affor-
estation or deforestation should occur outside the breeding season and should only result in partial, not
total, habitat change.
➜ Raptors need to be effectively protected in breeding and wintering areas with a plentiful supply of food
(which often includes the carrion of domestic animals). The provision of feeding stations would be ben-
eficial for vultures, tawny eagles and red kites, particularly when food is scarce. Selection of areas and
intervention methods should be included in the species action plans and protocols must be followed to
ensure the safety and survival of the birds.
➜ Reintroduction and population reinforcement programmes could be used to restore Regionally Extinct
and threatened species, if they are properly planned and focus on reducing threats.
➜ Dangerous electricity pylons should be retrofitted to avoid electrocutions and dangerous lines should be
marked to avoid collisions. Priority areas for power line mitigation work should be identified and mea-
sures to reduce mortality put in place in line with current best practice (see Box 1).
➜ A strategy to combat poisoning, poaching, shooting and illegal trade should be developed and imple-
mented enforced, including stronger legislation and its enforcement, systematic monitoring at national
scale, staff and police training, effective restrictions on access to and use of toxic substances, collection
of information and promotion of experience-sharing between countries facing similar issues.
The provision of feeding stations is beneficial to recover breeding populations of scavengers species such Griffon and
Rüppell’s Vultures. Feeding Station at North Morocco (©Rachid El Khamlichi).
30
Aegypius monachus
Map created 17/2/2021
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map
do not imply any official endorsement, acceptance or opinion by IUCN.
North Africa Raptor Red List
Extant & Vagrant (passage)
Cinereous vulture, Aegypius monachus - (Linnaeus, 1766)
POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
- - - -
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: REGIONALLY EXTINCT (RE)
This species is listed as Regionally Extinct in North
Africa because there is no evidence of breeding for
the last 80 years. However, movements of Span-
ish birds through Morocco every year indicate it
could recolonise Morocco due to an increase in
the Iberian population, as long as management
measures are adopted to mitigate the impact of
threats such as electrocution and disturbance. A
possible reintroduction programme should also
be considered.
DISTRIBUTION
The original breeding range of the species included
Morocco and Egypt, but it was extirpated during
the 20th century and now it is a rare migrant to Mo-
rocco and north-eastern Egypt (mainly dispersing
juveniles) (Raw, 1921; Goodman and Meininger,
1989; Andevski, 2017; Andevski et al., 2017; Clark
and Davies, 2018). The species probably bred until
the 1930s in northern Morocco (southern Tangier,
Central Plateau and Middle Atlas) (Thévenot et al.,
2003) and in the Nile Valley in Egypt (Goodman and
Meininger, 1989). It was also sighted in Algeria in
the 19th century but it could have been confused
with the lappet-faced vulture (Isenmann and Moali,
2000). The species was at the southern edge of its
range in North Africa and it was never very abun-
dant. Vagrant individuals coming from Europe have
been sighted in Tunisia (Isenmann et al., 2005),
passing through Algeria (Andevski et al., 2017) and
even into Mauritania and Mali (GREFA, 2020; F.
Lörcher pers. comm.). It is a regular non-breeding
visitor in Morocco, passing on to more southern
countries (MaghrebOrnitho, 2018c).
6. Regionally Extinct, Threatened
and Near Threatened species
assessment sheets
© Daniel Burón
© IUCN
Aegypius monachus Map created 17/2/2021
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map
do not imply any official endorsement, acceptance or opinion by IUCN.
North Africa Raptor Red List
Extant & Vagrant (passage)
Distribution range of the C inereo us vulture, Aegypius monachus -
(Linnaeus, 1766) in Nor th Africa. Source: The IUC N Red List of the
breedi ng birds of prey of Nor th Africa.
REGIONALLY
EXTINCT
RE
RE
31
POPULATION
The North African population of the species is likely to have survived because of immigration from the larger
Spanish population, but its decline during the 20th century was too strong. Nowadays, populations are increasing
in Europe, especially in Spain, where there are at least 2,550 breeding pairs (Del Moral, 2017), and since 2003
individuals have been regularly recorded crossing the Strait of Gibraltar – mainly juveniles (El Khamlichi, 2016,
2017; MagrhebOrnitho, 2017, 2018a), but also older birds (MagrhebOrnitho, 2018b). Therefore, there is a potential
for the re-establishment of a Moroccan breeding population if threats disappear.
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
The cinereous vulture used to breed in trees at low altitudes in North Africa (Thévenot et al., 2003; Clark and Da-
vies, 2018) in sparsely inhabited forested areas similar to its Iberian habitats. The species is a partial migrant (Bild-
stein, 2006), and sedentary in some areas, but many individuals winter south of the breeding range and there is
a considerable degree of nomadism. In Europe, the adults are mostly sedentary while the juvenile birds disperse
over larger areas (Andevski, 2017). Currently, a few birds – probably only a few dozen annually – visit Morocco and
reach as far south as West Africa (MaghrebOrnitho, 2018c). Their diet consists mainly of medium-sized or large
mammal carcasses, although snakes and insects have been recorded as food items. Live prey is rarely taken.
THREATS
As with other scavenger species, widespread accidental poisoning, largely with strychnine used by many farmers
for predator control, and more recently with carbofuran, has contributed significantly to declines (Garrido et al., 2014;
Andevski, 2017; Botha et al., 2017). Internationally banned organochlorine pesticides, still locally available, are used to
kill wildlife and they pollute the environment (Mundy et al., 1992; Garrido et al., 2014; Andevski, 2017). There are fears
that veterinary application of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac, which has caused the near-extinc-
tion of several Gyps vultures in India, may have a negative impact on Aegypius monachus (Inskipp et al., 2016).
Food availability for the species is decreasing due to the almost complete absence of wild ungulates, which is caused
by the increase and spread of the human population and by habitat change (Garrido et al., 2014; Andevski, 2017).
Additionally, although livestock are very abundant, local traditions such as burying domestic ungulate carcasses
decrease food availability for scavengers, especially in Morocco (Garrido et al., 2014; Allaoui and Cherckaoui, 2018).
Felling trees to clear land for agriculture and disturbance due to the intensive use of forests for timber extraction pose
a particular threat to tree-nesting raptors (such as the cinereous vulture) and can lead them to abandon their breeding
territories (Margalida et al., 2011). In the Middle East, Andevski (2017) indicates other threats: poisoning at dump sites
because of the lack of waste management, hunting, poaching and collisions with wind turbines and power lines.
Another threat is likely to be electrocution on energy infrastructure as in other areas of its range (Shimelis et al., 2005).
CONSERVATION
Conservation actions in place: CITES Appendix II, CMS Appendix II. Included in a multi-species action plan
for African–Eurasian vultures (Botha et al., 2017). There are some initiatives to build feeding stations, rescue and
release sick and injured wild individuals, and tag vultures (including attaching GPS loggers) in Morocco (R. El
Khamlichi, pers. comm., 2019; K. Rousselon, pers. comm., 2020).
Conservation actions needed: Non-intensive livestock management systems should be maintained to ensure a
food supply; feeding stations could be beneficial when food is scarce. Reintroduction has been successful in parts
of its range (Botha et al., 2017). Effectively managed open landfill sites could be key feeding habitats (JMM and As-
sociates, 2015). The ban on poisoned carcasses should be enforced and the leaving of dead animals encouraged.
Surveys of the migrant European population should be conducted to determine, protect, and manage potential
breeding sites and the key dispersal area. Diclofenac and other harmful NSAIDs should be controlled. Legislation
regulating the trade in pesticides used to poison meat baits should be strengthened and enforced.
Assessor(s): Garrido López, J.R., Rousselon, K., Cherkaoui, I., Azafzaf, H., Chokri, M.A., Etayeb, K., Haitham, O. & Riad, S.
Reviewer(s): Monti, F. & Numa, C. / Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., BirdLife International, El Khamlichi, R. & Lörcher, F.
Date: 2020–09–07
32
Spanish imperial eagle, Aquila adalberti - Brehm, 1861
POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
- - - -
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: REGIONALLY EXTINCT (RE)
This species qualifies as Regionally Extinct because there is no evidence of breeding over the last 30 years. How-
ever, it could recolonise Morocco either naturally through an increase in the Iberian population or via a possible
reintroduction programme, provided that management measures are adopted to mitigate the impact of threats
such as electrocution and disturbance.
DISTRIBUTION
Most of the population of this eagle breeds in Spain, with a small but increasing population in Portugal. The orig-
inal breeding range of the species included the Iberian Peninsula, northern Morocco and Algeria. The species
bred in northern Morocco (Tangier Peninsula, northern Rharb, Mamora Forest, Zaër, Western Middle Atlas and
Rif) until the first half of the 20th century, with only three breeding records later in 1977, 1991 and 1995 in the Rif
Mountains (Fouarge, 1992; Thévenot et al., 2003). It was also cited as a breeder in Algeria in the 19th century
(Isenmann and Moali, 2000). The species was sighted in the second half of 20th century in western and northern
Algeria and Libya (Isenmann and Moali, 2000; Isenmann et al., 2016; Morandini et al., 2019). The species was at
the southern edge of its range in North Africa, and survived here thanks to immigrants from the larger Spanish
population (Ferrer, 2001), although it was never very abundant in this region (Tellería et al., 2019). The species is a
regular non-breeding visitor in Morocco and Algeria and frequents a few wintering areas in Morocco, mainly in the
south but also in the east of the country (Morandini et al., 2019). There are five main temporary settlement areas in
Morocco (Kenifra, Mamora, Low Draa, Missour and Western Coast of Atlantic Sahara) and one in western Algeria
around Tindouf (Spanish Imperial Eagle Action Plan of Junta de Andalucía, pers. comm.).
© Daniel Burón
REGIONALLY
EXTINCT
RE
RE
33
POPULATION
The North African population is likely to have survived because of immigration from the larger Spanish popula-
tion, until it declined during the 20th century due to human persecution (Ferrer, 2001). In Algeria, even when it
was breeding in the 19th century, it was already considered very rare and was dependent on immigration from
populations outside the country. When the Iberian population almost went extinct in the 20th century, very few
individuals crossed to Africa, but the growth in the Spanish population in the last 15 years has resulted in an
increasing number of birds crossing to Morocco (Garrido, 2019; Morandini et al., 2019). Young Spanish imperial
eagles have been visiting Morocco since 2000 and wintering in the Guelmin/Tan-Tan region because of the high
periodic abundance of prey, such as fat sand rats (Psammomys obesus) (Bergier et al., 2017; Garrido, 2019).
Several dozen juveniles are observed each year crossing the Strait of Gibraltar and this number is increasing (A.
Onrubia, pers. comm.). In 2016–19, tagged Spanish imperial eagles with GPS–GSM transmitters from southern
Spain moved throughout Morocco, including the north, the Middle and High Atlas, the Anti-Atlas, the Atlantic
coast, the Sahara and the eastern provinces, and even into western Algeria and Mauritania (Morandini et al.,
2016, 2019; García and Garrido, 2017, 2019; Spanish Imperial Eagle Action Plan of Junta de Andalucía, pers.
comm.). Although most of the eagles returned to Spain in less than a year, there are data showing individuals
staying in Morocco for two and three years, until breeding age (Godino et al., 2016; García and Garrido, 2017,
2019). As a result of the population increase in Andalusia and the Iberian Peninsula an increasing number of im-
mature Spanish imperial eagles are visiting Morocco, so there is a chance that a Moroccan breeding population
may become re-established (Morandini et al., 2019).
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
This species used to breed in large, tall trees in forested plains and hills in North Africa, including in open cork oak
woodlands surrounding lowland marshes (Thévenot et al., 2003). These sparsely populated Mediterranean for-
ests were similar to the species’ current Iberian habitat. In Spain, tree height and distance from human activities
are the most important variables that explain nest site selection (Bisson et al., 2002), but many recently colonised
territories are located in human-modified habitats, especially farmlands with high rabbit abundance (González
and Oria, 2004; Castaño, 2005; González et al., 2006; Margalida et al., 2007; García and Garrido, 2019).
Breeding birds are sedentary, but immature birds are nomadic, dispersing in Morocco and Algeria through open
feeding areas (Moroccan Sahara, eastern Morocco, forest hunting reserves in western Morocco, and the Parc
Culturel de l'Atlas Saharien in eastern Algeria) where eagles find sufficient prey, including fat sand rats, Barbary
ground squirrels, partridges and large lizards (Morandini et al., 2016, 2019; Fellous, 2017; García and Garrido,
2017, 2019). There are several main temporary settlement areas in Morocco and Algeria (Morandini et al., 2019).
The small number of settlement events in North Africa may be due to the difficulty of finding optimal food patches
because of the absence of the eagles’ usual prey (rabbits) and the irregularity of possible alternative prey, such
as small rodents of arid zones that have
demographic explosions associated with
periods of seasonal rains (Morandini et al.,
2019; Spanish Imperial Eagle Action Plan
of Junta de Andalucía, pers. comm.). This
irregular, seasonal distribution of alterna-
tive prey may have led the birds to disperse
over greater areas to find food and to move
longer distances during exploratory forays,
resulting in greater dispersion in their tem-
porary settlements in North Africa (Moran-
dini et al., 2019).
© IUCN
Distribution range of the Spanish imperial eagle, Aquila adalberti -
Brehm, 1861 in N orth Af rica. Source: Th e IUCN Red L ist of the
breedi ng birds of prey of Nor th Africa.
34
THREATS
The re-establishment of the species in Morocco can only be successful if the threats to its survival (electrocu-
tion, prey scarcity and human persecution and disturbance) are reduced not only in potential breeding areas but
also in dispersal and settlement areas, such as protected hunting reserves in northern Morocco and the areas
found by Morandini et al. (2019). In south-western Morocco, a 24 km power line is the main known black spot
for non-natural mortality of raptors in the Maghreb, killing Spanish imperial eagles dispersing from Spain (Godino
et al., 2016). Another power line in south-eastern Morocco also kills dozens of raptors annually, including one
Spanish imperial eagle from southern Spain (UICN and DEF, 2020; Garrido and García, 2017). Another eagle was
electrocuted in the north-east of the country in 2019 (Spanish Imperial Eagle Action Plan of Junta de Andalucía,
pers. comm.). Electrocution is an important threat because the electrification of Morocco has been progressing
in the last 30 years without measures to protect birds perching on poles. This problem could limit the chances
of the Spanish Imperial Eagle recolonising Morocco (Morandini et al., 2019). Collisions with power infrastructure
may also be a significant mortality factor, as in other areas of the world, but the lack of survey and monitoring
programmes makes it difficult to assess this threat.
Unintended poisoning, even resulting from Moroccan government measures, was the main reason for the extir-
pation of raptors, including Spanish imperial eagles, in the 20th century. The poison was introduced into the envi-
ronment to target livestock predators such as jackals, wolves, feral dogs or leopards. However, this threat seems
to be less important today (Garrido et al., 2014). In Morocco tagging of large eagles (Spanish imperial, golden
and Bonellí's eagles) with GPS loggers is showing they are being shot and hunted (K. Rousselon, pers. obs.).
The increase and spread of the human population has also led to habitat destruction and disturbance (Stuart
and Collar, 1988; Garrido et al., 2005; Vernon et al., 2005; Fellous, 2017; Tellería et al., 2019), especially in forests
due to the use of wood as fuel for cooking and heating and the felling of large trees to clear land for crops and
livestock. Forest destruction and human disturbance due to intense human use especially threatens tree-nesting
raptors like the Spanish imperial eagle, leading them to abandon their breeding territories. Human population
growth caused a decline of wild ungulates and other prey because these animals were hunted to feed people.
Other anthropogenic threats are fragmentation of habitats due to the increase of road networks, buildings, dams,
power lines, etc. (BirdLife International, 2018a). Similarly, the increasing number of massive wind energy projects
in northern Morocco could kill Spanish imperial eagles crossing the Strait of Gibraltar.
CONSERVATION
Conservation actions in place: CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendices I and II. There are some initiatives to res-
cue and release sick and injured wild individuals and to tag eagles (including attaching GPS loggers) in Morocco
(K. Rousselon, pers. comm., 2019).
Conservation actions needed: Efforts are needed to increase awareness about biodiversity conservation. Ac-
tions to reduce mortality, particularly from electrocution, should include establishing priority areas for power line
mitigation work, modifying dangerous power lines, and avoiding the construction of wind farms in key areas for
the species. Additionally, new power lines should be constructed using only safe designs, and similar legislation
should be in place for fixing existing dangerous power lines. Also a species reintroduction programme could ac-
celerate any eventual successful recolonisation. Finally, surveys are required of the Iberian dispersing population
to determine, protect and manage potential breeding sites and the key dispersal area.
Assessor(s): Garrido López, J.R., Bergier, P., Rousselon, K., Cherkaoui, I., Etayeb, K., Buirzayqah, S. & Fellous-
Djardini, A.
Reviewer(s): Monti, F. & Numa, C.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Onrubia, A., Haitham, O., BirdLife International & Spanish Imperial Eagle Action Plan
of Junta de Andalucía.
Date: 2020–09–07
35
Dark chanting-goshawk, Melierax metabates - Heuglin, 1861
POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
- - - -
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: REGIONALLY EXTINCT (RE)
This species qualifies as Regionally Extinct in North Africa because there has been no evidence of its presence in
North Africa since 2007 (its last breeding attempt having been in 1979), even though it has been actively searched
for many times by many experienced ornithologists.
DISTRIBUTION
The dark chanting-goshawk is a widespread resident raptor occurring over large areas of sub-Saharan Africa,
which had isolated populations of the endemic subspecies M. m. theresae in south-west Morocco. The original
breeding range of the species in North Africa included Morocco, restricted to the argan forests of the Souss Valley
and adjacent Anti-Atlas foothills (Vernon et al., 2005), but now it is extinct here with the last nesting data from
1979 (Heinze and Krott, 1979). The species was at the northern edge of its range in North Africa.
POPULATION
The total population was estimated at a few dozen pairs in the 1980s (Thévenot et al., 1985), but the last record
of nesting individuals was one pair at a nest with young in an abandoned olive grove in 1979 (Heinze and Krott,
1979). The species was never very abundant in North Africa and was already considered rare by Lynes (1925). In
more recent years there have been only four sightings in the region of Souss, but none since 2007, although it has
© José Rafael Garrido
REGIONALLY
EXTINCT
RE
RE
36
been actively searched for many times by many experienced ornithologists (Fareh et al., 2016), which indicates
that this species has definitely become extinct in Morocco. The species was extirpated due to changes in land
use in the Souss region (P. Bergier, pers. obs.).
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
This species mostly occupied argan woodland, but also old olive groves, thornbush, palm and orange groves
in Morocco (Thévenot et al., 2003). Outside this region the species persists, and it takes a wide variety of prey,
especially lizards but also snakes, birds, mammals and insects (Clark and Davies, 2018). Adult pairs are territorial
and build stick nests in the crowns of the trees. They usually raise only one young, although often two eggs are
laid (Clark and Davies, 2018).
THREATS
The growth and spread of the human population has resulted in habitat destruction and disturbance, especially
in argan forests because of the use of wood as fuel for cooking and heating, and the felling of large trees to
clear land for agriculture (Bergier, 1987; Vernon et al., 2005). Intense human use of forests especially threatens
tree-nesting raptors like the dark chanting-goshawk, leading them to abandon their breeding territories. The hu-
man impact includes the increase in herds of goats, which climb on argan trees and must disturb breeding birds
(A. Qninba, pers. comm.).
CONSERVATION
Conservation actions in place: CITES Appendix II.
Conservation actions proposed: There is a low likelihood that the species will naturally recolonise its former
range in North Africa, but argan forest first needs to be protected to prevent further extinctions in this habitat. A
future reintroduction programme with southern dark chanting-goshawks could be attempted after the feasibility
of such a programme in Morocco has been assessed.
Assessor(s): Bergier, P., Rousselon, K., Cherkaoui, I., Monti, F. & Garrido López, J.R.
Reviewer(s): Numa, C. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B., BirdLife International & Qninba, A. Date: 2020–09–08
37
Northern goshawk, Accipiter gentilis - (Linnaeus, 1758)
POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
40 mature individuals -2,200 km2
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR) C2a(i,ii); D (IUCN version 3.1)
In North Africa this species has a small population size, with fewer than 40 mature individuals distributed in only
one subpopulation. Sighting records from Morocco between 1985 and 2020 show the population in the region
has potentially been in continuous decline for the last 21 years (3 generations). Threats such as forest destruc-
tion, human disturbance and nest robbery are still ongoing and have a major impact on nest abandonment. The
species is listed as Critically Endangered (CR C2a(i,ii); D) based on the small number of mature individuals, the
distribution in a single subpopulation and the low probability of immigration from other subpopulations.
DISTRIBUTION
The northern goshawk is predominantly a wintering bird from Europe, and North Africa marks the southern limit
of its distribution. An increasing population has been observed in Europe but it is a very rare and local breeder
in northern Morocco, where its distribution has been reduced drastically since the 1980s (Thévenot et al., 2003;
Clark and Davies, 2018; Cuzin, 2019). Currently, the species seems to be confined to the Tangier region, in refor-
estation forests of pines and Eucalyptus (Cuzin, 2019), but it used to inhabit forests up to ca. 2,000 m, mainly of
oak (Quercus suber and Q. faginea) in the Rif (Maes, 1978), but it has nested in Pinus halepensis and mixed Atlas
Cedar and oak forests in the Middle Atlas (Go-South, 2016). It is possible that breeding still occurs in northern Al-
geria and Tunisia (Isenmann and Moali, 2000; Isenmann et al., 2005; Azafzaf et al., 2015), but there have been no
recent observations. Migrant and wintering birds visit Egypt, along the River Nile and in the Red Sea Mountains
(Clark and Davies, 2018), and eastern Libya (Isenmann et al., 2016; S. Buirzayqah, pers. obs.).
CR
© Manuel Talavera
38
POPULATION
Thévenot et al. (2003) estimated no more than 100 breeding pairs in Morocco in 1985, but Cuzin (2019) only
found 6 breeding pairs. It is suspected there are no more than 30 mature individuals, but further validation of
this estimate is needed. No data on the breeding population is available for Algeria and Tunisia, but the species
is suspected to breed there but probably in smaller numbers than in Morocco. It is therefore calculated that the
North African population could be around 20 breeding pairs (40 mature individuals). Under the assumption that
the rate of decline in Algeria and Tunisia is similar to Morocco and has been constant over time since 1985, it is
suspected that population decline in the last 21 years (3 generation lengths) has been around 69%.
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
The species occurs in wooded hills and mountains, with wintering birds occurring in a variety of wooded habitats
near open areas (Clark and Davies, 2018). The species' optimal habitat appears to be areas of farmland interspersed
with mature forest, such that afforestation has improved its status across parts of its global range (del Hoyo et al.,
1994). Soaring flight is used frequently (Snow and Perrins, 1998); and northern goshawks can be seen singly or in
pairs (Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001). In Libya, the species is observed from October to April (S. Buirzayqah,
pers. obs.), while sightings during the migration period in Tunisia come from March to May (H. Azafzaf, pers. obs.).
Individuals prey on small to large birds and mammals (del Hoyo et al., 1994; Clark and Davies, 2018).
Northern goshawks build nests high in tall trees, usually in extensive forests (Clark and Davies, 2018), and breed
from February to June (Thévenot et al., 2003). They used to breed in oak (Quercus suber and Q. faginea) forests
in the Moroccan Rif (Maes, 1978) and in Pinus halepensis and mixed Atlas Cedar and oak forests in the Middle
Atlas, also in Morocco (Go-South, 2016), but today it only uses pine and Eucalyptus forests (Cuzin, 2019). Two
nests found by Maes (1978) were placed 10–12 m above the ground in Quercus faginea. Usually only three eggs
are laid in Morocco (Maes, 1978; Go-south, 2016).
THREATS
The increase and spread of the human population is causing habitat destruction and disturbance especially in
forests because of the use of wood as fuel for cooking and heating; felling trees to clear land for crops and pas-
ture is an additional threat factor (Bergier, 1987; Stuart and Collar, 1988; Garrido et al., 2005; Vernon et al., 2005;
Cherkaoui et al., 2009). Forest destruction and human disturbance due to intense human use especially threatens
tree-nesting raptors like the northern goshawk (Cuzin, 2019), leading them to abandon their breeding territories.
Habitat fragmentation results from forest fires and road construction as well.
Persecution continues to be a threat, as well as nest robbery for falconry (Orta and Marks, 2014; Brochet et al.,
2016; Moroccan Strategy for Conservation of Birds of Prey Workshop, 2020, Rabat). The species is also high-
ly vulnerable to the impacts of wind farm
developments (STRIX, 2012). The recent
development of power lines is also a threat
(Cuzin, 2019).
CONSERVATION
Conservation and research actions in
place: CITES Appendix II. CMS Appen-
dix II. In Morocco, the species is included
in the preparation of a raptor conservation
strategy (https://www.iucn.org/news/me-
diterranean/202001/first-steps-towards-
a-moroccan-strategy-raptor-conservation-
iucns-guidance).
© IUCN
Distribution range of the N orthern goshawk, Accipiter gentilis -
(Linnaeus, 1758) in Nor th Africa. Source: The IUC N Red List
of the breeding bir ds of prey of N orth Af rica.
39
Endemic
Conservation and research actions needed: Wide-scale habitat conservation measures are required, in-
cluding the maintenance of low-intensity farming with the preservation of hedges and a reduction in pesticide
use. Appropriate management of woodlands should maintain old trees, prevent fires and limit road construction.
Any unavoidable afforestation or deforestation should occur outside the breeding season and should only result
in partial habitat change. Population monitoring should be conducted to provide data about the population size
and trend and to determine, protect and manage breeding sites and key migration areas. In view of the multiple
threats, monitoring of the North African population is crucial to track how it is being affected. Research is also
needed on the impact of certain specific threats (e.g. trade), and can be used to help develop an action plan.
More broadly, awareness of biodiversity conservation should be increased.
Assessor(s): Rousselon, K., Cherkaoui, I., Bergier, P., Azafzaf, H., Haitham, O., Chokri, M.A., Buirzayqah, S., Riad,
A. & Monti, F.
Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B. & BirdLife International
Date: 2020–09–07
40
Tawny eagle, Aquila rapax - (Temminck, 1828)
POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
40 mature individuals -191,148 km2
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR) C2a(i,ii); D (IUCN version 3.1)
In North Africa, the tawny eagle has a small and declining population estimated to number less than 40 mature
individuals in one subpopulation. There is no evidence of immigration from other breeding populations. Further-
more, the species is also threatened in sub-Saharan countries. For these reasons the species is listed as Critically
Endangered under criterion C2a(i,ii) and D.
DISTRIBUTION
The tawny eagle is a widespread raptor occurring over large areas of sub-Saharan Africa, with an isolated sub-
population in North Africa. The original breeding range of the species in this region included Morocco, northern
Algeria and Tunisia. The species bred throughout Morocco, from the Tangier Peninsula to the Sahara through
Souss and the western Middle Atlas, until the first half of the 20th century (Thévenot et al., 2003; F. Cuzin, pers.
obs.). Since then, there have been only a small number of breeding records in Souss in 1980, 1981, 1990 and
1992 (Thévenot et al., 2003). The latest sightings are confined to a region ranging from northern Agadir to Tan Tan,
in lowland areas, hills and low mountains (less than 1,200 m.) (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.). The last nine mentions of the
species (out of 29 received) accepted by the CHM (Morocco Rare Birds Approval Committee) are from 2006, at
the Oued Massa estuary and in the Tan Tan region (northern Moroccan Sahara).
Since then, all the reported observations of this species have been rejected: in every case a photograph revealed
the bird to be a Spanish imperial eagle, since the two species are easy to confuse because of their similarities, at
least at juvenile age (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.). The last known nests were in argan trees in open areas of the Souss,
CR
© Leovigildo Flox
41
western High Atlas and Anti-Atlas in 1992 (Thévenot et al., 2003). In the Souss area, the species was extirpated
due to rapid destruction of the argan forest (Bergier, 1987; Cherkaoui et al., 2009).
In Algeria, the species used to be common but the last known breeding pair was recorded in 1990 (Isenmann
and Moali, 2000). However, there were a few more recent sightings in northern Algeria in 2018, and the species
might still be breeding in some isolated places, including the Monts des Ksour in the Parc Culturel de l’Atlas Sa-
harien, where it has been sighted a few times, and recently in the Oum El Bouari (north-eastern Algeria) where
pictures were taken by Harzallah in 2018 and published in a magazine (per A. Fellous-Djardini and M. Saheb).
In Tunisia, the population was apparently extirpated during the first half of the 20th century and there have been
no records since 1988 (Isenmann et al., 2005; eBird, 2020). Finally, there is some evidence of vagrant individuals
from sub-Saharan populations in the Moroccan Sahara (MaghrebOrnitho, 2018d) and in Egypt, most recently in
May 2015 (OSME, 2019; A. Riad, pers. obs.).
POPULATION
Thévenot et al. (2003) and El Agbani and Qninba (2011) estimated there were a few dozen breeding pairs in Moroc-
co, but Bergier et al. (2017) and F. Cuzin (pers. comm.) suggested that the species could be extinct, except maybe
in the Atlantic Sahara. Due to the lack of recent breeding observations it can be assumed that the species is nearly
extinct in the country (with less than 10 breeding pairs) (per F. Cuzin). In Algeria, there have been very few sightings
of the species, though some of them are quite recent from 2017 and 2018 (Fellous, 2017; MaghrebOrnitho, 2018d).
Although there are no monitoring data for this species, it is inferred that the country might host up to 10 breeding
pairs (A. Fellous-Djardini, pers. obs.). Therefore, the overall population size for North Africa is thought to be a maxi-
mum of 20 breeding pairs or 40 mature individuals (F. Cuzin, A. Fellous-Djardini, P. Bergier, pers. obs.).
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
The tawny eagle is resident and occurs in discrete populations. It is sedentary, although individuals are nomadic
and will occasionally wander long distances, especially juveniles (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.). It breeds in forested areas
in North Africa.
It occupies dry, open habitats from sea level to 1,200 m in North Africa (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.). In Morocco, the
species occurs (or used to occur) in lowlands, hills and low mountains with argan forests and steppe vegetation
in semi-desert areas (Thévenot et al., 2003), while in Algeria it occurred in lowland forest (Isenmann and Moali,
2000). It avoids dense forest, true deserts and high mountains (Clark and Davies, 2018). In Algeria, individuals
have been observed in an oasis, close to a village with palm trees, cultivated Atlas mastic trees (Pistacia atlantica),
relict forests of Juniperus phoenicea and cliffs in the surroundings (A. Fellous-Djardini, pers. obs.).
The species has a wide prey base ranging from insects to large mammals and birds. It also regularly consumes
carrion and robs other raptors of their prey
(Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001; Clark
and Davies, 2018).
Nesting occurs on large stick nests at the
tops of tall, isolated trees. The breeding
season in Africa lasts from February/March
to August in the north (Ferguson-Lees and
Christie, 2001; Thévenot et al., 2003).
Aquila rapax
Map created 17/2/2021
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map
do not imply any official endorsement, acceptance or opinion by IUCN.
North Africa Raptor Red List
Extant (non-breeding)
Extant (resident)
Possibly Extinct
Aquila rapax
Map created 17/2/2021
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map
do not imply any official endorsement, acceptance or opinion by IUCN.
North Africa Raptor Red List
Extant (non-breeding)
Extant (resident)
Possibly Extinct
© IUCN
Distribution range of the Tawny eagle, Aquila rapax -
(Temminck, 1828) in Nor th Africa. Source: The IUC N
Red List of the bree ding birds of prey of North Africa.
42
THREATS
The species' population plummeted in North Africa during the 20th century because of generalised poaching,
hunting and especially unintended poisoning (originally targeting livestock predators such as jackals, wolves,
feral dogs or leopards), although today this threat seems less important in Morocco (Garrido et al., 2014; Garrido,
2019; Cuzin, 2019). Its scavenging behaviour makes it vulnerable to farmers that use poisons for predator control
(F. Cuzin, pers. comm.). The increase and spread of the human population has also caused habitat destruction
and disturbance (Bergier, 1987; Stuart and Collar, 1988; Garrido et al., 2005; Vernon et al., 2005; Cherkaoui et
al. 2009; Fellous, 2017; BirdLife International, 2018a; Tellería et al.2019), especially in forests because of the use
of wood as fuel for cooking and heating and the felling of large trees to clear land for crops and livestock. De-
struction and disturbance due to the intense human use of forests are a particular threat to tree-nesting raptors
like the tawny eagle, leading it to abandon its breeding territories, especially in Morocco, where its habitat in the
Lower Plains has been greatly altered, particularly due to the considerable areas covered by intensive crops,
often in greenhouses (F. Cuzin, pers. comm.). Other anthropogenic threats are the fragmentation of habitats due
to urban development, expansion of road networks (in Algeria), and construction of dams and power lines, which
could also prevent recolonisation in areas where the species has disappeared (A. Fellous-Djardini, F. Cuzin, pers.
comm.). Food availability seems not to be an issue for the species in North Africa as suitable prey are still present
in large parts of the region.
CONSERVATION
Conservation and research actions in place: CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. In Morocco, the species is
included in the preparation of a raptor conservation strategy (https://www.iucn.org/news/mediterranean/202001/
first-steps-towards-a-moroccan-strategy-raptor-conservation-iucns-guidance). An initiative to identify and cor-
rect dangerous power lines has also started in Morocco with the collaboration of governmental bodies and NGOs
(Godino et al., 2016; Martín Martín et al., 2019).
Conservation and research actions needed: The presence of the species needs to be confirmed in Morocco
and Algeria. A Conservation Action Plan should be developed, including a feasibility analysis for a reintroduction
programme. Bird-friendly structures should be installed on power lines to prevent electrocution and collisions.
Greater control over the use of pesticides and poisons is needed. Systematic monitoring of the species should
be increased, as should the restoration and protection of its habitat. The suitability of a reintroduction programme
in Morocco should also be assessed.
Assessor(s): Fellous-Djardini, A., Cuzin, F., Saheb, M., Bergier, P., Benmammar Hasnaoui, H., Radi, M., Noaman,
M., Essetti, I., Onrubia, A. & Riad, A.
Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B. & BirdLife International
Date: 2020–09–07
43
Bearded vulture, Gypaetus barbatus - (Linnaeus, 1758)
POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
16-28 mat. ind. -34,000 km2
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR) A2ace+4ace; C2a(i); D
(IUCN version 3.1)
The bearded vulture is a rare breeding resident in North Africa with an extremely small population, which has dra-
matically declined in recent decades. The total number of mature individuals is suspected to be only 16–28 and
the largest subpopulation numbers 20 or fewer mature individuals. Therefore, the species is listed as Critically
Endangered A2ace+4ace; C2a(i); D in North Africa.
DISTRIBUTION
The original breeding range of the bearded vulture in North Africa included Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt
(Goodman and Meininger, 1989; Isenmann and Moali, 2000; Thévenot et al., 2003; Isenmann et al., 2005), but
now the species is believed to breed only in the Moroccan High Atlas between 2,500 and 4,000 m and in Egypt
(F. Cuzin, P. Bergier, H. Benmammar, A. Riad, pers. obs.). Its range has been contracting since the 20th century
because of human action: in Morocco, the bearded vulture was extirpated during the 1970s in the Rif, Central
Plateau, Anti-Atlas, Middle Atlas, eastern Morocco around Figuig, and Sahara (Thévenot et al., 2003; Bergier et
al., 2017; Allaoui and Cherkaoui, 2018; Cuzin and Rousselon, 2018). In Algeria it once occurred throughout the
north-western mountains (Isenmann and Moali, 2000) and adult birds were observed in Theniet El Had National
Park until 2014 (Djardini et al., 2014), but since then it has only been seen in Batna and at Mount Chelia in Babar
(A. Si Bachir, pers. comm.); these may have been individuals dispersing from the Moroccan population (they can
disperse several hundred kilometres from their breeding areas; Botha et al., 2017), so the species is possibly
extinct in Algeria. In Tunisia the species survived in the southern mountains until the 1930s but it is now extinct
CR
© Daniel Burón
44
(Isenmann et al., 2005). The last sightings were made in 1975 by Paul Geroudet at Djebel Terozza in southern
Tunisia. In Egypt, a few breeding pairs survive in the Sinai–Red Sea Mountains (Goodman and Meininger, 1989;
Habib, 2016a; Andevski, 2017; Botha et al., 2017).
POPULATION
In Morocco there are currently 6–10 pairs (Cherkaoui, 2005; Cuzin and Rousselon, 2018; Cuzin, 2019), which is sig-
nificantly fewer than the previous estimates of 100 pairs in the 1980s and 50 pairs at the beginning of the 21st century
(Thévenot et al., 2003). Abdelgurefi and Ramdane (2003) estimated not more than 20 breeding pairs in Algeria with a
rapid decline since the previous estimate of 30 pairs (Isenmann and Moali, 2000), and today there are very few sight-
ings from the country (A. Si Bachir, pers. comm.) and no sign of breeding. However, more intensive surveys would
be needed in the country to confirm the species’ status. In Egypt, 2–4 breeding pairs have been estimated, while
about 16 pairs were estimated during the 20th century (Goodman and Meininger, 1989). Therefore, the overall mini-
mum breeding population size for North Africa is estimated to be 8–14 breeding pairs or 16–28 mature individuals.
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
This species occupies remote, mountainous areas with precipitous terrain usually above 1,000 m, particularly in
areas where there are herds of wild ungulates, sheep and goats (Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001). In Morocco,
it is currently found between 2,000 and 4,000 m, especially above 2,500 m (Cuzin, 2019). In Algeria, it occurs
above 1,300 m. It is resident where it occurs, but it has vast home ranges and juveniles will wander much more
widely than adults (Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001). While the species can be extremely philopatric, individuals
are not very territorial.
In North Africa it is almost entirely dependent on carcasses of livestock (either domestic or feral) due to the rarity
of wild ungulates across much of its range (Cuzin, 2019). The species will forage over vast distances (up to 700
km in one day has been recorded) using a soaring mode of flight (BirdLife International, 2020c). As scavengers,
bearded vultures consume prey remains left by predators or other scavengers; 70% of the biomass of their diet is
bones, 25% soft tissue and 5% skin (Botha et al., 2017), and its primary food is the marrow and bone from small
to large bones (Clark and Davies, 2018).
Bones too big to be swallowed whole are dropped onto a rocky surface from 20–70 m height, and the fragments
and marrow are collected afterwards (Boudoint, 1976). Tortoises are generally treated in the same way as bones
(Clark and Davies, 2018) and this has been documented in Algeria. Only during the period when they are raising
young do they need to consume soft tissue (Botha et al., 2017).
The species is typically monogamous, but polyandrous trios have been documented (Botha et al., 2017; F. Cuzin,
pers. obs.). Nesting occurs in January, and fledging at the beginning of July. Individuals construct large nests (on
average 1 m in diameter), composed of branches and lined with animal remains such as skin and wool, as well as
dung and occasionally also rubbish (BirdLife
International, 2020c). Nests are located on
remote overhung cliff ledges or in caves
and will be re-used over the years (Fergu-
son-Lees and Christie, 2001), although
some pairs may have more than one nest.
Clutches consist of 1–2 eggs, but in cases
where two eggs are laid, obligate ‘cainism’
occurs in which the older sibling kills the
younger (Thaler and Pechlaner, 1980).
Both parents take part in nest building, nest
defence, incubation, brooding and feeding
of chicks (Orta et al., 2020a).
© IUCN
Distribution range of the B earded vulture, Gypaetus barbatus -
(Linnaeus, 1758) in Nor th Africa. Source: The IUC N Red List of
the bree ding birds of prey of North Africa.
45
THREATS
As with other scavenger species, widespread accidental poisoning, largely with strychnine used by many farmers
for predator control, and more recently with carbofuran, has contributed significantly to bearded vulture decline and
local extinctions in Morocco (Garrido et al., 2014; Cuzin et al., 2009; Cuzin, 2019), at least until the 1980s (F. Cuzin,
pers. obs.), and it is still a major threat (Moroccan Strategy for Conservation of Birds of Prey Workshop, 2020, Rabat).
Cuzin et al. (2009) also found that the decline of the breeding population in Morocco might be due to illegal shoot-
ing in the past, and the species is still persecuted by shepherds in Toubkal National Park (Moroccan Strategy for
Conservation of Birds of Prey Workshop, 2020, Rabat), probably because they sometimes confuse the species
with the golden eagle (Aquila chrysaetos), a predator of small livestock (Cuzin, 2019). Nevertheless, poisoning
was not a major threat in Algeria, where there was neither direct persecution in the 20th century nor widespread
poisoning campaigns. Although there have been cases of raptor poisoning in the country, none of them is doc-
umented as involving this species (A. Fellous-Djardini, H. Benmammar, pers. obs.). Poisoning is not a threat in
Egypt either, although hunting and poaching are (Andevski, 2017).
Abdelguerfi and Ramdane (2003) point out that the worrying situation in Algeria is due to changes in livestock-rearing
practices that reduce food availability and disturb breeding birds, especially in Djurdjura National Park. The decline of
wild ungulates (resulting in food scarcity) and habitat loss are also significant threats in Egypt (Andevski, 2017). Dis-
turbance by human activities is also a major threat in Egypt (Andevski, 2017) and Morocco, where Cuzin et al. (2009)
discovered that the decline in the breeding population might be due in part to general disturbance by shepherds and
rock climbers (a very localised threat today in Taghia, High Atlas), by military activities (helicopter flights) and by "he-
li-skiing" in the Toubkal National Park (Moroccan Strategy for Conservation of Birds of Prey Workshop, 2020, Rabat).
Collision with power lines is considered a risk in Egypt (Andevski, 2017), but not in breeding areas at high al-
titude in Morocco and Algeria, where there are no power lines. However, it could be important for dispersing
young bearded vultures (Moroccan Strategy for Conservation of Birds of Prey Workshop, 2020, Rabat). Finally,
this small, isolated population could experience a reduction in genetic diversity over time, which could influence
breeding success and the long-term survival of such populations unless they are carefully managed.
CONSERVATION
Conservation actions in place: CMS Appendix II. CITES Appendix II.
Multi-species action plan for African–Eurasian vultures (Botha et al., 2017). In Morocco, the species is included in
the preparation of a raptor conservation strategy (https://www.iucn.org/news/mediterranean/202001/first-steps-to-
wards-a-moroccan-strategy-raptor-conservation-iucns-guidance) and in a national population monitoring programme
(UICN and DEF, 2020). In Morocco, besides data collection, various local awareness-raising activities have been carried
out in conjunction with Spanish Cooperation, GEF Project, Fundación Gypaetus, and Fundación Global Nature (Cuzin
et al., 2009). A workshop to develop an “Action Plan for the Conservation of the Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) in
Morocco” was organised by the management of the Toubkal National Park at Imlil, High Atlas, on 21–22 October 2015.
Conservation actions needed: Non-intensive livestock management systems should be maintained to ensure
a food supply. The provision of feeding stations is also beneficial, particularly when food is scarce in winter. Ef-
fective protection in areas with a plentiful supply of food (which often includes carcasses of domestic animals)
has been shown to lead to impressive population recoveries, and reintroduction has been successful in parts of
its range. Disturbance in and around nesting areas should be reduced, and the impacts of power lines should
be mitigated in the species' range. Additionally, the threat of persecution should be countered by means of law
enforcement and awareness-raising activities. Finally, coordinated surveys are required to monitor the species'
population trend, as well as to produce a Population Viability Analysis, to investigate the specific impact of certain
threats, and to come up with best practice guidelines for conservation actions.
Assessor(s): Cuzin, F., Riad, A., Benmammar Hasnaoui, H., Fellous-Djardini, A., Bergier, P., Radi, M., Saheb, M.,
Essetti, I., Noaman, M. & Onrubia, A. / Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Barrios, V. / Contributor(s): Gyenge, P.,
BirdLife International & Si Bachir, A.
Date: 2020– 09–10
46
Rüppell's vulture, Rüppell's vulture - (Brehm, 1852)
POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
20 mature individuals -2,386 km2?
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR) D (IUCN version 3.1)
This species appears to have been colonising the North African region in the last 10 years. The population size in
Algeria is estimated at 20 mature individuals. It occurs in an area occupied by a close relative, the griffon vulture
(Gyps fulvus), but at the moment there are no records of hybridisation between the two species in the area. The
species could be listed as Not Applicable in North Africa, but given that it is listed globally as Critically Endangered
and its expansion to Algeria could be the beginning of a colonisation process caused by global climate change or
habitat degradation in its breeding range in the southern Sahel, the species is listed here as Critically Endangered
under criterion D. Further research should be conducted to ascertain its actual breeding numbers and population
trend and the importance of the North African population for the global conservation of the species.
DISTRIBUTION
In North Africa it used to be considered a casual visitor or vagrant in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt (Good-
man and Meininger, 1989; Clark and Davies, 2018). However, in the last 15 years, the species has been recorded
far away from its breeding colonies, and has reached the Iberian Peninsula via Morocco and the Strait of Gibral-
tar with migrating Gyps fulvus (Botha et al., 2017). Ramírez et al. (2011) suggested that these movements could
represent a range expansion, with the species becoming established as a breeding species in Europe, where
there are records of adult Rüppell’s vultures in breeding colonies of griffon vultures in the Iberian Peninsula and
exhibiting breeding behaviour. Recently, Rüppell´s vultures have been sighted showing breeding behaviour in grif-
fon vulture colonies in Andalusia, southern Spain (Elgorriaga et al., 2020), where the species is now considered
CR
© Daniel Burón
47
resident (CAGPDS, 2019). In this context, the species has been sighted frequently in Morocco, especially near
the Strait of Gibraltar during migration (El Khamlichi, 2016), where about 50 individuals were observed during
the spring migration in 2020 (R. El Khamlichi, pers. comm.). It has also been seen in the Sahara (Díaz-Portero
et al., 2014; Bergier et al., 2017). In line with these data, Ramírez (2012) suggests that the species should not be
considered a casual visitor or vagrant but to have regular non-breeding populations in both Morocco and Spain.
Immatures also migrate with griffon vultures through Morocco and Algeria (Botha et al., 2017).
Rüppell’s vultures may also be breeding in G. fulvus colonies in Algeria now. Although the species was consid-
ered extinct in Algeria by Botha et al. (2017), J. M. Thiollay (in litt., 2016, per BirdLife International, 2020b) indicates
that there are some very small breeding populations in the country. Moreover, according to Si Bachir and Abder-
rahmani Said, in 2012, two juveniles captured from the nest in the Aurès Mountains (near Babar) were given to the
Belezma National Park. One of them died and the other is still in the park. Since 2014 park staff have confirmed
the presence of adult Rüppell's vultures in the area and local shepherds say that the species has been seen there
for some years (M. Saheb, pers. obs.).
POPULATION
There are no population estimates for the species. The number of breeding individuals is likely to be extremely
small, with probably fewer than 10 breeding pairs in north-eastern Algeria (M. Saheb, pers. obs.). Appropriate
monitoring is necessary to accurately determine its population size.
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
This species frequents open areas of woodland, grasslands and montane regions, and it is gregarious, congregat-
ing at carrion, soaring together in flocks and breeding mainly in colonies on cliff faces and escarpments at a broad
range of elevations, and sometimes in trees far from cliffs in West Africa. It locates food entirely by sight, subsisting
almost entirely on carrion (Clark and Davies, 2018). It follows other vultures and migrant game or stock herds to locate
much of its food (Del Hoyo et al., 1994). The species is considered an irruptive and local migrant by Bildstein (2006).
Movements across the Strait of Gibraltar to Europe are in the company of migrant griffon vultures (Botha et al., 2017).
THREATS
The species faces similar threats to griffon vultures, due to similar habitats, behaviour and potential breeding
distribution. It is almost entirely dependent on livestock carcasses due to the almost complete absence of wild
ungulates (Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001; Abdelguerfi and Ramdane, 2003; Garrido et al., 2014; Orta et al.,
2020b; Andevski, 2017). Therefore, its scavenging behaviour makes it vulnerable to farmers that use poisons
for predator control in Morocco, but poisoning does not seem to be a problem in Algeria. It is sensitive to mor-
tality due to collision and electrocution on
power lines, as has been found in southern
Spain (I. Fajardo, pers. comm.), and at least
one electrocuted vulture has been found
in Morocco (Monchaux, 2018). It may be
highly vulnerable to the effects of potential
wind energy developments (six Rüppell's
vultures died because of that in Spain; I.
Fajardo, pers. comm.), so the increasing
number of massive wind energy projects
in north Morocco could be a significant
threat to the population migrating across
the Strait of Gibraltar.
© IUCN
Distribution range of the R üppell's vulture, Rüppell's vulture -
(Brehm, 1852) in North Africa . Source: The IUCN Red List of
the bree ding birds of prey of North Africa.
48
The entire North African region faces the problem of poaching to supply the illegal trade in raptors (Emile et al.,
2014; Brochet et al., 2016; Andevski, 2017; Botha et al., 2017), which also specifically affects Rüppell's vulture at
least locally in Morocco (MaghrebOrnitho, 2014). Additionally, in Morocco, Rüppell's vultures have been found
drowned in artificial ponds where they go to drink or bathe during the summer months (R. El Khamlichi, pers.
obs., 2020). Lastly, this small, isolated population could experience a reduction in genetic diversity in the long
term because of inbreeding and also hybridisation with griffon vultures. Interbreeding behaviour has been ob-
served in Spain (Ramírez et al., 2011) and could influence breeding success and the long-term survival of such
populations unless they are carefully managed.
CONSERVATION
Conservation actions in place: CMS Appendix II. CITES Appendix II. Bern Convention Appendix II. There is a
Multi-species Action Plan for the conservation of African–Eurasian vultures (Botha et al., 2017). In Morocco, the
species is included in a national population monitoring programme (UICN and DEF, 2020). An initiative to identify
and correct dangerous power lines has also started in Morocco with the collaboration of governmental bodies
and NGOs (Godino et al., 2016; Martín Martín et al., 2019). There are also initiatives to rescue and release sick
and injured wild individuals and to tag eagles (including attaching GPS loggers) in Morocco (MaghrebOrnitho,
2018b). In northern Morocco a feeding station and a rehabilitation centre have been set up, where individuals are
captured and marked with wing tags and GPS loggers (R. El Khamlichi, pers. comm., 2019).
Conservation actions needed: There is only a small breeding population in Algeria, so it is important to try to
conserve it because of the species’ global Red List status (see BirdLife International, 2020b). Effective protection
of breeding sites and areas with a plentiful supply of food (which often includes carcasses of domestic animals)
is therefore necessary. The provision of feeding stations is also beneficial, particularly when food is scarce. The
ban on poisoned carcasses should be enforced and the leaving of dead animals encouraged. The construction
of wind farms in key areas for the species should be avoided, and where they are already built, wind farm staff
should be trained in bird monitoring. In addition, the population should be surveyed to determine, protect and
manage potential breeding sites and key dispersal areas. Finally, and more broadly, awareness of biodiversity
conservation should be increased.
Assessor(s): Garrido López, J.R., Saheb, M., Fellous-Djardini, A., Cuzin, F., Radi, M., Essetti, I., Onrubia, A. &
Noaman, M.
Reviewer(s): Botha, A. & Fajardo, I.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., BirdLife International, Thiollay, J.-M., Said, A., Si Bachir, A., El Khamlichi, R. & Fajardo, I.
Date: 2020–09–08
49
Red kite, Milvus milvus - (Linnaeus, 1758)
POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
0 mat. ind. - -
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (POSSIBLY REGIONALLY
EXTINCT) (CR) A2ace; C2a(i,ii); D (IUCN version 3.1)
This species used to breed in North Africa. After a decline in the breeding population in the late 20th century, there
has been no evidence of breeding since 2004. The nearest populations in southern Europe are also declining,
including wintering populations, so the likelihood of immigration is shrinking. Although poisoning may have re-
duced populations considerably in the 20th century, climate change may now be a limiting factor for the breeding
population at the southern edge of the species' distribution. The species is listed as Critically Endangered (Pos-
sibly Regionally Extinct) under criteria A2ace; C2a(i,ii); D, but with further survey efforts the species could well be
reassessed as Regionally Extinct in the future.
DISTRIBUTION
The red kite is endemic to the Western Palaearctic and more than 95% of its population is found in Europe (Mou-
geot et al., 2011). It used to be a rare resident in northern Morocco and locally in coastal Algeria and Tunisia, but
it became extinct as a breeding species probably during the first few years of the 21st century, and now it is a
rare migrant wintering especially in Morocco and with some sightings in Algeria and Tunisia (Isenmann and Moali,
2000; Thévenot et al., 2003; Isenmann et al., 2005; El Agbani and Qninba, 2011; Radi et. al., 2020. The species
occurred in Morocco (Rif, Middle Atlas, plains and hills of eastern Morocco and Mamora forest) (Thévenot et al.,
2003), but there have been no successful breeding attempts since 2004 (Cherkaoui, 2004). More recent sight-
ings of an adult during the breeding season in Aguelmam Afernourrir (Middle Atlas) in late May – early June 2013
CR
© Álex Colorado
50
could be considered the last breeding attempt (I. Cherkaoui, pers. obs.). It also bred commonly in Algeria in the
early years of the 20th century (Whitaker, 1905), but there have been no more recent breeding records (Isenmann
and Moali, 2000) and in Tunisia there have been no records of breeding pairs since the 1970s (Isenmann et al.,
2005). The sparsely populated Mediterranean forests where the species used to breed in Morocco were similar
to its Iberian habitat.
According to Mougeot et al. (2011), North African countries can be considered the current southern limit of the
species' distribution. Its range seems to be retreating northward due to climate change (Huntley et al., 2007) with
local extinctions also occurring in southern Spain (Molina, 2015) and declining numbers of resident breeding birds in
Iberia and France, and of migrants wintering in Spain (BirdLife International, 2018b). The North African population is
likely to have survived because of immigration from the larger Spanish population, but with the decline in this Iberian
population during the 20th century further immigration is now unlikely to occur. Additionally, the majority of the global
population used to winter in Spain and North Africa, but increasingly birds are remaining in their northern European
breeding grounds because of climate change (Huntley et al., 2007; BirdLife International, 2018b).
Therefore, wintering red kites are also declining in North Africa, although they are still sighted in this region
(Thévenot et al., 2003; Isenmann and Moali, 2000; Isenmann et al., 2005; eBird, 2020; Radi et al., 2020), even in
the Moroccan Sahara (Bergier et al., 2017), Egypt (Goodman and Meininger, 1989) and even as vagrants in Libya
(Isenmann et al., 2016). Wintering red kites in Morocco are associated with feeding at rubbish dumps, which
could be the reason for their remaining in the region (JMM and Associates, 2015), but it is also a major threat
because of the risk of electrocution on power lines close to landfills (Radi et al., 2020).
POPULATION
The red kite is extinct as a breeding species in Algeria and Tunisia (Isenmann and Moali, 2000; Isenmann et al.,
2005). The species occurred in Morocco but there have been no successful breeding attempts since 2004 when one
breeding pair was found nesting in a cedar tree in the Middle Atlas, with 2 chicks (Cherkaoui, 2004). Recent sightings
of an adult during the breeding season in Aguelmam Afernourrir (Middle Atlas) in late May – early June 2013 could be
considered the last known breeding attempt (I. Cherkaoui, pers. obs.). Therefore, it is likely that the species is extinct
as a breeding species in North Africa, but further surveying is required to confirm this. If a hitherto unknown population
does persist in North Africa, wide-ranging ongoing threats such as climate change make it likely that it will be declining.
The North African population probably survived because of immigration from the larger Spanish population, but
the decline in this Iberian population during the 20th century due to widespread accidental poisoning (Aebischer,
2009; Garrido et al., 2014) and climate change (Huntley et al., 2007; BirdLife International, 2018b) has made fur-
ther immigration unlikely.
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
The species occurs in open woodland and
adjacent open areas (Clark and Davies,
2018). In winter, it also occupies farmland
without trees, wasteland, scrub and wet-
lands (BirdLife International, 2018b) and also
rubbish dumps and slaughterhouses (Clark
and Davies, 2018; Radi et al., 2020). In Mo-
rocco the species bred in sparsely populat-
ed Mediterranean broadleaf woodlands and
forests mixed with farmland and pasture,
similar to its Iberian habitat (Thévenot et al.,
2003; Cherkaoui, 2004). Red kites are less
gregarious than black kites, though small
groups will gather at abundant food sources
(Clark and Davies, 2018) especially in winter.
© IUCN
Distribution range of the R ed kite, Milvus milvus -
(Linnaeus, 1758) in North Africa. Source: The IUCN
Red List of the bree ding birds of prey of North Africa.
51
Most birds in Europe are migratory, wintering mainly in southern France and Iberia, but some travel across to Africa
(Radi et al., 2020). The autumn crossing from Europe takes place between mid-August and late November and the
spring crossing extends from late February to the end of May (Thévenot et al., 2003). Birds are usually seen singly
or in pairs, but sometimes form small flocks, possibly family groups, when on migration (Ferguson-Lees and Chris-
tie, 2001). Red kites consume a wide spectrum of food (carrion, organic rubbish, small mammals, birds, reptiles,
amphibians, insects and fish species) by predation, scavenging and piracy (Mougeot et al., 2011; Clark and Davies,
2018).
They build their own nests or use old nests made by other species (buzzards or corvids) in trees. The nest is
constructed with dead twigs, is typically 30–50 cm wide, and lined with dry (not green) vegetation and other
materials (wool, paper, plastic, rags). Each pair has several (two to five) nests and usually reuses the same nest
sites in consecutive seasons, but will sometimes change nest site after a breeding failure (Mougeot et al., 2011).
One to three eggs are laid between March and April (Mougeot et al., 2011; Clark and Davies, 2018). In Morocco,
fledglings have been observed in May and June (Thévenot et al., 2003).
THREATS
As with other scavenger species, widespread accidental poisoning, largely with strychnine used by many farmers
for predator control, and more recently with carbofuran, has contributed significantly to red kite decline (Aebischer,
2009; Garrido et al., 2014). Internationally banned organochlorine pesticides are still locally available and kill wildlife
and pollute the environment (Garrido et al., 2014). Indirect poisoning from pesticides and secondary poisoning from
the consumption of rodents poisoned by rodenticides spread on farmland to control vole plagues threatens the
species particularly in its wintering ranges in France and Spain and possibly in North Africa, where it is driving rapid
population declines (Aebischer, 2009). There is a strong correlation between rapid declines and those populations
that winter in Spain (Carter, 2007), which will be the source of the kites that winter in North Africa.
The decline of livestock grazing and the intensification of farming leading to chemical pollution, homogenisation of
landscapes and ecological impoverishment also threaten the species (Knott et al., 2009). Destruction and distur-
bance because of the intense human use of forests to extract wood as fuel for cooking and heating and because of
the felling of large trees to clear land for agriculture especially threatens tree-nesting raptors like red kites, leading
them to abandon their breeding territories. Wind turbines are also a potentially serious future threat (Mammen et
al., 2009) so the increasing number of massive wind energy projects in northern Morocco could pose a huge threat
to the population migrating across the Strait of Gibraltar. Other threats include electrocution on and collision with
power lines (Mionnet, 2007; Radi et al., 2020), hunting and trapping (Mionnet, 2007), roadkill, deforestation, and
possibly competition with the generally more successful black kite (Milvus migrans) (Ferguson-Lees et al., 2001;
Cardiel and Viñuela, 2007; Mammen, 2007). Climate change seems to be shifting optimal breeding areas north-
wards (Huntley et al., 2007), so survival on the southern edge of their range (i.e. North Africa) will become harder.
CONSERVATION
Conservation actions in place: CMS Appendix II. CITES Appendix II. An initiative to identify and correct dan-
gerous power lines has started in Morocco with the collaboration of governmental bodies and NGOs (Godino et
al., 2016; Martín Martín et al., 2019).
Conservation actions needed: A conservation Action Plan is required, including a feasibility analysis for a reintro-
duction programme and the suitability of providing supplementary feeding stations. Bird-friendly structures should
be installed on power lines to prevent electrocution and collisions . Greater control over the use of pesticides and
poisons is needed. Populations should be monitored to determine, protect and manage potential breeding and
wintering areas. Such research can also survey for any potential breeding activity. Actions to increase awareness of
biodiversity conservation are required, as well as training for law enforcers. A management plan should be devel-
oped for open landfill sites as key feeding habitats for red kites and other raptors in North Africa. It is also important
to work with landowners to protect habitats and prevent any potential persecution.
Assessor(s): Garrido López, J.R., Rousselon, K., Cherkaoui, I., Buirzayqah, S., Riad, A., Chokri, M.A. & Haitham, O.
Reviewer(s): Numa, C. & Barrios, V. / Contributor(s): Gyenge, P. & BirdLife International
Date: 2020– 05–27
52
Lappet-faced vulture, Torgos tracheliotos - (Forster, 1791)
POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
20-40 mat. ind. -100,336 km2
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR) C2a(i,ii); D (IUCN version 3.1)
In North Africa, the species has a small and declining population of 20–40 estimated mature individuals in a sin-
gle subpopulation in Egypt. It is extinct in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. The species is listed as Critically
Endangered under criterion C2a(i,ii); D.
DISTRIBUTION
The species has a wide distribution in Africa, from West Africa across the Sahel to East Africa and further south
(Botha et al., 2017), but with significant population declines throughout its range in Africa and the Middle East
(Shimelis et al., 2005). It is rare in North Africa.
Currently it breeds only at Wadi el-Gemal National Park, Wadi El-Kharit and Umm El Abbas in southern Egypt
(Goodman and Meininger, 1989; Habid, 2016b; Clark and Davies, 2018; OSME, 2019), although in the early
20th century it was the most abundant vulture in the country occurring from the western desert in the Qattara
depression to eastern Sinai and the south (Nicoll, 1919; Meinerzhagen, 1930). In the 20th century it bred in Libya
(in the southern Sahara in 1998: Massa, 1999; Isenmann et al., 2016 ), Tunisia (until 1950 in the eastern Sahara:
Isenmann et al., 2005), Algeria (maybe until the 1960s in the western Sahara: Isenmann and Moali, 2000) and
Morocco (until the 1950s in the Atlantic Sahara: Bergier, 1987; Thévenot et al., 2003; Bergier et al., 2017). Previ-
ously, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, it used to breed in non-desert habitats in the Central Plateau and
Middle Atlas in Morocco (Thévenot et al., 2003) and Algeria (Isenmann and Moali, 2000). It has also disappeared
from northern Niger and northern Mali (Thiollay, 2006) so any recolonisation of Algeria from these countries does
CR
© Daniel Burón
53
not seem to be possible soon. However, it could still be breeding in Mauritania (Botha et al., 2017). Vagrants are
also occasionally recorded in Algeria, Libya and Morocco (Botha et al., 2017). There is passage migration of lap-
pet-faced vultures through Sinai and Nile Valley according to eBird (2020), probably from the Arabian Peninsula.
POPULATION
Data from Shimelis et al. (2005) and Habid (2016b) suggest that the Egyptian subpopulation (the only one re-
maining in North Africa) consists only of 10–20 breeding pairs. This gives a total population of 20–40 mature
individuals, although further surveys are required given the current trends for this species across the world and
the apparently severe declines in the Middle East (Botha et al., 2017).
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
This species inhabits open habitats usually with scattered trees (Clark and Davies, 2018) such as savanna-like
forests with Acacia (Thévenot et al., 2003). It ranges widely when foraging (BirdLife International, 2020) and is
mainly a scavenger, feeding predominantly on any large carcass or its remains (Mundy, 1982; Mundy et al., 1992).
Lappet-faced vultures gather at carcasses with other vultures, which they dominate, and they steal prey from
other raptors and can also take live prey, including fish and terrapin eggs (Clark and Davies, 2018). They build
solitary nests (containing just one egg) on cliffs and in Acacia trees in Egypt (Habid, 2016); the species’ distribu-
tion is sometimes limited by that of Acacia trees (Boshoff et al., 1997). Lappet-faced vultures do not breed until
they are at least six years old, and then fledge ca. 0.4 young/pair/year (Mundy et al., 1992); ringing studies have
revealed a very low return rate (Simmons and Bridgeford, 1997). The species' minimum home range has been
suggested to be 8 km2, expanding to 15 km2 in some habitats (Shimelis et al., 2005), but now 80–150 km2 may
be more appropriate (BirdLife International, 2020d).
THREATS
As with other scavenger species in North Africa, widespread accidental poisoning, largely with strychnine
used by many farmers for predator control, and more recently with carbofuran, has contributed significantly
to lappet-faced vulture decline and local extinctions (Garrido et al., 2014; Andevski, 2017; Botha et al., 2017).
Food availability for the species is decreasing due to the almost complete absence of wild ungulates, which
is caused by the increase and spread of the human population and habitat alteration, at least in the Maghreb
(Garrido et al., 2014; Andevski, 2017). Habitat alteration through tree-felling and overgrazing leading to food
scarcity is also an important threat to the only breeding population in Egypt (Aspinall, 1996; Rondeau and
Thiollay, 2004; Andevski, 2017; A. Riad, O. Haitham, pers. obs.). It has also been impacted during the breeding
season by human disturbance near nests in desert areas, where low tree densities mean that homes are often
built under or near trees used by this spe-
cies for breeding, contributing to the
abandonment of nesting sites (Botha et al.
2017). Another threat could be electrocu-
tion or collisions on energy infrastructure,
as in other areas of its range (Shimelis et
al., 2005). The potential introduction and
use of the non-steroidal anti-inflammato-
ry drug diclofenac, which is fatal to Gyps
spp. when ingested by birds feeding on
livestock carcasses, may become a threat
to the species in the region as well. Lastly,
in Egypt, direct trophy hunting and preda-
tion by feral dogs cause direct mortality
(A. Riad, O. Haitham, pers. obs.).
© IUCN
Distribution range of the L appet-faced vul ture, Torgos
tracheliotos - (Forster, 1791) in North Africa. Source: T he
IUCN Red List of the breeding birds of prey of North Africa.
54
CONSERVATION
Conservation actions in place: CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix I and II. The species was put forward as
a candidate for the CITES Review of Significant Trade in 2004 (BirdLife International, 2020d). It is included in a
multi-species action plan for African–Eurasian vultures (Botha et al., 2017). In 2008, feeding stations were set up
at Shalatin in southern Egypt, following the decline of vultures in the area (BirdLife International, 2020d).
Conservation actions needed: Coordinated surveys and monitoring should be instigated throughout its range
to clarify population size and rates of decline, beginning with a census of the Egyptian population, including
use of satellite tracking; further ecological research is also needed. Awareness campaigns should be initiated
aimed at farmers (livestock grazers), local communities, developers and ecotourists to reduce mortality from
persecution and disturbance. Actions to reduce mortality from electrocution and collisions on power lines are
desirable, including education campaigns, establishing priority areas for power line mitigation works and retrofit-
ting dangerous power lines. The provision of feeding stations is also beneficial, particularly when food is scarce.
The laws protecting existing nature reserves in Egypt should be enforced so as to maintain an adequate area of
legally protected habitat, and lobbying to outlaw the sale of diclofenac for veterinary purposes could be useful, in
addition to the establishment of legal protection for the species in range states. Finally, populations of feral dogs
should be controlled to avoid direct predation.
Assessor(s): Riad, A., Haitham, O. & Garrido López, J.R.
Reviewer(s): Numa, C. & Barrios, V.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P. & BirdLife International
Date: 2020–09–08
55
Marsh owl, Asio capensis - (Smith, 1834)
POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
100-200 mat. ind. 56-100 km29,698 km2
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR) C2a(ii) (IUCN version 3.1)
This species has a small and declining population in North Africa estimated at 100–200 mature individuals in a
single subpopulation. Based on historical localities, it is estimated that its extent of occurrence (EOO) has been
reduced by 50 to 70% in the last 22 years as a consequence of the elimination and degradation of marshlands, its
main suitable habitat. Its area of occupancy (AOO) is estimated to be less than 100 km2 and its EOO 9,698 km2.
Recent observations indicate the species could be colonising new habitats, but more research is needed to in-
crease knowledge of its current distribution, ecological requirements and population status. However, based on
the small and declining population, the species is listed as Critically Endangered under criterion C2a(ii).
DISTRIBUTION
This is a widespread Afrotropical owl occurring over large areas of sub-Saharan Africa, with isolated populations
of the endemic subspecies A. c. ssp. tingitanus in North Africa. The Marsh Owl currently occurs in Morocco,
though it formerly also bred in Algeria (Thévenot et al., 2003; Isenmann and Moali, 2000).
In Morocco, the species used to be found from Tangier to Essaouira and Fez, but currently it occurs on the plains
and hills of northern and central parts of the Atlantic coast, between Tangier and Essaouira and inland around
Meknès, where it almost exclusively inhabits marsh vegetation in coastal wetlands (Bergier and Thévenot, 1991;
Thévenot et al., 2003). To date, five breeding localities have been identified: the wetlands of Merja Zerga, Lower
Loukkos, Sidi-Boughaba and the Tahaddart estuary (MaghrebOrnitho, 2014b, 2018e), and an unknown forest
habitat in the Mamora Forest, which could be a newly colonised site (Hanane and Cherkaoui, 2014).
CR
© Brahim Bakaas
56
POPULATION
In the late 19th century, marsh owls were considered common in Morocco (Reid 1885), but the population has
undergone a considerable decline since the end of the 19th century (Hanane and Cherkaoui, 2014), and especially
since the 1970s in most areas, due to the increase in the human population and the resulting modification, distur-
bance and destruction of wetlands (Bergier and Thévenot, 1991; Thévenot et al., 2003). By 1991, the population
in Morocco was estimated at 50–140 breeding pairs (Bergier and Thévenot, 1991), a number which was repeated
by El Agbani and Qninba (2011). However, Qninba et al. (2008) found a decline of 40% from the 1980s to 2008
in the second most important location in Morocco, Lower Loukkos. Thus, if the decline is assumed to be the
same across the country, and considering the threats that wetlands are facing (Franchimont and Saadaoui, 2001;
Sayad, 2007; MaghrebOrnitho, 2012), the breeding population in the country may be estimated to be around
50–100 breeding pairs (100–200 mature individuals).
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
The typical habitat of the species in Morocco is permanent wetlands surrounded by well-developed marsh
vegetation (Bergier and Thévenot, 1991), especially in coastal wetlands (Thévenot et al., 2003), but also in cereal
fields (El Agbani and Qninba, 2011), rice fields (K. Rousselon, pers. obs., 2019) and forest habitats (Hanane and
Cherkaoui, 2014). The breeding season in the area lasts from the end of February to the end of May (Thévenot
et al., 2003). The marsh owl nests on the ground or, exceptionally, in trees in old corvid nests, and lays an aver-
age clutch of 3.22 eggs with a hatching rate of 78%; with young birds recorded from April to June (Bergier and
Th évenot, 19 91).
The species’ diet varies from one site to another and includes micromammals and invertebrates, but in largely
unspoilt wetlands it consists mainly of insects (Bergier and Thévenot, 1991). The species is mainly sedentary
but some birds disperse over long distances (Bergier and Thévenot, 1991), even as far as Spain (De Juana and
García, 2015). The habitat of the recent breeding record from the Mamora forest consists of dense Quercus suber
forest with tall Chamaerops humilis and Cistus sp. shrubland (Hanane and Cherkaoui, 2014).
THREATS
The marsh owl is very vulnerable to habitat loss resulting from drainage of marshland (due to the increasing
human population and the expansion of agriculture) and to disturbance by farmers, pastoralists and especially
birders at their main breeding sites (Bergier and Thévenot, 1991; Franchimont and Saadaoui, 2001; Thévenot et
al., 2003; Sayad, 2007; MaghrebOrnitho, 2012). Nests are vulnerable to fires (Olsen, 1999), which have occurred
a few times at breeding sites (MaghrebOrnitho, 2012), as well as vandalism, such that very few broods succeed at
the species’ best breeding site in Morocco (A. Qninba, pers. comm., 2020). Increasing populations of wild boars
may also be having a negative impact on breeding success (I. Cherkaoui, pers. comm., 2020).
Rodenticides used on farmland may also
be adversely affecting the population but
there are no available data (K. Rousselon,
pers. comm., 2020). Marsh owls are also
killed by traffic (Bergier and Thévenot, 1991;
MaghrebOrnitho, 2014b). Finally, all owl
species are illegally traded in North Afri-
ca (Brochet et al., 2016), and in Moroccan
popular belief, all nocturnal birds of prey are
used for magic rituals. Overall, this small,
isolated population could suffer a reduction
in genetic diversity over time, which could
influence breeding success and the long-
term survival of the population unless the
sites are carefully managed.
© IUCN
Distribution range of the M arsh owl, Asio capensis -
(Smith, 1834) in North Africa . Source: The IUCN Red
List of the b reeding birds of p rey of Nor th Africa.
57
CONSERVATION
Conservation and research actions in place: CITES Appendix II.
Conservation and research actions needed: A Conservation Action Plan must be developed to conserve
and restore breeding locations, including a population and habitat viability assessment and prospection to find
new populations. Strict and effective protection of all known breeding sites is required, and the destruction of
wetland vegetation for agricultural purposes or by fire must be prevented. Local ornithological guides should be
trained to avoid disturbing the breeding and wintering population, and best practice guidelines for birdwatching
should be established, including a ban during the breeding season. Populations should be monitored to deter-
mine, protect and manage key breeding, wintering and dispersal sites. Road signage should be installed in areas
of high traffic collision risk (e.g. near breeding sites) alerting drivers to the presence of marsh owls and warning
them to reduce speed. Research is needed into the feasibility of a captive breeding programme to reinforce
existing populations and to reintroduce individuals to suitable localities where the species has become extinct.
Assessor(s): Cherkaoui, I., Rousselon, K. & Monti, F.
Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B., BirdLife International & Qninba, A.
Date: 2020–09–08
58
Montagu’s harrier, Circus pygargus (Linnaeus, 1758)
POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
210 mat. ind. -170,180 km2
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: ENDANGERED (EN) C2a(i); D (IUCN version 3.1)
This species has declined in North Africa, with only ca. 100 pairs remaining in Morocco and no more than five
pairs in Algeria, while in Tunisia there have been no breeding records for 20 years. Therefore, the population
size in North Africa is approximately 210 mature individuals. The species could potentially be listed as Critically
Endangered under criterion C2a(ii), as based on these figures >90% of the population may be in the Moroccan
subpopulation. However, with the ongoing decline in the country it is uncertain whether this is definitely the case
and so the species is tentatively assessed as Endangered under criteria C2a(i); D.
DISTRIBUTION
Montagu’s harrier is a rare, local, summer breeding resident in north-west Africa: in the Rharb, at the Moulouya
estuary and possibly at Oualidia in Morocco and in north-western Algeria (Thévenot et al., 2003; Isenmann et al.,
2005; Clark and Davies, 2018). It used to breed in north-eastern Tunisia (Isenmann and Moali, 2000) but there has
been no record of breeding in the last 20 years (M. Chokri and H. Azafzaf, pers. obs.). It is a common passage
migrant from Eurasia in all North African countries (Clark and Davies, 2018).
POPULATION
In the late 20th century, the population in Morocco was estimated at 500 breeding pairs, but numbers have
declined markedly to ca. 100 breeding pairs (Bergier, 1987; Thévenot et al., 2003; I. Cherkaoui, pers. obs.).
EN
© Álex Colorado
59
There has been only one recent breeding record in Algeria, a breeding pair observed at Dayet El Fed, and the
population in this country is unlikely to be more than five breeding pairs (H. Benmammar, pers. obs.). In Tunisia,
there have been no breeding records in the last 20 years (M. A. Chokri and H. Azafzaf, pers. obs.). Therefore, the
breeding population in North Africa can be estimated at ca. 105 breeding pairs (210 mature individuals).
North Africa is the southern limit of the species’ range, so the North African population probably survived due
to immigration from the larger Spanish population, but this too has suffered a major decline in the last decade
(Arroyo, 2017) due to conversion of its habitat to intensive agricultural land (Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001;
Bergier, 1987; Orta et al., 2020d).
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
The species occurs in open grasslands, cereal fields, upland plateaux, wetlands and marshes in coastal regions
(Thévenot et al., 2003; Clark and Davies, 2018). It nests in tall vegetation on the ground. The nest is a small, nar-
row platform, 20–40 cm wide, made of grass stems or thin twigs. Clutches normally consist of three to five eggs
(Orta et al., 2020d). In North Africa, the breeding season lasts from early April to early June (Thévenot et al., 2003).
It is a migratory species, wintering in sub-Saharan Africa (Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001; Orta et al., 2020d). It
leaves its breeding grounds from the end of July until mid-October and begins its return in March and April (Snow
and Perrins, 1998; Thévenot et al., 2003; Orta et al., 2020d). This is a loop migration, with birds passing further to
the west in autumn (García and Arroyo, 1998). Birds tend to migrate on broad fronts, but there are concentrations
in Gibraltar and along the Rift Valley (Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001; Orta et al., 2020d). Nevertheless, they
will readily migrate over expanses of water (Brown et al., 1982).
Birds tend to hunt alone, although they do gather at high prey concentrations and will roost in groups of often
more than 50 individuals, sometimes communally with Circus macrourus and C. aeruginosus (Ferguson-Lees
and Christie, 2001). They mainly feed on small mammals, birds, reptiles, sometimes insects (particularly in winter)
and occasionally birds’ eggs (Clark and Davies, 2018).
THREATS
In the past, the use of organochlorine pesticides seemed to cause a decline in Europe (Ferguson-Lees and
Christie, 2001), which could still be happening at least in Morocco (Strategy for Conservation of Birds of Prey
Workshop, 2020, Rabat). The species is currently in decline owing to the conversion of its habitat to agricultural
land, an environment in which crop gathering by combine harvesters causes frequent breeding failure (Orta et al.,
2020d; Moroccan Strategy for Conservation of Birds of Prey Workshop, 2020, Rabat). Intensification of agricul-
ture increases this threat (Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001). It is commensal with some forms of agriculture, and
therefore changes in these practices could make it potentially vulnerable by depleting the supply of small birds and
mammals for it to prey on (Ferguson-Lees
and Christie, 2001; Orta et al., 2020d). It
is highly vulnerable to the impacts of wind
energy developments (STRIX, 2012), so the
increasing number of massive wind energy
projects in northern Morocco could be a
major threat to individuals migrating across
the Strait of Gibraltar.
In Morocco, nests are systematically de-
stroyed on farmland (Thévenot et al., 2003;
I. Cherkaoui, pers. obs., Strategy for Con-
servation of Birds of Prey Workshop, 2020,
Rabat) and shooting has been documented
(MaghrebOrnitho, 2018g). Additionally, in
© IUCN
Distribution range of the Montagu’s harrier, Circus pygargus
(Linnaeus, 1758) in North Africa. Source: The IUCN Red
List of the b reeding birds of p rey of Nor th Africa.
60
Merja Zerga, rush burning and vandalism can destroy nests (I. Cherkaoui, pers. obs., Strategy for Conservation
of Birds of Prey Workshop, 2020, Rabat), and very few broods now succeed at the species’ best breeding site
in Morocco (A. Qninba, pers. comm.).
Lastly, as a consequence of global climate change, harvests are taking place earlier, coinciding with nesting
times, and chicks may be killed by the harvesting machines.
CONSERVATION
Conservation actions in place: CITES Appendix II and CMS Appendix II. In Morocco, the species is in-
cluded in the preparation of a raptor conservation strategy (https://www.iucn.org/news/mediterranean/202001/
first-steps-towards-a-moroccan-strategy-raptor-conservation-iucns-guidance).
Conservation actions needed: Tall vegetation should not be removed during the breeding season due to the
high rates of chick mortality when it is harvested on agricultural land. Key management practices that include
moving nestlings to safe places during harvesting, and leaving areas around nests unharvested should be im-
plemented (Orta et al., 2020d). Removed chicks can also be reintroduced in other suitable areas. Mediterranean
populations are highly dependent on these measures owing to high nest-failure rates in the absence of interven-
tion (Orta et al., 2020d). Where possible, strict and effective protection of breeding sites should occur, and more
broadly there should be an effort to increase awareness of biodiversity conservation. In addition, research on
migration routes and on the location and structure of stopover sites and wintering quarters of the species would
assist the development of conservation measures (Trierweiler, 2010). A population and habitat viability assess-
ment should be produced in addition to a management plan and conservation action plan; and the populations
should be monitored to determine, protect and manage key breeding, wintering and dispersal sites.
Assessor(s): Cherkaoui, I., Azafzaf, H., Chokri, M.A., Benmammar Hasnaoui, H., Monti, F. & Garrido López, J.R.
Reviewer(s): Numa, C. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B., BirdLife International & Qninba, A.
Date: 2020–09–07
61
Egyptian vulture, Neophron percnopterus - (Linnaeus, 1758)
POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
1,500 mat. ind. 6,300,621 km2
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: ENDANGERED (EN) A4bcde (IUCN version 3.1)
The resident population of Egyptian vultures is suspected to be around 1,500 mature individuals, although further
validation of this estimate is needed. Most of the available data come from Morocco, where there has been an
estimated population decline of at least 98% in the last 40 years (2.2 generations). However, the population size in
Algeria and Tunisia seems stable, while little information is available from Libya and Egypt. Based on the available
data it is likely that the ongoing decline in the species in this region is in the range of 50–79% over three genera-
tions (ca. 53 years). Therefore, it is assessed as Endangered under criterion A4bcde.
DISTRIBUTION
The species is uncommon to rare and a local summer breeder in North Africa, mainly along the Mediterranean
coast from Morocco to Egypt (Clark and Davies, 2018). Apart from in Algeria, the species' population has de-
clined throughout its range in North Africa, mainly because of indirect poisoning, as has happened throughout its
global distribution area (Botha et al., 2017). In Morocco it currently seems to survive only in the Middle Atlas and
Tazekka National Park, since it was extirpated in the rest of the country during the 20th century, mainly by poison-
ing (Thévenot et al., 2003; Amezian and El Khamlichi, 2016; Cuzin, 2019; UICN and DEF, 2020). However, it may
still occur in unsurveyed areas which need more field work (Cuzin, 2019), and a possible breeding pair has recent-
ly been located in Missour in eastern Morocco, but this still needs confirmation (UICN and DEF, 2020). In Algeria
the Egyptian vulture appears to breed from the coast southward to the Saharan Atlas and beyond (Isenmann
and Moali, 2000), with a large resident population in the south-east (Clark and Davies, 2018; Buij et al., 2017); the
EN
© Íñigo Fajardo
62
country has the largest population in the Maghreb (North African Birds, 2014a). It also occurs in north-western Tu-
nisia (Isenmann et al., 2005), northern and south-eastern Libya (Isenmann et al., 2016) and south-western Egypt
(Aswan, Shalateen, and Wadi El-Gemal National Park), as well as in the Sinai Peninsula, although it is extinct in
the eastern desert of Egypt and the Nile Valley (Goodman and Meininger, 1989; Buij et al., 2017; Habib, 2016c).
A large part of the Eurasian breeding population passes through the Strait of Gibraltar and the Red Sea Flyway
on migration to its wintering sites in Africa (Phipps et al., 2019), but some individuals also pass through Cap Bon
and the Tunisian coast (Isenmann et al., 2005; M. Amezian, pers. obs.). European and North African Egyptian
vultures winter in the Sahel region of Africa (Botha et al., 2017), with a few migrants potentially wintering in Egypt
(Goodman and Meininger, 1989). Three separate subpopulations can be distinguished: the Maghreb subpopula-
tion, including Mediterranean breeding populations in Morocco, northern Algeria, Tunisia and northern Libya; the
Desert subpopulation in south-eastern Algeria and Libya, which is more closely related to the Afrotropical pop-
ulation than to the Mediterranean; and the Egyptian subpopulation, isolated from the Mediterranean and Desert
subpopulations and more closely related to the Arabian subpopulation of the species.
POPULATION
The North African population can be estimated at more than 750 breeding pairs or 1,500 mature individuals.
There are ca. 20 pairs in Morocco (M. Amezian and R. El Khamlichi, pers. obs.; Cuzin, 2019; UICN and DEF,
2020), which is significantly less than the previous estimate of 500–1,000 pairs in the 1980s (Thévenot et al.,
2003). There are around 500 breeding pairs in Algeria, where they are more frequent in the south and less
abundant in the western part of the country (M. Saheb, A. Fellous-Djardini, pers. obs.). There are 100–150 pairs
in Tunisia, where the population seems stable (I. Essetti, pers. obs.). And there are fewer than 20 pairs in Egypt,
with only two in Sinai (A. Riad, pers. obs.). There are no available population estimates from Libya, although the
species has not been seen since 2010 in the Cyrenaica region, where it is suspected to have disappeared, but
this information is difficult to verify (K. Etaleb, pers. obs.). More than 4,000 individuals have been observed on
migration across the Strait of Gibraltar (A. Onrubia, pers. obs.). Based on these data, the ongoing decline in the
species in this region is likely to be 50–79% over three generations (ca. 53 years).
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
The species occurs in a variety of habitats, from Mediterranean woodlands to arid areas, but also near human
habitation, especially rubbish dumps and cultivation (Clark and Davies, 2018). In Morocco it is currently observed
in cultivated plateaux and wooded environments, where there are gorges with cliffs at moderate altitude (400 to
1,400 m) (Cuzin, 2019). This species typically nests on ledges or in caves on cliffs (Thévenot et al., 2003). Egyptian
vultures usually build nests with sticks but also use artificial materials and they raise one or two chicks, rarely
three (Clark and Davies, 2018; H. Benmammar, pers. obs.). Cases of polyandry have been reported in Europe
(Perennou et al., 1987; Tella, 1993).
According to Clark and Davies (2018) it is
primarily a scavenger, though it is less de-
pendent on large carcasses, on which it
can feed only after other large vultures have
eaten. It can also capture live prey such as
turtles and insects, and it will feed on birds’
eggs and on organic remains at rubbish
dumps and slaughterhouses. In Algeria,
groups of Egyptian vultures are present
at all rubbish dumps, along with common
ravens (Corvus corax) and black kites (Mil-
vus migrans) (A. Fellous-Djardini, M. Saheb,
pers. obs.), whereas in Egypt, it occurs in
© IUCN
Distribution range of the Egyptian vulture, Ne ophron
percnopterus - (Linnae us, 1758) in Nor th Afric a. Source: The
IUCN Red List of the breeding birds of prey of North Africa.
63
areas with low human population density (A. Riad, pers. obs.). The species is usually solitary, but vultures con-
gregate at feeding and roosting sites (Ceballos and Donázar, 1990; Amezian and El Khamlichi, 2016).
The majority of individuals from northern breeding populations are long-distance migrants that overwinter in
sub-Saharan Africa, with juveniles often remaining in the winter range for more than a year after their first migra-
tion (López-López et al., 2014; Oppel et al., 2015; Buechley et al., 2018). A few migrants presumably winter in
Egypt (Goodman and Meininger, 1989).
Communal night roots of non-breeding birds are formed, usually on cliffs, but also occasionally in trees (Ceballos
and Donázar, 1990; Clark and Davies, 2018). In North Africa, only one communal roost has been found in the
Middle Atlas breeding area in Morocco (Amezian and El Khamlichi, 2016) and two in Ain Mlila (Mount Kef Nsser)
in Algeria (M. Saheb, pers. obs.).
THREATS
In Morocco the species may have suffered unintentional poisoning leading to the extirpation of the species from
most of the country in the 20th century (Thévenot et al., 2003; Bergier et al., 2017), and it can still be a threat
locally today (Amezian and El Kalimchi, 2016; Cuzin, 2019; Moroccan Strategy for Conservation of Birds of Prey
Workshop, 2020, Rabat). Poisoning is also a potential threat in Libya (Isenmann et al., 2016). In Tunisia, some
very local cases of poisoning have been observed and this threat must be properly evaluated (M. Petretto, pers.
comm., M. Amezian, pers. obs.). However, it does not seem to be a conservation problem in Algeria and Egypt,
according to local experts. Due to its diet, the species might also be susceptible to poisoning when feeding at
landfills (Cuzin, 2019) but these could actually be key feeding habitats if properly managed (JMM and Associates,
2015). The increasing use of agricultural pesticides across the species’ habitat also constitutes a potential threat,
as it can cause secondary poisoning through consumption of poisoned corpses (Cuzin, 2019).
Amezian and El Khamlichi (2016) found that there is pressure from dealers in vulture parts that are used in ‘tradition-
al’ medicine in the Middle Atlas in Morocco, and illegal trade has been mentioned for Tunisia (North African Birds,
2014b); however, this seems not to be common at present, and it is not a threat in Algeria, Libya or Egypt. Collision
with and electrocution by power lines is a further threat (Andevski, 2017; Botha et al., 2017; AMFCR, 2018; UICN and
DEF, 2020; Moroccan Strategy for Conservation of Birds of Prey Workshop, 2020, Rabat), and the species is highly
vulnerable to the effects of wind energy developments (STRIX, 2012; Andevski, 2017), so the increasing number of
massive wind energy projects in northern Morocco could be a major threat to migrants crossing the Strait of Gibraltar,
and the future wind farm near Taza could affect the Moroccan breeding population in Tazekka National Park. The on-
going hydroelectric project in the Gorges of Sebou is also being built next to the only known breeding site in Morocco
(Moroccan Strategy for Conservation of Birds of Prey Workshop, 2020, Rabat; Red List review workshop Tunisia,
2020). Other potential threats are disturbance, hunting and poaching (North African Birds, 2014b; Andevski, 2017;
MaghrebOrnitho, 2018f; Cuzin, 2019; Moroccan Strategy for Conservation of Birds of Prey Workshop, Rabat). In con-
trast, there do not seem to be any major threats to the largest breeding population in Algeria, or in Libya and Egypt.
CONSERVATION
Conservation actions in place: CMS Appendix I. CITES Appendix II. It is included in a multi-species action
plan for African–Eurasian vultures (Botha et al., 2017). In Morocco, the species is included in the preparation
of a raptor conservation strategy (https://www.iucn.org/news/mediterranean/202001/first-steps-towards-a-mo-
roccan-strategy-raptor-conservation-iucns-guidance) and in a national population monitoring programme (UICN
and DEF, 2020). An initiative to identify and correct dangerous power lines has also started in Morocco with the
collaboration of governmental bodies and NGOs (Godino et al., 2016; Martín Martín et al., 2019). There are some
initiatives to rescue and release sick and injured wild individuals and to tag vultures (including attaching GPS
loggers) in Morocco (AMFCR, 2018). In northern Morocco a vulture restaurant and a rehabilitation centre are in
operation (R. El Khamlichi, pers. comm., 2020). In Algeria, the Tlemcen National Park has developed an action
plan for the species, which was implemented in 2017–19 (H. Benmammar, pers. comm., 2020).
64
Conservation actions needed: Efforts to increase awareness of biodiversity conservation and to build local
capacity should be conducted in countries along the migration flyways and in the breeding and wintering areas.
All known breeding sites in Morocco should be conserved, and the construction of energy infrastructure in key
areas for the species should be avoided. The ban on poisoned carcasses should be enforced and the leaving
of dead animals encouraged, while open landfill sites can become key feeding habitats for Egyptian vultures if
properly managed. Indeed, further supplementary feeding stations should be set up. Work is needed to halt the
illegal taking of vultures for traditional medicine in Morocco and for illegal trade throughout the species’ range.
Finally, surveys of the population should be conducted to determine, protect and manage potential breeding sites
and key dispersal areas, including migration corridors in the western and eastern flyways. Such work could also
more accurately estimate the size of the population and identify the specific impacts of certain threats.
Assessor(s): Benmammar Hasnaoui, H., Fellous-Djardini, A., Essetti, I., Saheb, M., Haitham, O., Buirzayqah, S.,
Riad, A., Noaman, M., Etayeb, K., Cuzin, F., Bergier, P., Radi, M., Onrubia, A. & Amezian, M.
Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., BirdLife International, El Khamlichi, R. & Petretto, M.
Date: 2020– 05–17
65
Osprey, Pandion haliaetus - (Linnaeus, 1758)
POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
130-146 mat. ind. -6,895,719 km2=
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: ENDANGERED (EN) D (IUCN version 3.1)
While in central and northern Europe the osprey breeds in large numbers, few relict breeding nuclei remain in
the Mediterranean, particularly in North Africa. Although the population is suspected to be stable, the probability
of immigration of individuals from nearby breeding sites in the Mediterranean region is low. Moreover, the main
threats are ongoing and some may even be expected to increase in the future (e.g. human disturbance due to
fishing and tourism, power lines and windfarm development). The population size of this species is very small
(<150 mature individuals) and so it is assessed as Endangered under criterion D.
DISTRIBUTION
From west to east, the species is present in Morocco, Algeria and Egypt. In Morocco it breeds in the Al Hoceima
National Park (Monti et al., 2013). Here, two unused nests were found near Jebha, 30 km from Cala Iris, outside
the protected area. Also in Morocco, in the Chafarinas Islands, the last breeding pair was recorded in 2012
(Monti et al., 2013; Siverio et al., 2018). In Algeria, it is present on the Mediterranean coast at Oran (Monti, 2012)
and possibly on the east coast of the country near El Kala. Many wintering birds are observed in Tunisia but the
species has not nested there since 1953 (Isenmann et al., 2005; Monti, 2012). In Egypt, it breeds only on the Red
Sea coast and South Sinai (Habib, 2019a). Although there are no detailed studies available, the ospreys breeding
in North Africa seem to behave as year-round residents or doing short inter-breeding movements. The great ma-
jority of Mediterranean ospreys winter within the Mediterranean basin including North African coastal wetlands,
but there are records of trans-Saharan migration, indicating that at least a few individuals from the Mediterranean
region winter in sub-Saharan Africa, as their conspecifics from northern Europe commonly do (Monti et al., 2018).
EN
© Rafa Benjumea
66
POPULATION
In Algeria the population size is estimated at 30–34 mature individuals, based on the number of breeding pairs
counted in 1989–1993 (Boukhalfa, 1990; Thibault et al., 1996; Monti, 2012). In Morocco, there may be 10–15
breeding pairs or 20–30 mature individuals (producing 8–12 chicks per year) (Monti, 2012; Monti et al., 2013),
but a census performed in 2019 indicated there were about 16 active nests (AGIR, 2018; H. Nibani, pers. obs.).
Reports indicate the Moroccan population decreased by 35.7% between 1990 and 2013 (Monti et al., 2013), but
the population trend seems to have been stable since then. In Egypt, 80 mature individuals (40 active nests) were
counted on islands in the Red Sea in 2013–15 (Habib, 2019a). Therefore, the total population size for North Africa
is estimated to be between 130 and 146 mature individuals.
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
Ospreys tend to be opportunistic, adapting their behaviour to the location and the water bodies available, with fish-
ing opportunities probably being the most important requirement. In marine environments, its diet consists almost
entirely of live epipelagic fishes (e.g. Liza spp., Diplodus spp.) (Poole, 2020). At times, individuals will frequent estu-
aries, marshes and other coastal waters as well as lakes and pools inland. During migration, any kind of water body
where fishing may be possible (with medium-sized fish no deeper than one metre below the surface) can be used.
The species is generally intolerant of disturbance, especially when the source of the disturbance is directed toward
the nest (Monti et al., 2018), but in some cases it has locally adapted to intense human activity (Bai et al., 2009).
Nesting sites in the Mediterranean are rocky cliffs close to marine or brackish water fishing environments (Monti et
al., 2013). The nest is a large collection of sticks and flotsam, lined with grasses and moss where available, usually
wedged high (up to 30 m above the ground) in an exposed tree or sometimes on cliffs. The breeding season lasts
from early March to July, with egg laying from early March to early April (Thévenot et al., 2003); clutches consist
of from one to four eggs. In Egypt pairs start courtship and nest building from the first week of December in the
south to the first week of January in the north. Fledglings appear from late March to late April (Habib, 2017).
In North Africa, the species is mostly resident with some individuals moving short distances outside the breeding
season. Migratory movements to the Sahel may also occur (F. Monti, pers. obs.).
THREATS
In Morocco, detrimental fishing activities such as trawling and dynamite fishing are the main cause of both direct and
indirect disturbance for the species in the Al Hoceima National Park (H. Nibani, pers. obs.; Moroccan Strategy for
Conservation of Birds of Prey Workshop, 2020, Rabat). Given the species' piscivorous diet, these fishing activities can
reduce the availability of food in the long term by disturbing fish breeding grounds and depleting fish stocks. However,
dynamite fishing is currently decreasing (H. Nibani, pers. obs.), although copper sulphate fishing (targeting octopus)
is potentially an additional indirect threat.
The presence of humans can unsettle os-
preys, leading them to repeatedly switch
between nest sites (AGIR, 2028; H. Nibani,
pers. obs.; Moroccan Strategy for Conser-
vation of Birds of Prey Workshop, 2020, Ra-
bat) and potentially resulting in failed breed-
ing attempts (Monti et al., 2013). Scuba
spearfishing near breeding sites and tour-
ism activities involving motor boats seem
to be increasing in the Al Hoceima National
Park (H. Nibani, pers. obs.). Deaths of os-
preys by electrocution have been also re-
corded in Morocco (R. El Khamlichi, pers.
comm.; UICN and DEF, 2020).
Pandion haliaetus
Map created 17/2/2021
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map
do not imply any official endorsement, acceptance or opinion by IUCN.
North Africa Raptor Red List
Extant (breeding)
Extant (non-breeding)
Extant (passage)
Breeding areas Breeding areas
Breeding areas
Pandion haliaetus
Map created 17/2/2021
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map
do not imply any official endorsement, acceptance or opinion by IUCN.
North Africa Raptor Red List
Extant (breeding)
Extant (non-breeding)
Extant (passage)
Breeding areas Breeding areas
Breeding areas
© IUCN
Distribution range of the O sprey, Pandion haliaet us -
(Linnaeus, 1758) in North Africa. Source: The IUCN
Red List of the bree ding birds of prey of North Africa.
67
CONSERVATION
Conservation actions in place: CMS Appendix II. Barcelona convention: Annex II. CITES Annex II. In Morocco,
the species is included in the preparation of a raptor conservation strategy (https://www.inationalucn.org/news/
mediterranean/202001/first-steps-towards-a-moroccan-strategy-raptor-conservation-iucns-guidance) and a na-
tional population monitoring programme (UICN and DEF, 2020). An initiative to identify and correct dangerous
power lines has also started in Morocco with the collaboration of governmental
Conservation and research/monitoring actions needed: Awareness raising and education campaigns will be
important for this species' conservation. Disturbance during the breeding season can be reduced by establishing
protective zones 200–300 m wide around nests (Monti et al., 2018a). This, along with nest wardening, rebuilding
of damaged nests and the provision of artificial nests in safe locations where necessary, should improve breeding
success. The spread of pollutants should be reduced. Fish-farms visited by migrating birds should use equipment
to scare birds away and prevent access to fish stocks in order to avoid accidental entanglement (for example, over-
head lines instead of nets laid on the water surface could be an effective measure for reducing osprey mortality).
Actions are needed to reduce mortality, particularly from collisions and electrocution; they should include the
modification of dangerous power lines. It would also be beneficial to maintain an adequate area of legally protect-
ed habitat and improve the level of protection at sensitive sites in North Africa. In the short term, current legisla-
tion to reduce illegal hunting, including in areas that do not have formal protected status, should be reinforced;
breeding sites should be protected and disturbance avoided or limited (Monti et al., 2018a); regional recovery
plans should be developed and implemented; and reintroduction and population reinforcement programmes,
only if necessary, should take into consideration the genetic structure and migratory strategies of potential source
populations, selecting those that are most similar to the North African population (Monti et al., 2018b).
Research is recommended to fill gaps in our knowledge of the population status in some regions, trends and
the threats facing the North African population of the species, in particular in Algeria. It is also recommended
to monitor demographic parameters such as the number of birds, and annual estimates of breeding and their
hatching and fledging success.
Assessor(s): Monti, F., Nibani, H. & Cherkaoui, I.
Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Numa, C.
Contributor(s): Rousselon, K., Etayeb, K., Riad, S., Haitham, O., Chokri, M.A., Gyenge, P., Benmammar Hasnaoui,
H., BirdLife International & El Khamlichi, R.
Date: 2020–09–08
68
Griffon vulture, Gyps fulvus (Hablizl, 1783)
POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
400 mat. ind. 249,924 km2
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: VULNERABLE (VU) C2a(ii) (IUCN version 3.1)
The North African population of the species is suspected to consist of around 400 mature individuals in one
subpopulation. There is an observed ongoing decline of mature individuals due to the extirpation of breeding
populations in Egypt, Tunisia and Morocco. The species qualifies as Endangered according to criterion C2a(ii),
but due to the increasing immigration of mature individuals from Europe and the fact that it may breed in Morocco
in the near future, the species is adjusted down one category and listed as Vulnerable C2a(ii).
DISTRIBUTION
In North Africa, this species is uncommon and resident only in northern Algeria (MaghrebOrnitho, 2014c; Clark
and Davies, 2018). It is in Sidi Reghis Forests at Oum El Bouaghi province (Rebbah et al., 2019), the Parc National
du Djurdjura, Parc National Chrea, Massif de l'Ouarsenis in Tell Atlas, Massif des Aurès, Parc National Belezma,
Gorges du Rhummel and Mt Souk Ahras Mountains (M. Saheb, A. Fellous-Djardini, H. Benmammar, pers. obs.,
2020). It is also present in the Massif des Babors, and an individual has been observed in the Parc National du
Tlemcen (H. Benmammar, pers. obs.). It has also been observed as a breeding species in the Parc Culturel de
l’Atlas Saharien, at Mount Ksour (Fellous, 2017).
The griffon vulture has never bred in Libya. In Morocco, it used to breed in the east, the Middle Atlas, the Central
Plateau, the High Atlas, the western Anti-Atlas and the Saharan Atlas (Bergier, 1987; Thévenot et al., 2003), but
in the 21st century there has been no active breeding in the country (Garrido et al., 2005; Hajib, 2005; UICN and
DEF, 2020). Similarly, it formerly bred in north-eastern and southern Tunisia (Isenmann et al., 2005), and it used
VU
© Daniel Burón
69
to breed in eastern Egypt (Andevski, 2017), but more recent information confirms the species no longer breeds
in the country (A. Riad, pers. obs.).
Immatures, mainly juveniles, migrate from Eurasia through Morocco, Algeria and Egypt to sub-Saharan Africa to win-
ter, and some vultures seem to winter in the southern Moroccan Sahara and eastern Egypt (Clark and Davies, 2018).
POPULATION
The Algerian population was estimated at 126 breeding pairs in Kabylia and Constantinois by Benmammar
(2012). More recent data show a wider distribution (North African Birds, 2015; Sahnoune, 2016; Bara and Khiter,
2017; Rebbah et al., 2019). The population in Algeria (and North Africa) can be conservatively estimated at around
200 breeding pairs or 400 mature individuals.
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
Breeding adults are largely sedentary, but most juveniles are migratory or nomadic, overwintering in sub-Saharan
Africa, but also in eastern Egypt (Botha et al., 2017; Clark and Davies, 2018). Migrating birds congregate in some
specific locations, such as Gibraltar and Suez (Botha et al., 2017). The species relies heavily on soaring flight, and
has been shown to fly at altitudes of 10,000 m and higher, and it needs thermals because it prefers gliding and
soaring over active flight, to save energy (in Botha et al., 2017). The species roosts and nests on large cliffs and
soars over surrounding open countryside from mountains to semi-deserts in search of food, occurring from sea
level up to 2,500 m (Botha et al., 2017).
The nest is usually built on a rocky outcrop, with sheltered ledges or small caves preferred (del Hoyo et al., 1994).
It is a thin, fairly small platform of branches, sometimes stolen from other large raptors. A single egg is laid (Orta
et al., 2020e). It feeds almost exclusively on carcasses of medium-sized and large domestic and wild animals,
often in large numbers, although there are a few records in Spain of birds approaching live but injured or weak
sheep or cattle (Botha et al., 2017). Rubbish dumps can be good feeding sites, but they may also have detrimen-
tal effects through the consumption of inappropriately disposed of poisoned animals and the impact of human
infrastructure nearby (JMM and Associates, 2015).
THREATS
The griffon vulture was extirpated in Morocco in the 20th century because, through their scavenging habits, individ-
uals became unintended victims of poisoning for predator control by farmers (Garrido et al., 2014; Andevski, 2017;
Botha et al., 2017). In Morocco, such poisoning was even conducted by the government until the end of the 20th
century (Garrido et al., 2014; F. Cuzin, pers. obs.). Internationally banned organochlorine pesticides are still locally
available and kill wildlife and pollute the environment (Garrido et al., 2014), and poisoning is still considered a threat
(Moroccan Strategy for Conservation of
Birds of Prey Workshop, 2020, Rabat).
However, poisoning does not seem to be
a problem in Algeria.
The griffon vulture is susceptible to mor-
tality due to collisions with and electro-
cution on power lines (Andevski, 2017;
Botha et al., 2017; Moroccan Strategy for
Conservation of Birds of Prey Workshop,
2020, Rabat), though it had disappeared
from Morocco before the large-scale
electrification of rural areas began. Nev-
ertheless, this may become a significant
Gyps fulvus
Map created 17/2/2021
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map
do not imply any official endorsement, acceptance or opinion by IUCN.
North Africa Raptor Red List
Extant (resident)
Extant (non-breeding)
Extant (passage)
© IUCN
Gyps fulvus
Map created 17/2/2021
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map
do not imply any official endorsement, acceptance or opinion by IUCN.
North Africa Raptor Red List
Extant (resident)
Extant (non-breeding)
Extant (passage)
Distribution range of the G riffo n vulture, Gyps fulvus
(Hablizl, 1783) in North Africa . Source: The IUCN
Red List of the bree ding birds of prey of North Africa.
70
threat to resident and migrant populations if the power line network increases within its range, and griffon vulture
deaths on power lines have been reported in south-eastern Morocco near Missour (UICN and DEF, 2020). The
species is also highly vulnerable to the effects of wind energy developments (STRIX, 2012; Andevski, 2017), so
the increasing number of massive wind energy projects in northern Morocco could be a huge threat to migrants
crossing the Strait of Gibraltar (Moroccan Strategy for Conservation of Birds of Prey Workshop, 2020, Rabat).
Also in Morocco, every year dozens of migrant vultures are found drowned in artificial ponds where they go to
drink or bathe during the summer months (R. El Khamlichi, pers. comm.).
Additionally, although livestock is very abundant, local traditions such as burying domestic ungulate carcasses
decrease food availability for scavengers, especially in Morocco (Garrido et al., 2014; Allaoui and Cherckaoui,
2018); in Algeria carcasses should also be buried, but they normally are not (A. Fellous-Djardini, M. Saheb, pers.
obs.). There is also a widespread problem across North Africa of poaching to supply the illegal trade in raptors
and raptor body parts (Emile et al., 2014; Brochet et al., 2016), which is known to impact the griffon vulture (Gar-
rido et al., 2014; Andevski, 2017; Botha et al., 2017; MaghrebOrnitho, 2020; A. Fellous-Djardini, M. Saheb, pers.
obs., Moroccan Strategy for Conservation of Birds of Prey Workshop, 2020, Rabat). In Tunisia the major causes
of extinction are not known, but the last small population was exploited in the past for European collections.
CONSERVATION
Conservation actions in place: CMS Appendix II. CITES Appendix II. It is included in a multi-species action
plan for African–Eurasian vultures (Botha et al., 2017). In Morocco, the species is included in the preparation of a
raptor conservation strategy (https://www.iucn.org/news/mediterranean/202001/first-steps-towards-a-moroc-
can-strategy-raptor-conservation-iucns-guidance) and in a national population monitoring programme (UICN
and DEF, 2020). An initiative to identify and correct dangerous power lines has also started in Morocco with
the collaboration of governmental bodies and NGOs (Godino et al., 2016; Martín Martín et al., 2019). There are
some initiatives to rescue and release sick and injured wild individuals, and to tag them (including attaching
GPS loggers) in Morocco (AMFCR, 2018). In northern Morocco a vulture restaurant and a rehabilitation centre
have been set up, whose work includes capturing and marking individuals with wing tags and GPS loggers (R.
El Khamlichi, pers. comm.).
Conservation actions needed: There is only a single small breeding population in Algeria, so it is important to
try to restore the breeding population in the species’ former range. Effective protection in areas with a plentiful
supply of food (which often includes the carcasses of domestic animals), has been shown to result in impressive
population recoveries in other areas, and reintroduction has been successful in parts of its range (del Hoyo et
al., 1994); such measures could be implemented in Morocco, Tunisia and Egypt if threats are controlled. The
provision of feeding stations is also beneficial, particularly when food is scarce. The ban on poisoned carcasses
should be enforced and the leaving of dead animals encouraged. The griffon vulture population should be sur-
veyed to determine, protect and manage potential breeding sites and key dispersal areas. The construction of
wind farms in key areas for the species should be avoided, and where they have already been built staff should
be trained in bird monitoring. Artificial ponds in breeding, migratory and wintering areas should be adapted to
prevent vultures drowning while drinking or bathing. Finally, and more broadly, awareness of biodiversity conser-
vation needs to be increased amongst local people.
Assessor(s): Garrido López, J.R., Benmammar Hasnaoui, H., Fellous-Djardini, A., Cuzin, F., Essetti, I., Noaman,
M., Onrubia, A., Radi, M., Riad, A. & Saheb, M.
Reviewer(s): Numa, C. & Barrios, V.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., BirdLife International & El Khamlichi, R.
Date: 2020–09–08
71
Eurasian hobby, Falco subbuteo - Linnaeus, 1758
POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
1,000-2,000 mat. ind. -641,006 km2
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: ENDANGERED (EN) C2a(ii)
The Eurasian hobby is an uncommon local migrant, breeding in forests in the northern half of Morocco, most like-
ly with a continuous distribution into northern Algeria and across to western Tunisia. The resident population has
been estimated at 1,000–2,000 mature individuals in a single subpopulation, but further validation of this estimate
is needed. Ongoing population decline is inferred from the observed degradation of open wooded areas, its main
suitable habitat, and the small number of sightings in recent road censuses in Morocco. For these reasons the
species is listed as Endangered under criterion C2a(ii).
DISTRIBUTION
This uncommon local migrant breeds in forests in the northern half of Morocco up to 2,000 m asl (Thévenot et
al., 2003), most likely with a continuous distribution in forests through northern Algeria (Isenmann and Moali, 2000;
Sahnoune, 2016; Fellous, 2017) to western Tunisia (Isenmann et al., 2005). It bred in Libya in 1923, but there have
been no breeding observations since then (Isenmann et al., 2016). The entire breeding population in Europe and North
Africa winters in the Sahel zone and in eastern and southern Africa, passing through all the North African countries
on the way (Isenmann and Moali, 2000; Thévenot et al., 2003; Isenmann et al., 2005, 2016; Clark and Davies, 2018).
EN
© Karim Rousselon
72
POPULATION
In the late 20th century, the breeding population was estimated at between 500 and 1,000 breeding pairs in Mo-
rocco (Thévenot et al., 2003), with 50 breeding pairs in Tunisia at the beginning of the 21st century (Isenmann et
al., 2005), although further validation of this estimate is needed. Recent road surveys (2015–2017) during raptor
breeding seasons throughout Morocco suggest the species could actually be at a low density in Morocco, with
only one individual seen in 500 km (A. Onrubia, pers. obs., 2015–17). Therefore the figure of 500–1,000 pairs may
now be an overestimate. There are no data from Algeria.
Considering the unknown breeding population in Algeria, the North African population may be estimated at no
less than 500–1,000 breeding pairs (1,000–2,000 mature individuals). Ongoing population decline is inferred to be
occurring in the species' range, given the observed degradation of open wooded areas, its main suitable habitat,
and sightings in recent road censuses in Morocco.
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
Most individuals of the species are migratory. European and North African birds mainly winter south of Sahara
(Clark and Davies, 2018). Autumnal migration occurs from late July to November, peaking in late September and
early October. Spring migrants are sighted in mid-February, and passage lasts until early June, with the majority
appearing between mid-April and early May (Isenmann and Moali, 2000; Thévenot et al., 2003; Isenmann et al.,
2005, 2016; Strandberg et al., 2009). The species migrates along broad fronts and usually does not concentrate
at narrow sea crossings as do many other migratory raptors (Snow and Perrins, 1998; Strandberg et al., 2009;
Orta et al., 2020c). Birds are usually seen singly, in pairs or family groups, even on migration, with larger groups
being rare except at rich winter feeding sites and wintering communal roosts, where it usually joins other small fal-
cons (Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001; Clark and Davies, 2018). Individuals hunt mainly birds and flying insects,
but also bats, small mammals and reptiles, and they are often more active at dawn and dusk (Clark and Davies,
2018). They also kleptoparasitise other small raptors by stealing their prey (Clark and Davies, 2018).
Eurasian hobbies breed in open wooded areas, using corvid nests (and also other raptors' nests, del Hoyo et
al., 1994), so they do not nest until summer when corvid nests are available, and this also coincides with more
passerine fledglings being available to feed their chicks (Clark and Davies, 2018). They breed in oak woods and
pine forests in North Africa (Thévenot et al., 2003; Isenmann et al., 2005) and avoid completely deforested areas
(del Hoyo et al., 1994). The clutch typically consists of three eggs (Orta et al., 2020c). In winter the species may be
found in a wide variety of habitats, including woodlands, savannas, grasslands, wetlands, agricultural areas, town
parks and mountain grasslands (Clark and Davies, 2018). Although it does not have strict habitat requirements, it
is very sensitive to human disturbance.
THREATS
The clearing of old forest patches has caused
local declines (Orta et al., 2020c). Agricultur-
al intensification threatens Eurasian hobbies
through the clear-felling of nesting trees and
the reduction in prey such as insects and
farmland birds (Sergio et al., 2001).
Pesticide use against locusts has been
reported as a potential threat in wintering
grounds (Sergio et al., 2001), and so this
could be an additional threat within this re-
gion too. However, pesticide poisoning has
likely had only minor impacts, as has egg
collecting, which tends to be a local issue
(Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001).
© IUCN
Distribution range of the Eurasia n hobby, Falco subbuteo -
Linnaeus, 1758 in North Africa. Source: The IUCN
Red List of the bree ding birds of prey of North Africa.
73
Shooting is a significant cause of mortality during migration over Mediterranean islands (Sergio et al., 2001) and
probably also in North African countries, as is the case with other raptors (Brochet et al., 2016; Elhalawani, 2016).
Persecution of corvids may deplete the availability of nesting sites locally and can also lead to unintentional killing
(Sergio et al. 2001). A growing threat is human disturbance associated with silvicultural and hunting activities
during the breeding season (Sergio et al., 2001). The species is also highly vulnerable to the effects of wind energy
developments (STRIX, 2012), so the increasing number of massive wind energy projects in North Morocco could
be a huge threat to the migrant population through the Strait of Gibraltar.
CONSERVATION
Conservation actions in place: CMS Appendix II, CITES Appendix II.
Conservation and research actions needed: Appropriate agricultural policies should be promoted, includ-
ing preservation of trees for nesting, control of pesticides to maintain insect populations throughout the bird’s
range, maintenance of stubble fields and hedges, and direct drilling to preserve farmland birds that Eurasian
hobbies feed on. Woodlands should also be managed appropriately, avoiding the complete removal of all trees.
The provision of artificial nests can also help this species when there is a lack of natural nests of other species
for it to use. Policies should also look to control hunting along migration routes. Additionally, suitable impact
assessments should be conducted for wind energy developments, especially in the southern part of the Strait
of Gibraltar. Surveys and monitoring of the population should be conducted to determine, protect and manage
potential breeding sites and key dispersal areas, including migration corridors in the western and eastern flyways.
Other key research should investigate this species’ migration strategies and ranging behaviour by deploying GPS
loggers. In addition, as this species is migratory, work should not only focus on North Africa; wintering areas and
their ecological requirements and threats should be identified to protect them; and further research is needed to
determine any additional potential threats to the species in North Africa and its wintering grounds. More broadly,
work is needed to increase awareness of biodiversity conservation.
Assessor(s): Cherkaoui, I., Rousselon, K., Onrubia, A., Radi, M. & Fellous-Djardini, A.
Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B. & BirdLife International
Date: 2020–09–08
74
Short-toed snake eagle, Circaetus gallicus - (Gmelin, 1788)
POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
2,600-2,700 mat. ind. -3,779,403 km2
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: NEAR THREATENED (NT)
This species occurs over a wide range, with a breeding population estimated to be around 2,600–2,700 mature
individuals distributed in 3 subpopulations, with 98% of individuals in the Maghreb subpopulation. There are signs
of decline in the past for the Maghreb subpopulation, but currently the species is considered common and thus
does not seem to be in ongoing decline.
Therefore, this species is listed as Near Threatened C2a(ii) in North Africa.
DISTRIBUTION
This eagle breeds in North Africa, including Morocco, northern Algeria, north-western Tunisia and north-eastern
coastal and west-central Libya (Cowan, 1982; Isenmann and Moali, 2000; Thévenot et al., 2003; Isenmann et
al., 2005, 2016; Clark and Davies, 2018; S. Buirzayqah, pers. obs.). It has bred locally in Egypt as well and there
are two recent confirmed observations of breeding pairs in Sinai and on the southern coast (A. Riad, pers. obs.).
There are also recent records of breeding in Moroccan Atlantic Sahara, but they are considered isolated (Bergier
et al., 2017). The Tunisian range does appear to have shrunk though, due to deforestation (Isenmann et al., 2005).
A few migrants winter in North African countries, e.g. Morocco and Algeria (P. Bergier, A. Fellous-Djardini, pers.
obs.), but the entire breeding population of Europe and North Africa winters in the Sahel, passing through all
North African countries (Isenmann and Moali, 2000; Thévenot et al., 2003; Isenmann et al., 2005, 2016; Bergier
et al., 2017; Clark and Davies, 2018).
NT
© Daniel Burón
75
Migrants pass especially across the Strait of Gibraltar and through Morocco (MaghrebOrnitho, 2018h), and
through the Nile Valley, Red Sea Mountains and Sinai Peninsula in Egypt (Goodman and Meininger, 1989), with
very few individuals migrating through Sicily and Tunisia. Some immature short-toed snake eagles leave their Sa-
helian wintering grounds by mid-April and, after crossing the Sahara Desert, may settle in north-eastern Morocco
and northern Algeria, not returning to Europe until their second or third summer (Mellone et al., 2011).
POPULATION
In Morocco there were estimated to be more than 1,000 breeding pairs in the 1980s (Thévenot et al., 2003). The
species seems more abundant in the northern part of the country, with smaller populations in the south. How-
ever, the population is now suspected to be around 500 breeding pairs in the country (F. Cuzin, pers. obs.). In
Algeria the species is distributed over the northern part of the country from the coast to the Saharan Atlas; the
population appears to have been stable since the 1980s at around an estimated 500 breeding pairs nationwide
(A. Fellous-Djardini, M. Saheb, H. Benmammar, pers. obs.). In Tunisia this eagle is considered quite common.
Here the population is suspected to be around 300 breeding pairs (I. Essetti, pers. obs.), whereas in Libya only 15
breeding pairs are regularly reported (S. Buirzayqah, pers. obs.). There are also two recently confirmed sightings
of breeding pairs in Sinai and on the coast of southern Egypt (A. Riad, pers. obs.).
In total there are three subpopulations: a Maghreb subpopulation covering Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, a Lib-
yan subpopulation and an Egyptian subpopulation. The total breeding population in North Africa is estimated at
around 1,300 to 1,350 breeding pairs or 2,600–2,700 mature individuals.
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
This species inhabits open areas but nests in a wide variety of wooded habitats (such as Acacia savanna, Ber-
gier et al., 2017), from sea level up to 2,300 m elevation in Morocco (Thévenot et al., 2003). Although it occurs in
open habitats, the species generally requires some degree of tree cover (del Hoyo et al., 1994), and it has been
observed to visit oases (e.g. in Algeria, A. Fellous-Djardini, pers. obs.). It breeds from late March until early May (Is-
enmann and Moali, 2000; Isenmann et al., 2005). Nests can be found in large trees, usually in the crown, and are
constructed of sticks and twigs, and lined with green leaves or grass, occasionally even pine needles (Thévenot
et al., 2003; Orta et al., 2020g). Usually only a single egg is laid (Orta et al., 2020g).
Birds breeding in the Palaearctic are migratory. Migrants move south between August and November, and north
between February and May (Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001). Breeding birds arrive at their North African nest-
ing sites around February and March (Thévenot et al., 2003; Isenmann et al., 2005). Birds are usually observed
singly or in pairs, even during migration, though migrants sometimes form groups of up to 12 (Ferguson-Lees and
Christie, 2001). During good rainy years,
the species makes quite prolonged pre-
nuptial migratory stopovers, individually or
in pairs, south of the Atlantic Sahara, tak-
ing advantage of the abundance of snakes
and lizards (A. Qninba, pers. comm.).
Short-toed snake-eagles prey primarily
on snakes and lizards, but also take mice,
amphibians and birds, and hunt them from
the air, spending much of their time hov-
ering and kiting (Clark and Davies, 2018).
Circaetus gallicus
Map created 17/2/2021
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map
do not imply any official endorsement, acceptance or opinion by IUCN.
North Africa Raptor Red List
Extant (breeding)
Extant (passage)
Circaetus gallicus
Map created 17/2/2021
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map
do not imply any official endorsement, acceptance or opinion by IUCN.
North Africa Raptor Red List
Extant (breeding)
Extant (passage)
© IUCN
Distribution range of the S hort-to ed snake eagle, Ci rca etus
gallicus - (Gmelin, 1788) in N orth Af rica. S ource: The IUCN
Red List of the bree ding birds of prey of North Africa.
76
THREATS
The loss of nesting sites due to logging as well as disturbance seem to be the main threats in North Africa (Red
List review workshop Tunisia, 2020). The growth and spread of the human population has resulted in disturbance
of raptors and destruction of their habitats, especially in forests because of the use of wood as fuel for cooking
and heating and the felling of large trees (which are used for nesting) to clear land for crops and livestock (Bergier,
1987; Stuart and Collar, 1988; Garrido et al., 2005; Vernon et al., 2005; Cherkaoui et al., 2009; BirdLife Inter-
national, 2018a; Tellería et al., 2019). This is of particular importance for this species because it seeks suitable
habitats outside the most populated areas (Tellería et al., 2019). In addition, snake populations may have been
reduced by the increase in monocultures, hedge destruction, pesticide use and the abandonment of traditional
farmland and subsequent afforestation. Habitat fragmentation due to forest fires and road construction has also
been reported. Nests of the species are often destroyed (Tucker and Heath, 1994; Thévenot et al., 2003) and it
can be affected by power lines (Tucker and Heath, 1994; UICN and DEF, 2020). It is also highly vulnerable to the
effects of wind energy developments (STRIX, 2012). Trade in North African specimens has been reported; how-
ever, these cases are considered isolated and trade is not thought to be widespread (North African Birds, 2014b;
Isenmann et al., 2016; A. Fellous-Djardini, I. Essetti, pers. comm., 2020; A. Qninba, pers. obs., 2020).
CONSERVATION
Conservation actions in place: CITES Appendix II and CMS Appendix II. An initiative to identify and correct
dangerous power lines has started in Morocco with the collaboration of governmental bodies and NGOs (Godino
et al., 2016; Martín Martín et al., 2019).
Conservation actions needed: Wide-scale habitat conservation measures are required, including the main-
tenance of low-intensity farming with the preservation of hedges and a reduction in pesticide use. Appropriate
management of woodlands should maintain old trees, prevent fires and limit road construction. Any unavoidable
afforestation or deforestation should occur outside the breeding season and should only result in partial habitat
change. Monitoring should be conducted to assess the potential impact of wind farms in northern Morocco; and
awareness of biodiversity conservation should be reinforced. Surveys and monitoring of the population to de-
termine, protect and manage potential breeding sites and key dispersal areas, including migration corridors, are
also important. Such work could also identify any further key threats to the species. Efforts should also be made
to combat any illegal trade in the species.
Assessor(s): Saheb, M., Cuzin, F., Fellous-Djardini, A., Essetti, I., Bergier, P., Benmammar Hasnaoui, H., Buirzay-
qah, S., Radi, M., Riad, A., Onrubia, A., Noaman, M., Etayeb, K. & Haitham, O.
Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B., BirdLife International & Qninba, A.
Date: 2020–09–07
77
Western marsh-harrier, Circus aeruginosus - (Linnaeus, 1758)
POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
1,500 mat. ind. -475,000 km2?
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: NEAR THREATENED (NT) C2a(ii); D1 (IUCN version 3.1)
This species occurs over a wide range, with a resident population estimated to be around 1,500 mature indi-
viduals in a single subpopulation. There are signs of decline in the past in Morocco, but currently the species is
considered common and thus does not seem to be in ongoing decline. Therefore, this species is listed as Near
Threatened C2a(ii); D1 in North Africa.
DISTRIBUTION
The western marsh-harrier breeds mainly in north-western Africa. The subspecies Circus aeruginosus ssp. harterti is
an uncommon, local breeding resident in marshes and reed wetlands of northern Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, and
the subspecies C. a. ssp. aeruginosus is a fairly common winter visitor and passage migrant from Eurasia (Isenmann
and Moali, 2000; Thévenot et al., 2003; Isenmann et al., 2005; Clark and Davies, 2018). In Algeria the species breeds
from the coast to the Saharan Atlas, with confirmation of breeding in the Eastern Erg (Oued Righ); (A. Fellous-Djardini,
pers. obs.). There are doubts about its breeding in northern coastal Libya (Isenmann et al., 2016) and northern Egypt
(Goodman and Meiniger, 1989; OSME, 2019).
The species winters in the same range but also south to the Moroccan Sahara (Bergier et al., 2017), in northern
Libya (Isenmann et al., 2016; Clark and Davies, 2018) and in the Nile Delta and Valley (Clark and Davies, 2018). The
Eurasian subspecies also occurs as a passage migrant in all North African countries (Clark and Davies, 2018).
The creation of new oases by irrigation projects in Libya resulted in attractive new habitats for migrant birds,
leading to reduced mortality from migration through the desert (Isenmann et al., 2016).
POPULATION
In the 1980s, there were an estimated 500 breeding pairs in Morocco, but numbers have declined since then
(Thévenot et al., 2003). The nesting population in Tunisia was estimated at 50 to 70 breeding pairs in 2005 (Isenmann
et al., 2005) and the species is considered an irregular breeder there. In Algeria it is considered a common breeder
NT
© Joan Sala
78
(A. Fellous-Djardini, pers. obs.) and even abundant in some areas in the western part of the country (H. Benmammar,
pers. obs.). Overall the breeding population in North Africa is estimated to be around 1,500 mature individuals.
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
The western marsh-harrier lives in open areas. It is found mostly in marshes, reed beds and farmland, but also in
coastal creeks, mudflats, sewage dumps, mangrove swamps (Clark and Davies, 2018) and arid areas. It is a generalist
predator taking a variety of prey types, with small birds generally preferred (del Hoyo et al., 1994). In winter, it also feeds
on carrion (Clark and Davies, 2018).
The species nests in North Africa from early February to June (Thévenot et al., 2003; Isenmann et al., 2005). A breeding
pair builds a large nest of many materials, including sticks and reeds, on dry ground in wet areas and occasionally on
dry farmland and raises from one to four chicks (Clark and Davies, 2018). It breeds at up to 2,000 m elevation at the
Moroccan Middle Atlas lakes (Thévenot et al., 2003).
In North Africa it is sedentary, but C. a. aeruginosus is migratory and migrants pass through from mid-August to early
November (mainly in the second half of September). Spring passage is from late February to early May, reaching a
peak in mid-March to mid-April, with males preceding females. Some thousands of these migrant birds winter in the
region (A. Onrubia, pers. obs.).
Migration is generally on a broad front, although there are some concentrations at a few sites (Brown et al., 1982). Re-
cent observations north of the Atlantic Sahara (March 2020) confirm that the western marsh-harrier migrates in mixed
groups with Circus pygargus (A. Qninba and F. Cuzin, pers. obs.). Hundreds of birds occasionally gather at roosting
sites, sometimes with other harriers such as C. pygargus, but otherwise they are usually solitary, associating only tem-
porarily at especially rich feeding sites (Snow and Perrins, 1998; Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001; Orta et al., 2020h).
THREATS
No major threats to this raptor are reported at the regional level. Potential threats might include wetland desicca-
tion and drainage, and pollution.
However, the species has been recorded in some wetlands contaminated with organic pollutants in Algeria (A.
Fellous-Djardini, pers. comm., 2020). Nests may be destroyed by human activities and chicks captured by young
men to sell in markets, and the species may also be affected by feral dogs (Red List review workshop Tunisia, 2020).
CONSERVATION
Conservation actions in place: CITES Appendix II and CMS Appendix II.
Conservation actions needed: Re-
search is needed on limiting factors and
habitat management. Surveys and monitor-
ing of the population to determine, protect
and manage potential breeding sites and
key dispersal areas, including migration
corridors, would also be beneficial.
Assessor(s): Fellous-Djardini, A., Benmam-
mar Hasnaoui, H., Cuzin, F., Saheb, M., Radi,
M., Essetti, I., Onrubia, A. & Noaman, M.
Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B. &
BirdLife International
Date:2020–09–07
© IUCN
Distribution range of the We stern ma rsh-harrie r, Circu s
aeruginosus - (Linnaeus, 1758) in North Africa. Source: T he
IUCN Red List of the breeding birds of prey of North Africa.
79
Sooty falcon, Falco concolor - Temminck, 1825
POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
1,100-1,800 mat. ind. -1,921,706 km2?
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: NEAR THREATENED (NT) D1 (IUCN version 3.1)
Although the number of individuals in North Africa is small (1,100–1,800 mature individuals) and distributed in a
single subpopulation, current population data from Egypt indicate that previous surveys may have underestimat-
ed populations and that the species is not in continuous decline. The species is assessed as Near Threatened
under criterion D1.
DISTRIBUTION
The species' breeding records are discontinuously and highly locally distributed from the Libyan Desert east-
wards through Egypt, including the Sahara Desert, the east coast and the Red Sea islands (Gallo-Orsi et al.,
2014, unpublished; Isenmann et al., 2016; Clark and Davies, 2018; Habib, 2019b). The majority of the population
winters in Madagascar, but an unknown proportion winters in coastal Mozambique and South Africa (Clark and
Davies, 2018). It migrates through Libya and Egypt, with vagrants recorded in Tunisia and Algeria (Isenmann and
Moali, 2000; Isenmann et al., 2005).
POPULATION
The Egyptian population was estimated at 190 breeding pairs in 2012–17, a drop of 27% in less than two decades
(Habib, 2019b). However, more recent surveys in the western desert have indicated that a better estimate of the
population in Egypt may be in the range of 300–400 pairs, and the previous figure may have underestimated the
population size, and in fact the species is not in continuous decline (A. Riad, pers. obs.). In Libya, 250–500 breed-
ing pairs are estimated to exist (S. Buirzayqah, pers. obs.), so the North African breeding population is estimated
at 1,100–1,800 mature individuals.
NT
© Tarel Nagah
80
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
The sooty falcon breeds colonially in hot, arid deserts and coastal habitats without vegetation, and on coral
islands, where its breeding coincides with the autumn migration of the small birds on which it feeds (Clark and
Davies, 2018). It nests in a hole or on a cliff ledge, but sometimes at other sites such as old herons’ nests and
camel markets (Clark and Davies, 2018). Clutches consist of two or three, occasionally four eggs (Jennings,
2010). Eggs are laid from July to August and young birds are fed with migrant passerines (Isenmann et al., 2016).
It is a migratory species; birds arrive in their wintering grounds in Madagascar and south-east Africa from late
October, and return to their breeding sites in April (del Hoyo et al., 1994). During migration, they occur in a variety
of well-watered open habitats (Clark and Davies, 2018). Migrants generally travel singly, in pairs or in small flocks
(Brown et al., 1982; Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001). In the non-breeding season these birds are gregarious
and forage for large insects over grasslands and open habitats, while small mammals, bats and fish have also
been found in their diet (Clark and Davies, 2018). Satellite tracking of an adult bird from the United Arab Emirates
showed that it took 13 days to migrate to Madagascar, following an inland route of more than 5,600 km and stop-
ping over at three sites in East Africa with some shrub cover and fresh water (Javed et al., 2012).
THREATS
The species has suffered from the collection of nestlings for falconry, and illegal killing may also affect the remain-
ing population (Aspinall, 1996; McGrady et al., 2016, 2018). The entire North African region faces the problem of
raptor poaching for illegal trade, in which falcons are the main species affected (Bergier, 1987; Emile et al., 2014;
Brochet et al., 2016; Elhalawani, 2016; MaghrebOrnitho, 2020).
CONSERVATION
Conservation and research actions in place: CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. There is a draft Interna-
tional Single Species Action Plan (Gallo-Orsi et al., 2014, unpublished).
Conservation and research actions needed: Awareness of the species should be raised. Research should
be conducted to inventory, survey and monitor the population to determine, protect and manage potential breed-
ing sites and key dispersal areas, including migration corridors. Research on the ecology of breeding, non-breed-
ing and migrating birds is needed, involving GPS tagging and on-the-ground investigations, to assess potential
threats to the species. Habitats should be protected in the species’ wintering areas as well as along some of its
migratory routes, while within North Africa the provision of nest boxes or suitable rock shelters for nesting might
enhance the breeding populations in some areas.
The proposed draft International Single Species Action Plan should be completed, and efforts should be made to
decrease poaching and the illegal trade as much as possible and to control the export of wild birds.
Assessor(s): Riad, A., Buirzayqah, S. & Hai-
tham, O.
Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Numa, C.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P. & BirdLife Inter-
national
Date: 2020–09–08
© IUCN
Distribution range of the S ooty falcon, Falco concolor -
Temminck, 1825 in N orth Af rica. Source: Th e IUCN
Red List of the bree ding birds of prey of North Africa.
81
Eleonora’s falcon, Falco eleonorae - Géné, 1839
POPULATION SIZE AOO EOO TREND
4,400 mat. ind. 52km2232,658 km2
NORTH AFRICA REGIONAL ASSESSMENT: NEAR THREATENED (NT) B2ab(v) (IUCN version 3.1)
In North Africa, breeding populations are restricted to 10 islands and cliffs with an area of occupancy of approx-
imately 52 km2. Although the population was decreasing in the past, it is currently increasing in some localities
thanks to increased monitoring and restricted access to the islands. Some threats such as poisoning, distur-
bance by people, nest disturbance and predation are still ongoing in some areas. Emerging threats from tourism
activities could affect the main subpopulation in Morocco in the future if access restrictions are not maintained in
the long term. The introduction of predators to the islands is also a potential threat which could drastically reduce
the number of nest sites, the area of occupancy and the number of mature individuals, especially if it affects the
main colony in Morocco. The species is evaluated as Near Threatened under criterion B2ab(v) based on the
number of locations, small area of occupancy and high dependency on current conservation actions, especially
restrictions on access to breeding colonies.
DISTRIBUTION
The species breeds only in colonies on islands in the Mediterranean Sea and along the north-west coast of Africa
(Clark and Davies, 2018). There are ten colonies in total in the region from the Atlantic coast of Morocco (Sidi
Moussa cliffs [Salé] and Essaouira islands), through Algeria (western islands in Oran–Honaine and eastern islands
in Collo–Annaba) to Tunisia (Galite Islands and Fratelli Islands) (Azafzaf, 2004; Rguibi et al., 2012a; Qninba et al.,
2015a; Peyre et al., 2018; Cuzin, 2019). The entire population migrates in autumn to winter mainly in Madagascar
but also in the islands of Réunion, Mauritius and Rodrigues as well as eastern and south-eastern Africa (Clark
and Davies, 2018), crossing nearly the whole of Africa including the Sahara desert (López-López et al., 2009).
NT
© Brahim Bakaas
82
POPULATION
In Morocco some estimates give 1,340 pairs (Qninba et al., 2016; MaghrebOrnitho, 2016; Cuzin, 2019), although
a recent census increased this figure to 1,531 pairs, 31 pairs breeding in Salé (I. Cherkaoui, pers. obs.) and 1,500
pairs on the islands, where the population is stabilising (Qninba, 2019). In Algeria, the breeding population is es-
timated at 445 pairs (Peyre et al., 2018); some of the colonies are at maximum nesting capacity and the species
is now colonising cliffs on the mainland (M. Saheb, pers. obs.). In Tunisia, the population has been estimated at
137 pairs in the past (Rguibi et al., 2012a), whereas more recent estimates indicate it could be between 150 and
200 breeding pairs (H. Azafzaf, pers. comm.). Based on these estimates, the total regional population could fall
in the range of 2,000–2,200 pairs (4,400 mature individuals).
The population is increasing throughout the species' North African range (Rguibi et al., 2012a; Qninba et al., 2016;
Peyre et al., 2018), basically thanks to direct and indirect conservation actions which restrict access to the colo-
nies. The largest colony in the Essaouira Archipelago in Morocco has doubled its population since 2010 (Cuzin,
2019). However, some small colonies are decreasing and some have even gone extinct in Algeria and Morocco
(Touati et al., 2017; Cuzin, 2019).
HABITATS AND ECOLOGY
Eleonora’s falcon occurs on islands and coastal cliffs during the breeding season (Rguibi et al., 2012a; Clark and
Davies, 2018) and hunts in the coastal area, moving up to a few tens of kilometres in search of food in various
environments (dunes, river mouths, steppes, cultivated land, cities etc.) (Cuzin, 2019). It occurs in a wide variety
of habitats on migration, including coastal seas, islands, islets, open forests, woodlands, savannas, grasslands,
agricultural areas, wetlands and deserts (López-López et al., 2009; Clark and Davies, 2018). The species is fully
migratory, leaving its Mediterranean breeding grounds in October and November to winter in Madagascar, East
Africa and the Mascarene Islands (Clark and Davies, 2018). The return journey begins in late April and May (Orta
et al., 2020f). They are generally gregarious (though sometimes solitary), tending to move in small, loose flocks,
and on migration often associate with other species flying at high altitudes, including Falco subbuteo (Snow and
Perrins, 1998; Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001).
Eleonora's falcons nest in colonies numbering from a few up to a hundred or more pairs during late summer and
early autumn at strategic sites where they can hunt migrant passerines and other small birds like common hoo-
poes (Upupa epops), swifts (Apus sp.) or European turtle-doves (Streptopelia turtur) to feed their chicks (Rguibi
et al., 2012a; Clark and Davies, 2018). It has been estimated that about one and a half million small migrating
birds are consumed annually by the large falcon colony in the Essaouira islands in Morocco (Rguibi et al., 2012b).
Eleonora’s falcons even keep some of their captured prey alive as a form of fresh food storage behaviour (Qninba
et al., 2015b). They are mainly insectivorous outside the breeding season, feeding predominantly on cicadas,
locusts, grasshoppers and Coleoptera in
their winter quarters, and they only hunt
while flying (Rguibi et al., 2012a; Clark and
Davies, 2018).
Birds nest in the holes and ledges of sea
cliffs, or on the ground, never far from the
sea (del Hoyo et al., 1994; Rguibi et al.,
2012a). Clutches usually consist of two
or three eggs, laid in late July (Orta et al.,
2020f). The female broods for 28–33 days
and during this period is supplied with food
by the male; the young birds remain in the
nest for 28–35 days (Rguibi et al. 2012a).
Falco eleonorae
Map created 17/2/2021
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map
do not imply any official endorsement, acceptance or opinion by IUCN.
North Africa Raptor Red List
Extant (breeding)
Extant (passage)
Falco eleonorae
Map created 17/2/2021
The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on this map
do not imply any official endorsement, acceptance or opinion by IUCN.
North Africa Raptor Red Lis t
Extant (breeding)
Extant (passage)
© IUCN
Distribution range of the Eleonor a’s falcon, Falco eleonorae -
Géné, 1839 in North Africa. S ource: The IUCN Red
List of the b reeding birds of p rey of Nor th Africa.
83
THREATS
The species has historically suffered from exploitation and persecution by local people, including the collection of
chicks for food (Global Raptor Information Network, 2020), which is a threat not only in breeding colonies but also
along its migratory routes and in its winter quarters (Rguibi et al., 2012a). The entire North African region faces
the problem of raptor poaching for illegal trade, and falcons are the main species affected (Bergier, 1987; Emile et
al., 2014; Brochet et al., 2016; Elhalawani, 2016; MaghrebOrnitho, 2019b,c). In Egypt, Eleonora's falcons may be
also trapped for use as lures to attract other target species (Porter, 2005; BirdLife International, 2015). In Libya,
individuals are trapped for falconry and fetch high prices on the national market (K. Etayeb, pers. comm.), and in
Morocco chicks are collected from the Salé colony and sold in the markets of Salé and Rabat.
Human disturbance and urbanisation associated with tourism development has also been reported to negatively
influence birds’ breeding success (Martínez-Abraín et al., 2002; Orta et al., 2020f; Touati et al., 2017; Peyre et al.,
2018; M. Saheb, pers. obs.), particularly in relation to the decline of the only breeding colony on the mainland in
Morocco, at Salé (Rguibi et al., 2012b; Cuzin, 2019). Urban expansion is pushing this colony towards the north-
ern cliffs of Salé. The colony in the Essaouira Archipelago is also threatened by the development of large tourist
projects on the stretch of coast opposite the Archipelago, in particular around the mouth of Oued Ksob, where
Eleonora's falcons find fresh water for bathing and drinking; in this regard, the construction of a dam upstream on
Oued Ksob has stopped the summer water flow and falcons are currently forced to go much further upstream to
find temporary pools (A. Qninba, pers. obs.).
Predation by rats, cats, dogs and yellow-legged gulls (Larus michahellis) is also important on some breeding
islands (Ferguson-Lees and Christie, 2001; Rguibi et al., 2012a; Touati et al., 2017; Cuzin, 2019). Interspecific
competition with Scopoli’s shearwater (Calonectris diomedea) for nesting crevices has also been found in Algeria
(Touati et al., 2017). Additionally, pollution by ornithocide substances was thought to be responsible for the de-
cline in some breeding populations (Rguibi et al., 2012a), and on Hadibas Island (Algeria) some adult falcons have
been found poisoned with rodenticides (M. Saheb, pers. obs.). The species is also sensitive to the effects of wind
energy developments (STRIX, 2012).
It is important to note that Eleonora’s falcon is a long-distance migrant and, hence, population changes may
be influenced by factors occurring in widely separated breeding and non-breeding areas and during migration
(López-López et al., 2009; Mellone et al., 2013). The importance of humid forests for the conservation of the Ele-
onora’s falcon should be of concern, given the current loss of this habitat in Madagascar (Mellone et al., 2012).
CONSERVATION
Conservation actions in place: CMS Appendix II. CITES Appendix II. Barcelona convention: Annex II. An In-
ternational Species Action Plan was published in 1999 (Ristow, 1999) and was reviewed in 2010. Since 2005 the
Conservatoire du Littoral has been coordinating an international programme for promoting and assisting with the
management of small Mediterranean islands, known as the PIM Initiative, which is financed by the Fonds Français
pour l’Environnement Mondial (FFEM – French Global Environment Facility), the Agence de l’eau Rhône Méditer-
ranée–Corse and the City of Marseille. This programme has supported monitoring programmes in Tunisia and
Morocco, where Eleonora’s falcon has been monitored for a long time at its main colony in the Essaouira islands
(Qninba et al., 2016). Research on the species has been conducted in Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. A net expan-
sion of the species has been observed in Morocco thanks to the end of direct persecution (Rguibi et al., 2012a).
In Morocco, the species is included in the preparation of a raptor conservation strategy (https://www.iucn.org/
news/mediterranean/202001/first-steps-towards-a-moroccan-strategy-raptor-conservation-iucns-guidance).
Conservation actions needed: While there is an International Species Action Plan, the development of local
plans would also be beneficial (see Rguibi et al., 2012a). Effective actions to protect coastal areas should be
implemented and Environmental Impact Assessments conducted on all developments in coastal areas. National
and international coastal tourism policies should discourage the development of new resorts and favour environ-
mentally friendly, sustainable tourism, especially around the only mainland colony in Morocco.
84
Although some colonies are currently undisturbed because access is limited, all colonies should be protected
from intrusion by employing staff to monitor and guard the colonies, if necessary, and banning access from 1
July to 1 November. The species’ wintering areas, ecological requirements and threats should be identified and
protection implemented for these areas and migration routes. The impact of predation by rats, cats and dogs
should be investigated and invasive species eradication programmes should be implemented. Awareness of the
species should be raised and the value of its habitat promoted. In addition, further measures should be put in
place to study and control the trapping of this species; and coordinated surveys of the full breeding population
would also be beneficial for species monitoring purposes.
Assessor(s): Qninba, A., Azafzaf, H., Cherkaoui, I., Saheb, M., Chokri, M.A., Etayeb, K. & Yamoun, B.
Reviewer(s): Numa, C. & Garrido López, J.R.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B. & BirdLife International
Date: 2020–09–08
85
7. Least Concern (LC)
and marginal species
Not Applicable (NA)
Summary justification of the Regional Red List assessments of the breeding raptors of North Africa assessed as Least
Concern (LC) and marginal species Not Applicable (NA).
Least Concern
Common name Scientific name Regional category Regional trend
Eurasian sparrowhawk Accipiter nisus LC Unknown
The species breeds in all North African countries except Egypt. The overall population size is suspected to be between
4,000 and 7,000 mature individuals in the region. The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to
be decreasing rapidly enough to approach the thresholds for a threatened category. Therefore, the species is evaluated as
Least Concern.
Assessor(s): Rousselon, K., Azafzaf, H., Cherkaoui, I., Bergier, P., Buirzayqah, S., Riad, A., Haitham, O., Chokri, M., Etayeb,
K., Saheb, M. & Monti, F.
Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B. & BirdLife International
Date: 2020–09–07
Golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos LC Stable
This is a widespread species in North Africa breeding from Morocco to Egypt. Although its population is small (3,300 mature
individuals), it is not considered to be declining. Therefore, it is assessed as Least Concern.
Assessor(s): Garrido López, J.R., Rousselon, K., Irizi, A., Benmammar Hasnaoui, H., Buirzayqah, S., Riad, A., Haitham, O.,
Monchaux, G. & Hamdi, N.
Reviewer(s): Qninba, A. & Bautista, J.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B., BirdLife International, Fellous-Djardini, A. & Qninba, A. Date: 2020–09–07
Bonelli’s eagle Aquila fasciata LC Stable
This is a widespread species in North Africa, breeding from Morocco to Egypt. Although its population is small (1,900-3,200
mature individuals), it is not considered to be declining, and it does not approach the thresholds for listing in a threatened
category. Therefore, it is assessed as Least Concern.
Assessor(s): Irizi, A., Benmammar Hasnaoui, H., Rousselon, K., Buirzayqah, S., Haitham, O., Monchaux, G. & Riad, A.
Reviewer(s): Qninba, A. & Garrido López, J.R.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B., BirdLife International, Ouni, R., Qninba, A. & Hamdi, N. Date: 2020–09–07
Long-legged buzzard Buteo rufinus LC Unknown
This species has a large range and a breeding population of 6,000–8,000 mature individuals throughout North Africa. The
population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing rapidly enough to approach the thresholds
for a threatened category, even though the Moroccan population has decreased.
Assessor(s): Ouni, R., Irizi, A., Benmammar Hasnaoui, H., Monchaux, G., Hamdi, N., Haitham, O., Riad, A. & Buirzayqah, S.
Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B., BirdLife International, Garrido López, J.R. & Qninba, A. Date: 2020–09–07
86
Black-winged kite Elanus caeruleus LC Increasing
The North African population of the species is estimated to number 2,600–3,000 mature individuals. The population is re-
ported to be increasing and its range is expanding in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt.
Therefore, the species is listed as Least Concern.
Assessor(s): Rousselon, K., Hamdi, N., Haitham, O., Buirzayqah, S., Irizi, A., Ouni, R., Monchaux, G., Riad, A. & Benmammar
Hasnaoui, H.
Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B. & BirdLife International Date: 2020– 09–08
Booted eagle Hieraaetus pennatus LC Stable
With a population size of ca. 10,000 mature individuals or more, and no evidence of a population decline, the resident pop-
ulation does not approach the thresholds of threatened categories under any criterion. Therefore, the species is listed as
Least Concern.
Assessor(s): Cherkaoui, I., Azafzaf, H., Chokri, M.A., Benmammar Hasnaoui, H., Rousselon, K., Buirzayqah, S., Etayeb, K.
& Monti, F.
Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B., Garrido López, J.R., BirdLife International & Qninba, A. Date: 2020–09–08
Black kite Milvus migrans LC Unknown
This species occurs over a large range, with a breeding population estimated at 4,500 breeding pairs or 9,000 mature indi-
viduals. The population trend is not known, but the population is not believed to be decreasing rapidly enough to approach
the thresholds for a threatened category. For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern.
The subspecies Milvus migrans ssp. aegyptius has a very small population (150 mature individuals in one subpopulation)
in Egypt which is considered to be gradually declining due to habitat degradation for agriculture and development. If in the
future this population is treated as a separate species, it would likely qualify to be listed as regionally threatened in category
Critically Endangered (CR) under criterion C2a(ii).
Assessor(s): Benmammar Hasnaoui, H., Riad, A., Irizi, A., Ouni, R., Monchaux, G., Hamdi, N., Haitham, O. & Buirzayqah, S.
Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B., BirdLife International, Garrido López, J.R. & Qninba, A. Date: 2020–05–17
Lanner falcon Falco biarmicus LC Unknown
This species has a resident population estimated at 5,000–6,000 mature individuals. The population sizes in Libya and Egypt
are thought to be declining because of poaching and illegal trade, but the populations in Morocco and Tunisia are thought
to be stable or increasing, so the overall trend is unknown. Therefore, it does not warrant listing as threatened under any
criterion and is listed as Least Concern. However, further research should be conducted to detect any change in the popu-
lation trend. The species may undergo significant declines in the near future as a result of poaching, and could be uplisted;
therefore, a reassessment of its risk of extinction is recommended in 5 years.
Assessor(s): Buirzayqah, S., Riad, A., Haitham, O., Benmammar Hasnaoui, H., Irizi, A., Hamdi, N., Ouni, R., Rousselon, K.
& Monchaux, G.
Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B. & BirdLife International Date: 2020– 05–22
Lesser kestrel Falco naumanni LC Increasing
This species has a resident population estimated at 5,000–6,000 mature individuals which is not declining and is even in-
creasing in urban areas, and not facing major threats. For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern.
Assessor(s): Cherkaoui, I., Saheb, M., Essetti, I., Fellous-Djardini, A., Benmammar Hasnaoui, H., Cuzin, F., Radi, M., Onrubia,
A., Noaman, M. & Garrido López, J.R.
Reviewer(s): Barrios, V. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B., BirdLife International, Cuzin, F. & Qninba, A. Date: 2020–09–08
Common name Scientific name Regional category Regional trend
87
Peregrine falcon Falco peregrinus LC Stable
This species has a resident population estimated at 4,580 –5,800 mature individuals. The population trend is tentatively
assumed to be stable overall, but there is evidence for localised declines, e.g. in Libya. The species is evaluated as Least
Concern, but given the increasing pressure from threats, trapping in particular, in the future the species may be assessed
as declining and so it would warrant being uplisted. Further research will be required to detect any such changes in the
population trend.
Assessor(s): Rousselon, K., Hamdi, N., Haitham, O., Buirzayqah, S., Irizi, A., Ouni, R., Monchaux, G., Riad, A. & Benmammar
Hasnaoui, H.
Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B. & BirdLife International Date: 2020– 09–08
Common kestrel Falco tinnunculus LC Unknown
The resident population does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under criteria B, C or D because it has an extremely
large range and is suspected to have a large breeding population. The population trend is not known, but the population is not
believed to be decreasing rapidly to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under criterion A. For these reasons the species
is evaluated as Least Concern, but further research should be conducted to ascertain its actual breeding numbers and trend.
Assessor(s): Hamdi, N., Monchaux, G., Ouni, R., Haitham, O., Riad, A., Irizi, A., Benmammar Hasnaoui, H. & Buirzayqah, S.
Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B., Garrido López, J.R., BirdLife International & Qninba, A. Date: 2020–05–10
Northern long-eared owl Asio otus LC Unknown
It is a widespread species in non-desert Morocco, Algeria and eastern Tunisia, breeding also locally in Libya and Egypt,
where it is a recent breeder. The population size and trend are not known but it is likely to number more than 1,000 breeding
pairs (>2,000 mature individuals) and not to be declining. Therefore, it is not believed to approach the thresholds for a threat-
ened category, because of its wide range where it is common and its recent colonisation in Egypt. The species is evaluated
as Least Concern.
Assessor(s): Buirzayqah, S., Haitham, O., Irizi, A., Monchaux, G., Ouni, R., Riad, A., Benmammar Hasnaoui, H. & Hamdi, N.
Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B. & BirdLife International Date: 2020– 09–08
Little owl Athene noctua LC Unknown
This species is a fairly common resident of all countries in North Africa up to 2,600 m elevation, from the coast to the sand
deserts and along the Nile Valley and Delta and the north of Egypt. The population size of this widespread species is not
known, but it is large and is not believed to be decreasing. Therefore, it is evaluated as Least Concern.
Assessor(s): Monchaux, G., Buirzayqah, S., Haitham, O., Hamdi, N., Irizi, A., Ouni, R. & Riad, A. Reviewer(s): Garrido López,
J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B., BirdLife International & Qninba, A.
Date: 2020–09–08
Pharaoh eagle-owl Bubo ascalaphus LC Unknown
The species is widespread in the region and the population size is estimated to be at least 10,000 mature individuals. The
population trend is not known for this species, but it is not thought to warrant listing as threatened under any criterion.
Therefore, it is evaluated as Least Concern.
Assessor(s): Irizi, A., Hamdi, N., Monchaux, G., Ouni, R., Haitham, O., Riad, A. & Buirzayqah, S. Reviewer(s): Garrido López,
J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B., BirdLife International, Qninba, A. & Rousselon, K.
Date: 2020–09–08
Common name Scientific name Regional category Regional trend
88
Common scops-owl Otus scops LC Unknown
This species breeds in forests in the northern Maghreb (Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and north-western Libya) south to the
Sahara desert, and also in oases, up to 2,500 m. The population size is not known; however, the population is not considered
to be facing declines or major threats.
Assessor(s): Cuzin, F., Essetti, I., Fellous-Djardini, A., Noaman, M., Onrubia, A., Radi, M. & Saheb, M. Reviewer(s): Garrido
López, J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B. & BirdLife International
Date: 2020–09–09
Tawny owl Strix aluco LC Unknown
The population size and trend are not known, but it is not uncommon, is not believed to be decreasing, nor is it facing any
major threats. For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern.
Assessor(s): Radi, M., Benmammar Hasnaoui, H., Cuzin, F., Essetti, I., Fellous-Djardini, A., Noaman, M., Onrubia, A. & Saheb, M.
Reviewer(s): Garrido López, J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B. & BirdLife International Date: 2020– 09–09
Barn owl Tyto a l ba LC Unknown
This species is a fairly common resident in North Africa up to 2,000 m, from the coast to the sand deserts, where it is less
abundant, and along the Nile River in Egypt, including suburban environments. The population size is not known; however,
the population is not considered to be facing declines or major threats.
Assessor(s): Saheb, M., Cuzin, F., Essetti, I., Fellous-Djardini, A., Noaman, M., Onrubia, A. & Radi, M. Reviewer(s): Garrido
López, J.R. & Qninba, A.
Contributor(s): Gyenge, P., Bakass, B. & BirdLife International
Date: 2020–09–09
Common name Scientific name Regional category Regional trend
89
MARGINAL SPECIES NOT APPLICABLE (NA)
Common name Scientific name Regional category Regional trend
Eurasian buzzard Buteo buteo NA
Rare local Eurasian migrant and winter visitor (Isenmann and Moali, 2000; Isenmann et al., 2005, 2016; Clark and Davies,
2017; OSME, 2019). It used to be widespread in Morocco during winter (Thévenot et al., 2003) but the number of migrant
birds has declined from several hundred in the 1980s to a few dozen currently due to climate change; the same might be
happening throughout North Africa (Martín et al., 2014).
Hen harrier Circus cyaneus NA
Rare winter visitor from Eurasia to the Mediterranean coast of North Africa, which is the southern edge of its wintering range
(Clark and Davies, 2017). Scarce winter visitor in Morocco down to the Saharan coast (Thévenot et al., 2003; Bergier et al.,
2017), Algeria (Isenmann and Moali, 2000), Tunisia (Isenmann et al., 2005) and Libya (Isenmann et al., 2016). It also occurs
inland and along the River Nile in Egypt (Clark and Davies, 2017).
Lesser spotted eagle Clanga pomarina NA
This species breeds in central and eastern Europe and Iran, wintering in Africa (Bosch and Meyburg, 2012) with marginal
breeding in Algeria (Isenmann and Moali, 2000). The breeding population migrates over Israel and Egypt in spring and au-
tumn (Krumenacker, 2013; BirdLife International, 2016), and over the Strait of Gibraltar and Italy to pass through Morocco,
Algeria, Tunisia and Libya (Isenmann and Moali, 2000; Isenmann et al., 2005; Onrubia et al., 2011; Bosch and Meyburg, 2012;
Isenmann et al., 2016).
White-tailed eagle Haliaeetus albicilla NA
This species breeds and winters in Asia, northern and eastern Europe and south-eastwards to the eastern side of the Per-
sian Gulf (BirdLife International, 2016), with marginal breeding in Algeria until the last quarter of the 20th century (1–2 pairs in
1975, Isenmann and Moali, 2000), Egypt in 19th century (Goodman and Meininger, 1989) and maybe Tunisia (Heim de Balsac
and Mayard, 1962). It is now a very rare winter vagrant in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Egypt (Goodman and Meininger,
1989; Thévenot et al., 2003; Isenmann and Moali, 2000; Isenmann et al., 2005; Clark and Davies, 2018).
European honey-buzzard Pernis apivorus NA
Recorded on both migrations throughout North Africa (Goodman and Meininger, 1989; Isenmann and Moali, 2000; Thévenot
et al., 2003; Isenmann et al., 2005, 2016; Bergier et al., 2017; OSME, 2019).
Saker falcon Falco cherrug NA
A species recorded on both migrations and a scarce winter visitor throughout North Africa (Goodman and Meininger, 1989;
Isenmann and Moali, 2000; Thévenot et al., 2003; Isenmann et al., 2005, 2016; Bergier et al., 2017; OSME, 2019).
Merlin Falco columbarius NA
Holarctic species exceptionally breeding locally in Algeria in the 19th century (Isenmann and Moali, 2000). Currently it is a rare
to uncommon winter visitor to coastal northern Africa, recorded in Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and along the River Nile in Egypt;
vagrant in Libya (Isenmann and Moali, 2000; Thévenot et al., 2003; Isenmann et al., 2005, 2016; Clark and Davies, 2017).
Red-footed falcon Falco vespertinus NA
Palaearctic migrant recorded on both passages from Morocco to Egypt, wintering in eastern and southern Africa, with a loop
migration which brings the birds further west in spring and east in autumn (Goodman and Meininger, 1989; Isenmann and
Moali, 2000; Thévenot et al., 2003; Isenmann et al., 2005; Bergier et al., 2015; Isenmann et al., 2016; Clark and Davies, 2017).
Short-eared owl Asio flammeus NA
This is a species recorded on both migrations and a scarce winter visitor throughout North Africa (Goodman and Meininger,
1989; Isenmann and Moali, 2000; Thévenot et al., 2003; Isenmann et al., 2005, 2016; Bergier et al., 2017; OSME, 2019).
Eurasian eagle owl Bubo bubo NA
This Eurasian species (BirdLife International, 2017) has some unconfirmed marginal records in Morocco (Thévenot et al.,
2003; Ramirez and Onrubia, 2016) and Algeria (Isenmann and Moali, 2000).
Not Applicable
90
Populations of raptor must to be surveyed and monitored
to protect them. Only regular counts can provide the
data required to follow up raptor populations in detail
and determine their threats. ©Jose Rafael Garrido
92
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