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Future Foods 5 (2022) 100098
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Future Foods
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/fufo
Innovative technologies for manufacturing plant-based non-dairy
alternative milk and their impact on nutritional, sensory and safety aspects
Ramon Bocker, Eric Keven Silva
∗
School of Food Engineering, University of Campinas, Rua Monteiro Lobato, 80, Campinas-SP, CEP 13083-862, Brazil
Keywords:
Lactose intolerance
Milk allergy
Almond milk
Soy milk
Pulsed electric eld
Cow’s milk is considered a staple in many diets due to its high nutritional value. It contains almost every nutrient
that the human body needs. Milk is consumed as a beverage, poured on several foods, and added to coee,
tea, and smoothies. Furthermore, many food products are produced from cow’s milk, such as ice cream, yogurt,
cheese, butter, cake, desserts, and others. However, it is not a suitable option for everyone for reasons, including
lactose intolerance, milk allergy, dietary restrictions, and potential health risks. Plant-based milk substitutes
are good options to meet the current demand for non-dairy beverages similar to milk. Also, the production
chain of plant-based milk is environmentally friendly and promotes lower carbon emissions compared to dairy
products. In this regard, this review discussed the current status of using innovative technologies (ultrasound,
high-pressure processing, pulsed electric eld, supercritical CO
2
, ultraviolet radiation, microwave, and ohmic
heating) for manufacturing plant-based milk substitutes and their impact on nutritional, sensory, and safety
aspects of these emerging beverages.
1. Introduction
Milk is a whitish liquid secreted by the mammary glands of female
mammals for the nutrition of young mammals ( Ingram et al., 2009 ).
Moreover, milk production stands out as one of the most signicant com-
modities of world consumption. In 2019, according to the Food and Agri-
culture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 852 million tons of
milk were produced, representing a growth of 1.4% compared to 2018.
The high consumption of milk is directly associated with the nutritional
benets linked to its ingestion, such as the high availability of proteins,
minerals, fats, and sugars.
Despite milk’s nutritional benets, consumers have intensied the
search for alternatives to the consumption of animal milk. As a re-
sult, a 10.4% increase in worldwide sales of these alternatives is ex-
pected from 2018 to 2023, reaching $26 billion per year ( Business-
Wire, 2018 ). These data appear to reect the current changes observed
in the world consumption pattern due to the growth of veganism. This
social movement defends the abstention from the consumption of prod-
ucts of animal origin. Furthermore, the production chain of plant-based
milk substitutes is environmentally friendly and promotes lower carbon
emissions than dairy products ( Blanco-Gutiérrez et al., 2020 ; Grant and
Hicks, 2018 ). A study performed by Poore and Nemecek (2018) com-
pared the environmental impact of various plant-based non-dairy alter-
native milk (soy, almond, oat, and rice) with cow’s milk. According to
∗ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: engerickeven@gmail.com (E.K. Silva).
them, animal milk had the most signicant environmental impact com-
pared to all plant-based substitutes analyzed.
Individuals diagnosed with non-persistent lactase or milk protein
allergies demand milk alternatives ( Bayless et al., 2017 ; Silva et al.,
2020a ). Non-persistent lactase individuals correspond to approximately
65% of the world population. These individuals have low levels of lac-
tase production during adulthood. Thus, these consumers do not eec-
tively absorb lactose and may have atulence, strains, diarrhea, and
cramps as an eect. Otherwise, consumers allergic to milk proteins
present a more severe case. Also, an exacerbated immune response is
observed when the individual’s body is exposed to the presence of these
macromolecules ( Dewiasty et al., 2021 ; Ingram et al., 2009 ). Thereby,
the alternative routes to milk are an expressive and promising market
niche.
Plant-based beverages used as non-dairy substitutes for milk cur-
rently stand out within the food market since they do not contain lactose
and cholesterol. Besides that, these present a similar visual appearance
to the animal milk. However, they present dierent sensory character-
istics, kinetic stability, and nutritional composition. Plant-based milk
substitutes can be dened, basically, as homogenized extracts of veg-
etable matrices, such as cereals (oats, rice), pseudo-cereals (quinoa),
vegetables (soybeans, chickpeas), nuts (almonds, cashew nuts, Brazil
nuts), and seeds (sesame and sunower) ( Aydar et al., 2020 ; Silva et al.,
2020a ). This product is a colloidal system formed by a continuous phase
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fufo.2021.100098
Received 23 July 2021; Received in revised form 9 November 2021; Accepted 9 November 2021
2666-8335/© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ )
R. Bocker and E.K. Silva Future Foods 5 (2022) 100098
Fig. 1. Number of documents returned for a search in the Scopus database using
the keyword “plant-based milk ”.
composed of water and a dispersed phase of particles. These particles
comprise protein fractions, starch granules, solid parts of plant matri-
ces, and lipid droplets ( Briviba et al., 2016 ). Furthermore, the number
of documents returned for a search in the Scopus database using “plant-
based milk ”as a keyword stand out a strong growth trend of studies
regarding this subject in the last years (2011 to 2021), as can be seen in
Fig. 1 .
The industries of plant-based milk substitutes need to ensure the
safety and quality of their products. Pasteurization treatments are
widely used to increase the shelf life of foods and beverages by reduc-
ing the count of pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms and inacti-
vating endogenous enzymes. Thus, plant-based beverages are processed
to increase their microbiological stability, reducing their perishabil-
ity, besides providing pleasant sensory characteristics to the consumer
( McClements and Grossmann, 2021 ; Short et al., 2021 ). Pasteurization
treatments are conventionally performed by heat processing. Their main
eect on food matrices is associated with the inactivation of microor-
ganisms and enzymes. However, the use of high temperatures in these
processes (from 60°C to 130°C) may undesirably modify the physical,
chemical, sensory, and nutritional characteristics of foods and bever-
ages ( Aydar et al., 2020 ).
In this context, innovative processing technologies based on non-
thermal or mild thermal processes have been widely evaluated to replace
conventional thermal treatments. These processes can provide the inac-
tivation of microorganisms and enzymes without promoting excessive
changes in food quality attributes ( Gul et al., 2017 ; Iorio et al., 2019 ;
Lu et al., 2019 ; Maghsoudlou et al., 2016 ; Possas et al., 2018 ). Therefore,
considering the relevancy of plant-based beverages for replacing milk in
the agri-food commercial scenario and their nutritional and sensory at-
tributes, several pasteurization treatments based on emerging technolo-
gies have been developed for manufacturing these products. As a result,
innovative technologies such as high-intensity ultrasound, high-pressure
processing, microwave, pulsed electric eld, ohmic heating, supercrit-
ical carbon dioxide, and ultraviolet radiation stand out ( Aydar et al.,
2020 ). Thus, this review aimed to overview the plant matrices com-
monly used to produce plant-based beverages and those emerging tech-
nologies used in their processing. Thereby, the challenges and trends for
this potential sector of food industrialization were discussed.
2. Plant matrices
Plant-based milk is obtained from the soluble extract of plant matri-
ces, such as cereals, pseudo-cereals, seeds, vegetables, and nuts. Their
production has grown exponentially following changes in the world
consumption pattern. Modern consumers have understood the nutri-
tional benets associated with the consumption of plant-based bever-
ages ( McClements et al., 2019 ). These products present a high content
of bers, isoavonoids, antioxidants, monounsaturated and polyunsatu-
rated fats, besides their natural absence of lactose, cholesterol, and ani-
mal protein ( Chalupa-Krebzdak et al., 2018 ). Furthermore, plant-based
beverages may present similar organoleptic and rheological character-
istics to milk.
Fig. 2 demonstrates the factors that support plant-based milk as feasi-
ble substitutes to milk in the agri-food market. Despite the plant-based
beverage advantages previously reported, these products also present
some drawbacks compared to milk. The main limitation of plant-based
beverages is the nutritional imbalance of the products, making their
prospection dicult within the food market ( Vagadia et al., 2018 ). This
imbalance is associated with protein and micronutrient composition.
Plant-based milk substitutes present lower protein contents and lower
variability of amino acids than animal derivatives products. Also, plant
proteins present lower digestibility than animal proteins. In addition to
the protein issues, plant-based alternatives present many antinutrients,
such as trypsin inhibitors, phytic acid, and inositol phosphates. These
are responsible for hindering the digestion of the product’s nutrients
( McClements et al., 2019 ).
However, the nutritional needs of plant-based beverages can be at-
tended enriching the products with minerals and vitamins. Furthermore,
the products can be prepared from more than one plant matrix, increas-
ing their amino acid variability. Also known as blending, the mixture
of vegetable bases increases the nutritional value of the nal beverage
since these vegetal bases have dierent nutritional and physicochemical
characteristics. Otherwise, the stages of plant-based beverage process-
ing can vary according to the raw material to be processed ( Silva et al.,
2020a ). Despite this, the unit operations performed in the dierent veg-
etable raw materials processing to obtain plant-based beverages are sim-
ilar. Thus, Fig. 3 presents a generic design of plant-based beverage pro-
cessing steps.
The plant-based beverage processing steps are primarily based on the
physiology of the vegetable matrix employed to guarantee the highest
yield of soluble extract possible. Thereby, the initial treatment of raw
materials varies according to their characteristics. For example, nuts and
seeds are peeled. At the same time, cereals, pseudo-cereals, and vegeta-
bles are commonly immersed in hot water and dried. Moreover, raw ma-
terials can be roasted or added of acids and bases (peeling) to enhance
the emulsion stability, facilitating the removal of toxic compounds, in-
creasing the process yield ( Sethi et al., 2016 ).
Subsequently, the grinding step is proceeded to decrease raw ma-
terials’ size. The increase of vegetable matrix contact surface favors
the extraction step. Dry milling is not commonly used to reduce veg-
etable sizes since this operation is less energy-ecient and hinders the
bleaching step. Thus, for the production of plant-based milk substitutes,
wet grinding is usually used. The addition of water during the grinding
procedure reduces processing time and increases the eciency of the
bleaching step. In turn, the bleaching steps reduce the microbial and
enzymatic load of the product ( Aydar et al., 2020 ).
After the bleaching step, ltration is carried out to obtain the water-
soluble extract. Then, the product obtained is added with antioxidants
and preservatives to increase its stability. This product can also be en-
riched and fortied by adding proteins, vitamins, and minerals, increas-
ing its nutritional value ( Chalupa-Krebzdak et al., 2018 ). The homoge-
nization step, in turn, increases the stability of the plant-based beverages
by reducing their colloidal particle size without signicantly altering
their viscosity or protein prole. Thereby, the product achieves greater
stability to sedimentation and phase separation during the established
shelf life ( Maghsoudlou et al., 2016 ).
The last plant-based beverage processing step is pasteurization. Ul-
trapasteurization heat treatments are commonly applied as a fast and
ecient process to ensure high microbiological and enzymatic safety to
the product. However, treatments based on emerging technologies such
2
R. Bocker and E.K. Silva Future Foods 5 (2022) 100098
Fig. 2. Plant raw materials used for manufacturing plant-based milk.
Fig. 3. Manufacturing steps of plant-based milk.
as high-intensity ultrasound, high pressure, microwave, pulsed electric
eld, ohmic heating, supercritical carbon dioxide, and ultraviolet radi-
ation are promising alternatives for replacing conventional heat treat-
ments to stabilize plant-based beverages ( Munekata et al., 2020 ).
3. Nutritional aspects of plant-based milk substitutes
Feeding is the micro and macronutrient assimilation by the human
body for the maintenance of its vital functions. Thus, the nutritional
composition of food products is one of the main concerns to their devel-
opment since currently, there is a change in the consumption habits
of the world population ( Gruia et al., 2015 ). These changes in con-
sumption habits are linked to a greater awareness of the population
about the diseases that result from the lack of nutrients. Thus, these
critical consumers demand functional and nutritionally complete food
products ( Sethi et al., 2016 ). In this sense, milk presents a better nutri-
tional balance than plant-based beverages. This dierence is a critical
point on the prospecting of new alternative products to milk. Table 1
presents the nutritional aspects and limitations of some plant matrices
compared with cow’s milk. Plant-based beverages present a reduced
content and low variability of micronutrients and amino acids. De-
spite that, plant-based alternatives show functional appeal since they
present bers, isoavonoids, and antioxidants from their plant matri-
ces ( Chalupa-Krebzdak et al., 2018 ). Otherwise, milk is a source of high
energy since 100 g of the product presents approximately 64 kcal. Car-
bohydrates, fats, and proteins in milk are the sources of this energy
( Vanga and Raghavan, 2018 ). Therefore, plant-based beverages as sub-
stitutes for animal milk must present a highly energetic composition
associated with an adequate nutritional balance.
Almond and soy-based beverages supply this energetic requirement,
as reported by Vanga and Raghavan (2018) . These plant-based bever-
ages present high energetic content and better nutritional balance than
coconut and rice-based beverages. Coconut-based beverage presents a
high saturated fat content, while rice-based beverage shows a high
carbohydrate content. Additionally, both the plant-based alternatives
present low polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fatty acids content.
These nutritional imbalances are smaller in soy and almond-based bev-
erages.
3
R. Bocker and E.K. Silva Future Foods 5 (2022) 100098
Table 1
Nutritional aspects and limitations of some plant matrices compared with cow’s milk.
Plant matrix Nutritional aspects Limitations References
Soy ( Glycine max ) High PDCAAS and DIAAS. High availability of
magnesium, iron and copper ions. Presence of
bioactive constituents (especially isoavones such
as glycitein, genistein, and daidzein). Moderate
emulsifying properties due to amphipathic nature
of its proteins. Presence of phytochemicals such as
phytic acid, saponins, and sterols. Considerable
amount of polyunsaturated fatty acids (especially
linoleic (18:2) and linolenic (18:3) acids).
High content of antinutrients (trypsin
inhibitors). Presence of proteins with
allergenic potential. O-avors (beany avors
and astringency). Methionine and cysteine are
limiting amino acids.
Astol et al. (2020) ;
Chalupa-Krebzdak et al. (2018) ;
Lai et al. (2013) ; Rizzo
and Baroni (2018)
Rice ( Oryza sativa ) High carbohydrate content. No signicant
allergenic potential. Gluten free. Presence of
phytosterols ( 𝛽-sitosterol and 𝛾-oryzanol).
Considerable amount of phosphorus, magnesium
and potassium. Good source of vitamin E and
B-complex vitamins. High starch content.
Low content of monounsaturated and
polyunsaturated fatty acids. Lysine is a
limiting amino acid. Low protein content and
poor digestibility. Presence of anti-nutritive
compounds (phytates and trypsin inhibitors).
Dicult emulsication due to high presence
of starch. High sugar content.
Biswas et al. (2011) ; Boye et al. (2012) ;
Sethi et al. (2016) ;
Chalupa-Krebzdak et al. (2018)
Almond ( Prunus dulcis ) High protein content. High content of
monounsaturated fatty acids. Presence of bioactive
compounds such as alpha-tocopherol and
arabinose. Good source of vitamin E, vitamin A
and manganese. Low-calorie content (provides
approximately 50 calories and 290 kJ per 200 g).
Presence of proteins with allergenic potential.
Low PDCAAS. Methionine and cysteine are
limiting amino acids. Susceptibility to
rancidication due to its high concentration of
polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Vanga and Raghavan (2018) ;
Grundy et al. (2016) ; Sathe et al. (2002)
Oat ( Avena sativa ) High carbohydrate content. High lipids content
(higher than the other cereals).
No signicant
allergenic potential. Good source of bers
(especially beta-glucan). Gluten-free.
Dicult emulsication due to high presence
of starch. Presence of antinutrients (trypsin
inhibitors and phytates). Lysine is a limiting
amino acid. Low calcium content. High
amount of lipases that can promote its
rancidication.
Basinskiene and Cizeikiene (2020) ;
Vanga and Raghavan (2018) ;
Deswal et al. (2014)
Coconut ( Cocos nucifera ) High saturated fat content. Presence of lauric acid.
Good source of vitamin E. High availability of
magnesium, iron, and copper ions. No signicant
allergenic potential.
Low content of monounsaturated and
polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Abdullah et al. (2018) ;
Vanga and
Raghavan (2018) ; Sethi et al. (2016)
Quinoa ( Chenopodium
quinoa )
Quinoa presents good amount of cysteine,
methionine, and lysine. Gluten-free. High quality
of the protein prole (approximately 80% of
digestibility). Presents chemical composition
comparable to cereal grains. High starch content.
Good source of iron, potassium, magnesium,
calcium, copper, and manganese. High amount of
tocopherol.
Bitter taste due to the presence of saponins. Vilcacundo and
Hernández-Ledesma (2017) ;
Nowak et al. (2016) ; Dakhili et al. (2019)
Chickpea ( Cicer
arietinum )
Presents low content of antinutritients. Good
availability of iron (higher than the other
legumes). High bioavailability
of its protein
content. Considerable amount of polyunsaturated
fatty acids (especially linoleic (18:2) and oleic
(18:1) acids). Good source of vitamins (especially
thiamine, riboavin, niacin, and folate).
Lysine and methionine are limiting amino
acids.
Jukanti et al. (2012) ;
Ferreira et al. (2006) ; Brazaca and
Silva (2003)
Sesame seed ( Sesamum
indicum )
Presence of lignans (sesaminol, sesamin, and
sesamolin). No signicant allergenic potential.
Low content of saturated fatty acids. High amount
of amino acids that contains sulfur. Good lipid
prole (the main fatty acids are oleic (18:1),
palmitic (16:0), linoleic (18:2), and stearic (18:0)).
Presence of antinutrients (oxalates and
phytates). Lysine is a limiting amino acid.
Protein content with more solubility in salt
than it´s in water. Thermosensitive protein
content. O-avors (chalkiness and
bitterness).
Vanga and Raghavan (2018) ;
Sethi et al. (2016) ; Silva et al. (2020)
Sunower seed
( Helianthus annuus )
Low-calorie and good source of lipids. Presence of antinutrients (phytates). Poor
gel-formation properties of its proteins.
Silva et al. (2020)
Tiger nut ( Cyperus
esculentus )
High percentage of carbohydrates (approximately
12–17%). Gluten-free. Moderate fat content
(considerable presence of oleic (18:1) and linoleic
(18:2) acids). Moderate amount of nutritional
minerals, such as phosphorus and calcium.
Percentage
of protein is usually lower than
1%.
Codina-Torrella et al. (2017) ;
Corrales et al. (2012)
PDCAAS: Protein digestibility corrected amino acid score.
DIAAS: Digestible indispensable amino acid score.
Milk is also composed of cholesterol and a high carbohydrate content
(4.7% of its total volume). These contents are problematically reecting
a nutritional imbalance. Thereby, almond, soy, and coconut-based bev-
erages present advantages concerning milk. These present lower carbo-
hydrate content than milk and are free of cholesterol. On the other hand,
the rice-based beverage contains more carbohydrates than milk, corre-
sponding to approximately 9% of its total mass ( Chalupa-Krebzdak et al.,
2018 ).
Milk also shows a higher mineral content than plant-based bever-
ages. Thus, the fortication step is performed in most plant-based bev-
erage processes ( Aydar, et al., 2020 ). The addition of minerals and
other compounds increases the nutritional value of these products.
Astol et al. (2020) observed that milk presents higher calcium, phos-
phorus, magnesium, sodium, and potassium contents than plant-based
beverages. These minerals were also reported as elements present in
plant-based alternatives. However, plant-based beverages present lower
mineral concentrations of about 30-50% less. Soy and coconut-based
4
R. Bocker and E.K. Silva Future Foods 5 (2022) 100098
beverages showed high availability of magnesium, iron, and copper ions.
The hazelnut-based beverage, on the other hand, is a good source of
sodium. Furthermore, all plant-based beverages evaluated and milk pre-
sented low concentrations of cytotoxic elements, such as arsenic, cad-
mium, lead, and mercury. Thus, they can be considered safe foods.
In addition to the low percentage of minerals, plant-based beverages
contain phytic acid, oxalates, lecithin, and saponins. These reduce the
absorption and digestibility of essential minerals (calcium, iron, mag-
nesium, zinc, and copper) and trace elements by the body. They bind
to these compounds forming insoluble complexes ( McClements et al.,
2019 ).
Milk also stands out concerning plant-based alternatives for its pro-
tein content. Animal proteins present high variability of amino acids
and greater digestibility. Thereby, to overcome this protein limitation,
plant-based beverages can be produced using dierent vegetable ma-
trix types. Also, the vegetable mixture may increase the protein quality
of plant-based beverages ( Vanga and Raghavan, 2018 ). However, de-
spite the mixture of raw materials increasing the nutritional value of
the beverage, the protein prole of plant-based beverages still keeps
a lower proportion of essential amino acids than animal-origin prod-
ucts. The essential amino acids less available in plant-based products
are methionine, cysteine, and lysine. These are vital amino acids for the
maintenance of normal functions in the human body. Thus, these amino
acids need to be ingested from food since they are not synthesized by
the human body ( Thorning et al., 2016 ).
Among plant-based beverages, the soy-based one presents a protein
content comparable to milk. This product also has the highest true pro-
tein digestibility corrected amino acid score (PDCAAS) and the highest
digestible indispensable amino acid score (DIAAS). These parameters
are associated with protein digestibility and indicate the quality of the
protein prole ( Chalupa-Krebzdak et al., 2018 ).
Therefore, among plant-based beverages, the soy-based one presents
the best balance of micro and macronutrients. However, soy-based bev-
erage presents a high content of antinutrients and proteins that promotes
allergic reactions. Thus, these characteristics constitute a nutritional ob-
stacle for the product ( Morales-de la Peña et al., 2011 ). Besides the soy-
based beverage, the acquired from almonds prospect as one of the lead-
ing competitive products in the agri-food market. Almond plant-based
beverage presents a good nutritional balance and high sensory accept-
ability ( Vanga and Raghavan, 2018 ).
4. Innovative technologies
Non-thermal and thermal emerging technologies, such as high-
intensity ultrasound, high-pressure processing, pulsed electric eld, su-
percritical carbon dioxide, ultraviolet radiation, microwave heating, and
ohmic heating, have been investigated as potential alternatives for man-
ufacturing plant-based milk. Table 2 summarizes the eects of these in-
novative technologies on plant-based non-dairy alternative milk.
4.1. Non-thermal emerging technologies
4.1.1. High-intensity ultrasound
Ultrasound corresponds to a sound wave with a frequency between
20 kHz and 100 MHz. The ultrasound processes applied in foods and
beverages are characterized according to their ultrasound frequency em-
ployed as low-frequency (16 - 100 kHz) and high-frequency (100 kHz - 1
MHz) ( Soria and Villamiel, 2010 ). The application of high-intensity ul-
trasound in the processing of plant-based beverages allows a low loss of
nutrients and the inactivation of endogenous enzymes and pathogenic
and spoilage microorganisms of the product. Besides that, ultrasound
treatments can provide rheological modications ( Maghsoudlou et al.,
2016 ). Currently, promising results have been obtained by the combina-
tion of ultrasound and heat (thermosonication) or pressure (manosoni-
cation) to enhance the action of ultrasound in the microbial stabilization
of products ( Chen et al., 2020 ).
This emerging technology has its eectiveness based on the principle
of acoustic cavitation, a physical phenomenon in which sound energy
(ultrasound) propagates in a liquid medium from compressions and re-
fractions. Thereby, cavitation microbubbles form at high energy levels
during refraction, which concentrates as the process proceeds, gener-
ating an accumulation of gases or vapors in the medium ( Silva et al.,
2015 ). These microbubbles hatch at a critical frequency value, promot-
ing shear stress in the system. The shear stress of the systems promotes
increases in thermal energy, dynamic agitation, and turbulence in the
medium. Thus, these eects corroborate reducing colloidal pectin size
and consequent changes to the rheological properties of the product
( Li et al., 2021 ).
Maghsoudlou et al. (2016) evaluated ultrasound treatment eects on
the sensory characteristics of an almond-based ( Prunus amygdalus ) bev-
erage. The processing time of ultrasound aected the physicochemical
properties of the beverage. The nominal power of 100 W was applied at
20 kHz for 0, 2.5, and 5 min. The increase in processing time increased
the values of soluble solids content, lightness, and physical stability of
the product. Additionally, a reduction in the colloidal particle size and
viscosity was observed by increasing the processing time. Thereby, the
ultrasonicated almond-based beverage presented a higher homogeneity,
stability, and shelf life.
In addition to the eects on rheological properties, high-intensity
ultrasound promotes higher retention of bioactive compounds than
the conventional heat treatment ( Chen et al., 2020 ). Ultrasound pro-
cesses better preserve the bioactive compounds because during mi-
crobubbles hatch, the temperature and pressure increase in a microre-
gion. Thereby, the temperature of the system does not increase as
much. Besides that, these treatments allow the pasteurization of the
product. Thus, the ultrasound-assisted processes promote few modi-
cations to the organoleptic properties and reduce the microbial load
of products. Furthermore, ultrasound treatments promote the disrup-
tion of the cell membrane of microorganisms, which leads to the expo-
sure of their genetic material and facilitates their eective inactivation
( Bhattacharjee et al., 2019 ). This ultrasound eectiveness was veried
by Iorio et al. (2019) on the inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7
and Listeria monocytogenes of the almond-based beverage ( Prunus amyg-
dalus ). Ultrasound powers (26-104 W), processing times (2-8 min), and
pulses (2-6 s) were evaluated in the inactivation of microorganisms from
almond samples. A greater reduction in the Escherichia coli O157:H7
count, from 5.12 to 3.81 log CFU/mL, was observed using the 104 W
and 6 s pulse treatment in 8 min of the process. On the other hand, the
Listeria monocytogenes was inactivated in 1 log CFU/mL by the ultra-
sound treatment at 104 W, 6 s of pulse performed for 2 min.
Moreover, the reduction in the enzymatic activity of the product is
mainly promoted by the action of free radicals, which are released into
the medium due to the sonolysis of water molecules. This sonolysis is
provided by acoustic cavitation. Free radicals have high reactivity and
instability and thus act on enzymatic proteins, yielding or donating elec-
trons. Thereby, enzymes lose their native conformation as a result of the
destabilization of their protein bonds. Thus, the proteins of enzymes are
denatured, and the enzyme is inactivated ( Bhattacharjee et al., 2019 ).
Otherwise, free radicals can degrade ascorbic acid, accelerate lipid ox-
idation, and reduce the phenolic content of the products ( Chen et al.,
2020 ).
Furthermore, ultrasound presents higher energy eciency than
show the conventional heat treatments. This higher energy eciency is
associated with the short processing time required by ultrasound treat-
ments. Additionally, ultrasound is easy-to-implement equipment, pro-
moting volumetric heating causing minimal damage to the thermolabile
compounds of the products ( Li et al., 2021 ).
4.1.2. High-pressure processing
High-pressure processing is an emerging non-thermal technology
that employs pressure values from 100 to 1000 MPa. This processing
presents a disadvantage concerning conventional heat treatments. High-
5
R. Bocker and E.K. Silva Future Foods 5 (2022) 100098
Table 2
Impact of innovative technologies on plant-based non-dairy alternative milk.
Innovative Technology Plant matrix Process conditions Main remarks References
Ultrasound Almond ( Prunus
amygdalus )
130 W/ 80%/20 kHz/ 8 min/6 s
of pulse.
Reduction from 5.12 to 3.81 log CFU/mL of
Escherichia coli O157:H7. Reduction in the
count by 1 log CFU/mL of Listeria
monocytogenes
Iorio et al. (2019)
Ultrasound Almond ( Prunus
amygdalus)
300 W/100%/20 kHz/ 0 –5
min The processing time rise increased the degree
of Brix and physical stability of the product,
as well decreased its viscosity and its
suspended particles size
Maghsoudlou et al .
(2016)
Ultrasound Coconut ( Cocos nucifera ) 50 - 55 W/ 40%/ 20 kHz/ 13 min Reduction in methyl tetrahydrofuran,
octanoic
acid ethyl ester, decanoic acid ethyl ester, and
hexadecanoic acid methyl ester concentrations
Lu et al. (2019)
Ultrasound Almond ( Prunus
amygdalus )
20 kHz/1, 4, 8, 12, and 16 min Increase in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD%)
increasing the processing time
Vanga et al. (2020)
High-pressure processing Wheat ( Cyperus
esculentus L. )
300 and 300 MPa at 40°C 27% particle aggregation (2 - 150 𝜇m) and
complete inactivation of peroxidase activity.
80% reduction in peroxidase activity
Codina-Torrella et al.
(2017)
High-pressure processing Soy ( Glycine max ) 200 MPa and 300 MPa/ 40°C 200 MPa treatment reduced bacterial count of
the product by 2.42 log CFU/ml and the
treatment at 300 MPa reduced by 4.24 log
CFU/ml; both treatments promoted color
modications on the product
Cruz et al. (2007)
High-pressure processing Soy ( Glycine max ) 200 MPa and 300 MPa/ 55, 65,
and 75°C/
The increase in pressure
and temperature
promoted a higher percentage of phytosterol
and isoavone and a lower percentage of
tocopherols
Toro-Funes et al. (2014)
High-pressure processing Almond (Corylus
avellana)
350 MPa and 85°C The treatment did not change the cytotoxic,
genotoxic, and antigenotoxic activity of the
product
Briviba et al. (2016)
High-pressure processing Soy ( Glycine max ) 200 MPa and 300 MPa/ 55, 65,
and 75°C
The pressure increase promoted more
eective enzymatic inactivation, the
treatment at 300 MPa and 75°C allowed
complete sterilization of the product
Poliseli-
Scopel et al. (2012)
High-pressure processing Hazelnut ( Corylus coluna ) 0, 25, 50, 75, 100,
and 150 MPa/
15°C
Pressures higher than 75 MPa promoted an
increase in pH, Brix, and solubility and
reduced particle density and size
Gul et al. (2017)
High-pressure processing Almond and Hazelnut
( Prunus amygdalus L.
dulcis and Corylus
avellana )
2, 103, and 172 MPa/ 85°C for 30
min or 121°C for 15 min
The best stability was achieved at 172 MPa,
85°C, and 30 min
Bernat et al. (2015)
Pulsed electric eld Soy ( Glycine max ) 18, 20, and 22 kV cm
− 1
/ 25, 50,
75, and 100 pulses/ 0.5 Hz/ 26°C
The rise of intensity and pulses increased the
apparent viscosity and promoted signicant
changes in product color
Xiang et al. (2011)
Pulsed electric eld Soy ( Glycine max ) 100–600 Hz / 2 𝜇s a 5 𝜇s/ 25°C The
treatment at 400 Hz, 2 𝜇s, and 25°C
reduced in 88% soybean lipoxygenase activity
Li et al. (2008)
Pulsed electric eld Soy ( Glycine max ) 4 𝜇s/35 kV/cm/200 Hz/90°C/
60s
Maior retenção de ácido ascórbico (vitamina
C) e capacidade antioxidante, bem como
estabilidade microbiológica similar ao
tratamento térmico convencional
La Peña et al. (2010)
Pulsed electric eld Soy ( Glycine max ) 35 kV/cm/ 200 Hz/ 800 and
1400 𝜇s
The treatment increased the proportion of
phenolic compounds and reduced the
carotenoids content preserving more
compounds than conventional thermal
treatment
Morales-de la Peña
et al. (2010)
Pulsed electric eld Soy ( Glycine max ) 35 kV/cm/ 200 Hz/ 800 and
1400 𝜇s
The innovative treatment promoted a smaller
reduction in the fatty acids (elaidic and
linoleic) content and a higher proportion of Fe
and Zn than the conventional treatment
Morales-de la Peña
et al. (2011)
UV radiation Soy ( Glycine max ) 343, 686, 1029, and 1372 Re/
11.3 s/ 11.187 mJ/cm
2
/
253.7 nm
The Re value of 1372 promoted a reduction of
5.6 log10 CFU/mL of Escherichia coli and 3.29
log10 CFU/mL of Bacillus cereus
Bandla et al. (2012)
UV radiation Soy ( Glycine max ) 4, 8, 12, 18, 25, and 30°C/
253.7 nm/ 0 - 48 min
The
inactivation of Salmonella enterica is
thermo-dependent from 4 to 18°C
Possas et al. (2018)
UV radiation Nuts ( Cyperus esculentus
L .)
253.7 nm/ 0- 4.23 mW cm
− 2
/
27°C
The highest dose of UV-C radiation decreased
the activity of the peroxidase enzyme by 85%
Corrales et al. (2012)
Microwave Soy ( Glycine max ) 540 - 810W/ 140–180 RPM/ 70 -
90°C
Treatment at 675W, 80°C, and 160 RPM
provided higher protein yield than the
conventional treatment
Varghese and
Pare (2019)
Microwave Soy ( Glycine max ) 2.45 GHz/ 70, 85, and 100°C/ 2,
5, and 8 min
The rise in temperature and processing time
increased digestibility and eliminated
anti-nutritional factors (trypsin)
Vagadia et al. (2018)
Ohmic heating Soy ( Glycine max ) 220 V/ 50 Hz/ 0, 3, 4, 5, 10, and
15 min
In addition to reducing thiol loss, the
treatment was eective on the inactivation of
trypsin and chymotrypsin
Lu et al. (2015)
Ohmic heating Soy ( Glycine max ) 50, 500, 5000, and 10 kHz/ 160,
180, 200, and 220 V / 0, 1,
3, 5,
10, and 15 min/ 90°C
The frequency increase promoted higher
inactivation of the urease
Li et al. (2015)
6
R. Bocker and E.K. Silva Future Foods 5 (2022) 100098
pressure processing is carried out in batches. In contrast, conventional
treatments are performed in continuous mode. Thus, the traditional heat
treatments process a higher product volume in less time. However, high-
pressure treatments present several advantages to conventional pasteur-
ization treatments. The main advantage is associated with the minimal
impacts of this emerging technology on the sensory and nutritional char-
acteristics of the product. High-pressure treatments have not promoted
the degradation of the covalent bonds of proteins, vitamins, antioxi-
dants, and volatile compounds of the products. Furthermore, this pro-
cessing reduces the pathogenic and deteriorating microbial load, inac-
tivates endogenous enzymes, decreases the apparent viscosity, and in-
creases the viscosity of products ( Stinco et al., 2019 ; Szczepa ń ska et al.,
2020 ).
High-pressure is applied to food by isostatic transmission in a vol-
umetric, instantaneous, and uniform way. Thereby, this technology is
more accessible applied in smaller product volumes. The pressuriza-
tion of the system promotes adiabatic processes since an increase of
100 MPa in pressure corresponds to an increase of 3 to 6°C in the sys-
tem temperature ( Aydar et al., 2020 ). These conditions promote the
thermal denaturation of enzymes and proteins besides disrupting the
cell membrane of the microorganisms, inhibiting their activity. Further-
more, high-pressure processing modies the morphological character-
istics of microorganisms. The pressure rise promotes the crystallization
of phospholipids present in the microorganisms’ cell membrane. Thus,
the higher membrane permeability allows a greater ionic structure ex-
change, inhibiting the cell functions or promoting microorganism’s lysis.
This is the main activity of high-pressure processing on the inactivation
of microorganisms ( Evelyn Milani and Silva, 2017 ; Yildiz et al., 2019 ).
In addition to stabilizing food products, high-pressure treatments
also promote dierent physical eects on the particles of treated uids.
The phenomena of collapse, cavitation, turbulence, and shear caused
by this treatment promote the particle’s size reduction. This reduc-
tion in particle size ensures greater kinetic stability to the product
( Briviba et al., 2016 ). However, a high-pressure treatment was not
sucient to guarantee the maintenance of the homogeneity of a soy-
based beverage ( Glycine max ). Therefore, additional heat treatment
was applied to the product to improve its homogeneity. The heat pro-
motes products’ protein aggregation throughout thermal denaturation
( Bernat et al., 2015 ). Thus, they evaluated the eects of pressure (2, 103,
and 172 MPa), temperature (85 and 121°C), and processing time (15
and 30 min) on the stability of the plant-based beverage. Thereby, the
soy-based beverage processed at 172 MPa and 85°C for 30 min showed
greater resistance to phase separation.
The treatment of plant-based beverages at high pressures promotes
a reduction in their colloidal particle size, thus increasing their homo-
geneity and stability ( Codina-Torrella et al., 2017 ). However, extremely
high pressures can also compress the macroscopic particles. This ef-
fect is undesirable since colloidal aggregates are formed in the product
( Cruz et al., 2007 ). Thus, pressures lower than 400 MPa are commonly
applied in processing plant-based beverages to avoid the aggregation of
particles in the product ( Aydar et al., 2020 ).
This particle aggregation eect was also observed by Codina-
Torrella et al. (2017) . They evaluated the pressures of 200 and 300 MPa
on the physicochemical properties of tigernut-based beverage ( Cyperus
esculentus L.). The pressure of 300 MPa applied for 40 min promoted a
high percentage of protein aggregation since 27% of the particles had di-
ameters in the range of 2-150 𝜇m. However, this pressure also inhibited
the activity of the peroxidase enzyme. On the other hand, the pressure
of 200 MPa inactivated just 80% of the enzyme activity.
The enzymatic inhibition promoted by high-pressure processes is di-
rectly related to the increase in pressure of the system. This eect is also
responsible for promoting an inhospitable environment to microorgan-
isms, showing greater eectiveness in eliminating molds, yeasts, and
gram-negative bacteria ( Aydar et al., 2020 ). Furthermore, this inno-
vative non-thermal treatment has been retarded primary oxidations in
plant-based beverages. The high process pressure weakens the protein
bonds in the dispersed phase of the beverage. Thus, the denatured pro-
teins, in turn, aggregate to the lipid fraction of the product. This ag-
gregation retards lipid oxidation in the product ( Codina-Torrella et al.,
2017 ).
4.1.3. Pulsed electric field
Pulsed electric eld technology has been widely applied for micro-
bial and enzymatic inactivation of liquid products, including plant-based
beverages. This technology employs low temperatures from 30 to 40°C
that avoid thermal degradation of food matrices ( El Kantar et al., 2018 ;
Wibowo et al., 2019 ). In pulsed electric eld processes, the food matrix
is subjected to a high electric current ow in a period shorter than 1
min. This current promotes continuous pulsed electric elds from 5 to
55 kV.cm
− 1
on food products ( Barba et al., 2015 ; Martínez et al., 2020 ).
The application of this non-thermal processing promotes a reduc-
tion in the microorganism load of the product through the induction of
transmembrane potential. This potential at critical values results in the
formation of pores in the cell structure of microorganisms. This phe-
nomenon responsible for providing permeabilization of cell membranes
is called electroporation. It destabilizes the lipid bilayer and disrupts
the proteins of microorganisms. Thereby, microorganisms are exposed
to extracellular components that can enter their structure, promoting
their lysis ( Novickij et al., 2020 ).
Otherwise, the inactivation of enzymes by electroporation occurs by
the denaturation of their proteins. The morphological changes promoted
in enzymes inhibit their activity ( Andreou et al., 2020 ). This eect was
observed in a soy-based beverage ( Glycine max ) by Li et al. (2008) . They
submitted their samples to pulsed electric eld treatments, evaluating
the eects of pulse frequency (100 - 600 Hz), bipolar pulses (2-5 𝜇s),
and the temperature of 25°C on reducing soy lipoxygenase activity. The
most signicant inhibition of 88% was promoted by the treatment em-
ploying 400 Hz of pulse frequency and 2 𝜇s of bipolar pulses. Thus,
pulsed electric eld processing provided a high enzyme inhibition and
thus can replace conventional heat treatment.
However, this emerging treatment does not inactivate food spores
since electrical pulses do not induce germination. Thus, other elements
need to be added to the treatment to promote the germination of en-
dospores and enable their inhibition. The addition of organic acids, the
increase in the water activity and thermal energy, the addition of nisin,
and pH variation can assist the pulsed electric eld processing for inac-
tivating sporulated structures ( Soni et al., 2020 ).
In addition to reducing the microbiological and enzymatic activity of
the product, processing using a pulsed electric eld maintains the nutri-
tional properties of foods since this treatment comprises a non-thermal
technology. This eect was observed in a vegetable soy-based beverage
( Glycine max ) by Morales-de la Peña et al. (2010) . They evaluated the
eects of a pulsed electric eld treatment (200 Hz, with 4 𝜇s of bipolar
pulses, at 90°C for 60 s) on the antioxidant composition of the product.
The emerging technology promoted greater retention of ascorbic acid
(vitamin C) and antioxidant capacity than a pasteurization treatment
(90°C for 60 s). Additionally, both treatments promoted the microbio-
logical stabilization of the soy-based beverage.
The initial investment cost of this technology is expensive, varying
from €75,000 to €400,000 depending on energy needs and the scale of
production ( Puértolas and Barba, 2016 ). However, the initial investment
is counterbalanced by its less energy expenditure, related to shorter pro-
cessing time and greater energy eciency. Furthermore, in addition
to its high eectiveness, this technology conserves the phenolic com-
pounds, vitamins, carotenoids, and avonoids of the product ( Morales-
de la Peña et al., 2011 ).
4.1.4. Supercritical carbon dioxide
Supercritical technology performs non-thermal processes that can
treat plant-based beverages. However, this technology has not yet been
evaluated for such application. In this technique, The food or bever-
age is put into a reactor and saturated by injecting supercritical uid.
7
R. Bocker and E.K. Silva Future Foods 5 (2022) 100098
Among the uids, the most used is carbon dioxide. Its supercritical phase
presents intermediate physicochemical properties, such as similarity to
the density of liquids and viscosity of gases. Furthermore, this non-toxic,
inert, non-ammable, non-corrosive, and easy-to-remove uid shows a
high diusion coecient. Thus, it presents a high penetration capac-
ity in plant cells ( Silva et al., 2020b ). Otherwise, supercritical carbon
dioxide has a low capacity to interact with polar compounds. However,
co-solvents can be added to the system, improving this characteristic
( Amaral et al., 2017 ). Thus, supercritical carbon dioxide has prospected
as an innovative and promising technology for manufacturing plant-
based beverages since it can increase their shelf life and safety.
CO
2
stands out as the best cost-benet among supercritical uids
since it has a low cost and is non-toxic. Besides that, this solvent has
provided high extraction yields. The critical conditions of CO
2
(7.38
MPa and 31°C) are moderate compared with those of other uids used
in the supercritical state. These moderate conditions reduce the process
energy expenditure and promote less damage to the nutritional proper-
ties of the food matrices ( Brunner, 2005 , 2010 ). Despite CO
2
low cost
and eectiveness, the implementation of supercritical technology on an
industrial scale is challenging. This diculty is mainly associated with
the high costs and diculty of installing the equipment ( Bertolini et al.,
2020 ).
This innovative technology reduces the count of pathogenic microor-
ganisms and endogenous enzymes present in the product, supporting its
conservation. Carbon dioxide solubilizes the external liquid phase of
microbial cells, decreasing the pH of the medium and increasing mem-
brane permeability. Thus, the supercritical uid enters the microorgan-
ism, modies its cell membrane, and decreases its intracellular pH, pro-
moting a bactericidal eect on the product ( Silva et al., 2020a ). Fur-
thermore, supercritical uids reduce the enzymatic activity of systems.
These decrease the hydrogenic potential of the products, promoting the
denaturation of their enzyme’s proteins. Thereby, the process success-
fully reduces the enzymatic activity and promotes the separation of
phases of the product through acidication of the system. Thus, this
procedure can promote the precipitation of casein micelles. These, in
turn, may destabilize food emulsions ( Silva et al., 2019 ).
To date, there are no studies regarding plant-based milk alter-
natives processed by high-pressure CO
2
technology. However, su-
percritical CO
2
has already been used for processing food matrices
with rheological properties similar to those of plant-based beverages.
Silva et al. (2019) evaluated the eect of pressure (10 to 20 MPa), tem-
perature (35 and 55°C), and volume proportion of CO
2
(20 and 50%) on
the rheological and physicochemical properties of inulin-enriched sour-
sop whey beverage. The treatments did not promote signicant changes
in the color and physicochemical properties of the beverage but modi-
ed the rheological behavior. The treatments with supercritical carbon
dioxide promoted the coagulation of milk proteins by reducing the pH
of the beverage during the processing. Thus, this product presented a
larger particle size, which can favor phase separation. Despite this, an
additional homogenization can be performed to enhance the kinetic sta-
bility.
4.1.5. Ultraviolet radiation
Ultraviolet (UV) radiation stands out as an unconventional method
for plant-based beverages treatment. This technology is based on the
germicidal eect promoted by UV radiation. The UV-C radiation (250
to 260 nm) promotes the disruption or mutation of the deoxyribonucleic
acid of microorganisms, altering their morphological structure and re-
production function ( Atilgan et al., 2021 ).
The potential microbicide of UV radiation was evaluated on the in-
activation of Salmonella Enteritidis in a soy-based beverage ( Possas et al.,
2018 ). Radiation at 253.7 nm was applied to the beverage at tempera-
tures of 4, 8, 12, 18, 25, and 30°C, at radiation doses from 0 - 10 J/cm
2
in
processing times from 0 - 48 min. The inactivation of the Salmonella En-
teritidis was thermo-dependent in the range from 4 to 18°C. The highest
microbiological inactivation (5.40 ± 0.17 log CFU/mL) was promoted
by treatment at 18°C. The treatments carried out at temperatures from
18 to 30°C promoted non-thermal dependent microbiological inactiva-
tion. Besides that, treatments using these temperatures employed lower
radiation doses to promote the same microbiological inactivation pro-
moted by the 18°C treatments.
In addition to promoting microbiological inactivation, UV radiation
also acts on enzymes. This radiation promotes photochemical alterations
of proteins, thus providing an enzymatic inactivation ( Bandla et al.,
2012 ). The eects of UV radiation were also evaluated in treating
tigernut-based beverage ( Cyperus esculentus L.) by Corrales et al. (2012) .
The authors studied the eects of radiation doses from 0 to 4.23 J/cm
2
on beverage characteristics. The radiation dose increase decreased the
antioxidant capacity and 3-log
10
cycles of spoilage microorganisms of
the product. Additionally, the processing of the highest radiation dose
reduced the peroxidase activity by 85%. UV radiation treatments also
promote minimal changes to the sensory or nutritional properties of
products. Once this treatment employs low temperature and the radia-
tion does not promote thermal degradation of the thermosensitive com-
pounds present in the food. However, the process is only eective in
liquid media. The penetration power of ultraviolet radiation is low. The
microbiological inhibition occurs only from direct exposure of microor-
ganisms to UV rays. Thus, higher doses of radiation are applied in the
treatment of cloudy liquids products. However, these high doses may
cause photo-oxidation of products’ compounds. Thereby, this treatment
may mischaracterize the organoleptic properties of products. One way
to reduce the radiation dosage for microbiological and enzymatic stabi-
lization is by applying turbulence to the medium. The turbulence favors
the product interaction with UV rays ( Bandla et al., 2012 ).
Furthermore, the scaling up of UV radiation technology is more ac-
cessible than for other technologies. The system used in the treatments
has low added value, is compatible with other technologies, and is easy
to install. Besides that, the UV radiation treatment does not produce
toxic waste. It allows short processing times, comprising a sustainable
and clean technology ( Atilgan et al., 2021 ).
4.2. Thermal emerging technologies
4.2.1. Microwave heating
Among the innovative thermal technologies applied in the processing
of plant-based beverages, microwave heating comprises an unconven-
tional technique with high eciency to reduce microbial load, increas-
ing the product’s shelf life. The microwave principle is based on electro-
magnetic radiation with a frequency of 103 to 104 MHz, which acts vol-
umetrically on the dipole of the water molecules present in the product.
This radiation promotes an increase in the intermolecular friction of the
system due to the action of attraction and repulsion forces of the dipoles
of water molecules releasing heat. Furthermore, the increase in system
temperature is also promoted by ionic conduction since the action of
the electromagnetic eld contributes to the displacement of the ions to
regions that present opposite charges. Thus, increasing intermolecular
collisions and disrupting hydrogen bonds in water ( Cavalcante et al.,
2021 ; Costa et al., 2021 ; Hassan et al., 2021 ).
In addition to the microbicidal action promoted by the system’s
thermal energy, microwave treatments have been promoted other non-
thermal eects on products. The electric eld action on microorgan-
isms increases their membrane permeability, allowing the entry of small
molecules. Thus, the cells swell, favoring their lysis. The electric eld
formed by microwaves also inactivates enzymes since it modies their
protein structures ( Dong et al., 2021 ).
A study performed by Vagadia et al. (2018) evaluated the eective-
ness of conventional and microwave processing on trypsin inhibition
and protein digestibility of a soybean-based beverage ( Glycine max ).
They evaluated the temperatures of 70, 85, and 100°C in processing
a soy-based beverage. Conventional treatments were carried out for 10,
20, and 30 min, while the microwave treatments applied 2.45 GHz for 2,
5, and 8 min. The conventional treatment provided a higher digestibility
8
R. Bocker and E.K. Silva Future Foods 5 (2022) 100098
in the beverage’s proteins (11%) than the microwave treatment (7%).
However, the conventional treatment also inhibited more trypsin (3%)
than the emerging treatment provided (1%).
Therefore, microwave treatments enable the heating of food matri-
ces, such as plant-based beverages, in a uniform and volumetric manner,
employing short processing time. Besides that, the microwave frequency
is insucient to break the molecular bonds of carbohydrates, proteins,
lipids, and vitamins of the product. Thus, this is a non-ionizing and non-
chemical reactive method that preserves the organoleptic properties of
the product.
4.2.2. Ohmic heating
Ohmic energy is an emerging unconventional thermal technology
applied in the processing of packaged and unpacked plant-based bever-
ages. In this process, an electrical current of 50 to 60 Hz is applied to
the food matrix that releases thermal energy due to its electrical resis-
tance. The electrical energy applied to the system is transported through
the resistive medium, promoting ions’ reorganization and increasing
molecules’ agitation degree. Thereby, these molecules’ agitation pro-
motes heat release ( Saxena et al., 2017 ; Wattanayon et al., 2021 ).
The increase in the global temperature of the medium promoted by
uniform heating that does not cause mechanical damage to the product
reduces the pathogenic and deteriorating microbial load from the rup-
ture of its cell membranes. Furthermore, this heat treatment is eective
for enzymatic inactivation. The ohmic heating acts under enzymes’ ac-
tive sites removing metallic prosthetic groups from the metalloenzymes
thus, denaturing the enzymes ( Atuonwu et al., 2020 ; Li et al., 2015 ).
Li et al. (2015) studied the eectiveness of ohmic heating for enzymatic
inhibition of urease. The authors evaluated the processing frequency
(50, 500, 5000, and 10 kHz), voltage (160, 180, 200, and 220 V), and
processing time (0, 1, 3, 5, 10, and 15 min) at a xed temperature of 90°C
on enzymatic inactivation. The ohmic heating treatments promoted the
same urease inactivation as the conventional heat treatment. Addition-
ally, the increase in frequency increased the eectiveness of enzymatic
inactivation.
In addition to its eectiveness on microbiological and enzymatic sta-
bilization, this technology presents other advantages than conventional
heat treatment. Ohmic heating is a sustainable technology. Its equip-
ment is easy to operate, shows low maintenance costs, and simultane-
ously promotes faster heating of the solid and liquid phases. However,
the cost of implementing this equipment on an industrial scale is high,
requiring a high initial investment. Furthermore, the treatments may
provide an overheating of the product, promoting protein aggregation,
sensory and nutritional alterations of plant-based beverages ( Lu et al.,
2015 ).
5. Microbial and enzymatic inactivation
One of the main concerns regarding the development of food prod-
ucts refers to their microbial and enzymatic activity. High microbio-
logical and enzymatic activity reduces the shelf life of the product by
modifying its sensory properties. In addition to the degradative eects,
microorganisms can promote pathologies in their consumers. Thus, the
activity of microorganisms in food products compromises their safety.
Therefore, product pasteurization performed commonly through heat
treatment is a critical point in food processing. It reduces the micro-
bial and enzyme load to safe levels for human consumption. Thereby,
food safety is currently one of the main concerns associated with food
engineering. Once the development of new products has increased si-
multaneously with the number of incidences of pathologies associated
with food ( Mukhopadhyay and Ukuku, 2018 ).
In this regard, the literature has been increasingly reporting new
studies about the eectiveness of emerging technologies for microbio-
logical and enzymatic food stabilization. Among them, ultrasound, high
pressure, pulsed electric eld, ohmic heating, supercritical carbon diox-
ide, UV radiation, and microwave technologies stand out for food pas-
teurization. These techniques use distinct mechanisms for the pasteur-
ization of food products. Despite this, they are non-thermal treatments
or did not use heat as the exclusive agent to reduce the microbial and
enzymatic load ( Bhattacharjee et al., 2019 ; Wibowo et al., 2019 ). On
the other hand, emerging technologies’ mechanisms of inactivation and
their ability to reduce microbial and enzymatic load are not fully un-
derstood. Thus, the food market demands more information about the
feasibility of each technology to reduce the microbial and enzymatic
load of food products ( Van Impe et al., 2018 ).
Among the innovative pasteurization techniques, the non-thermal
technologies that promote stress to inactivate the microorganisms have
not been so eective. Instead, they have been inactivating a low micro-
bial load. Most bacteria can modify and adapt to adverse environmental
stress conditions ( Guan et al., 2017 ). Thereby, emerging technologies
have not been able to stabilize the products to guarantee their safety.
Wu et al. (2020) evaluated the response of microorganisms to high
pressure, ultraviolet radiation, pulsed electric eld, supercritical carbon
dioxide, ultrasound, and cold plasma techniques. The emerging tech-
nologies evaluated were not able to perform complete sterilization of
the product. They promoted only sublethal damage to products’ micro-
bial cells. Thereby, microorganisms can re-develop in the product after
its pasteurization treatment, compromising its food safety.
Studies have been developed to evaluate the eectiveness of emerg-
ing technologies in inactivating enzymes and microorganisms present
in plant-based beverages. For example, the ultrasound processing re-
duced the load of Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes of
almond ( Prunus amygdalus ) beverage. However, the process conditions
adopted could not completely inhibit the activity of these microorgan-
isms ( Iorio et al., 2019 ).
The enzymatic and microbial inactivation is directly proportional
to the increase in system pressure using high-pressure technology. For
example, the increase in pressure from 200 to 300 MPa promoted
the total inactivation of the peroxidase in the tigernut-based bever-
age ( Cyperus esculentus L.). The treatment at 200 MPa had inactivated
the enzyme activity by 80% ( Codina-Torrella et al., 2017 ). Poliseli-
Scopel et al. (2012) also reported that 300 MPa high-pressure process-
ing could reduce products’ enzyme activity to levels safe for human
consumption. Thus, high-pressure technology stands out among other
emerging technologies for microbiological and enzymatic stabilization
of products.
Pulsed electric eld, UV radiation, and ohmic heating are also
promising technologies for reducing the enzymatic activity of plant-
based beverages. Some studies have presented their eectiveness
in inhibiting soybean lipoxygenase, peroxidase, and urease enzymes
( Corrales, et al., 2012 ; Li et al., 2015 , 2008 ). UV radiation technol-
ogy, in turn, eectively reduces microbial activity by raising radiation
doses and system temperature. This technology allowed partial elimina-
tion of Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus , and Salmonella enterica from soy-
based beverages ( Glycine max ) ( Bandla et al., 2012 ; Possas et al., 2018 ).
Otherwise, the high-pressure processes inactivated the enterobacteria
and partially the sporulated structures ( Cruz et al., 2007 ). Almost all
emerging technologies do not inactivate product spores since they are
highly resistant to adverse environmental conditions ( Evelyn Milani and
Silva, 2017 ; Soni et al., 2020 ).
6. Critical observations
Pasteurization is a critical point in the processing of food matrices
since this step reduces the microbiological and enzymatic load of the
product. This technology guarantees a longer product shelf life and the
safety of its consumption since it reduces deterioration phenomena by
promoting its physical-chemical stability. Conventionally, heat is the
main microbial and enzymatic inactivation agent in pasteurization treat-
ments. This energy is sourced for products at temperatures from 60 to
130°C ( Aydar et al., 2020 ). However, as discussed in this article, con-
ventional heat treatments promote adverse eects on the rheological
9
R. Bocker and E.K. Silva Future Foods 5 (2022) 100098
Fig. 4. Impact of conventional thermal processing and emerging technologies on the quality attributes of plant-based milk.
and nutritional properties of foods. The high temperatures of these pro-
cesses promote the degradation of thermosensitive compounds and mod-
ify the physicochemical properties of the products. Despite this, the ef-
fects of the treatments on the rheological properties of the product can
be compensated using additives. Adding these into the formulations can
ensure food product kinetic stability ( Van Impe et al., 2018 ). There-
fore, emerging technologies prospect as viable options for food stabi-
lization. These reduce changes in nutritional properties of the product,
ensure their physicochemical stability, and reduce the use of additives.
Fig. 4 illustrates the advantages of emerging technologies for treating
plant-based beverages. Furthermore, technologies reviewed here are the
leading unconventional technologies employed for the pasteurization of
plant-based beverages.
Innovative thermal treatments, in general, stand out for their abil-
ity to optimize processing time, maximize the energy eciency of the
process, reduce the occurrence of Maillard reactions, improve the nu-
tritional quality and shelf life of the product, and promote a reduc-
tion in microbiological and enzymatic load of the product ( Hernández-
Hernández et al., 2019 ).
The replacement of conventional heat treatments by those using
emerging technologies present several advantages. However, some bar-
riers still need to be overcome. Firstly, the treatments employing emerg-
ing technologies need to be regulated. Thus, the process variables and
their eects on microbiological and enzymatic safety, nutritional pro-
le, and physicochemical stability of the products will be established.
For this, more studies about the eects of these technologies on food ma-
trices are required. Especially studies associated with the mechanism of
action of each treatment and its eects on the raw material.
Among the problems associated with emerging technologies, non-
thermal pasteurization techniques present a low capacity to inactivate
cell spores. Therefore, they use low temperatures that are not enough
to inactivate the spores. Since these non-germinated structures present
a cell wall composed of sporopollenin, a protective lipid with high ther-
mal stability is also a major component of the tough outer walls of plant
spores and pollen grains. Thereby, some methodologies combine dier-
ent stress sources, such as heat and pressure to promote greater micro-
biological safety for the product.
The processing using a pulsed electric eld also promotes low sporu-
lated inactivation eectiveness. However, this eciency can be im-
proved by adding compounds to the system, such as organic acids and
nisin. Furthermore, the increase in the water activity and thermal en-
ergy, and pH variation can promote the germination of spore structures.
Thus, the spores’ resistant cell wall is broken, and the pulsed electric
eld can inactivate them.
Otherwise, the UV radiation technology is inecient to promote a
microbiological stabilization of products. The mechanism of this tech-
nology is based on the direct exposure of microorganisms to radiation.
However, the penetration power of UV rays is low, impairing the mi-
crobiological inactivation. Despite this, this eciency can be improved
by promoting turbulence in the system. This turbulence favors microbi-
ological stabilization and reduces the need for high doses of radiation.
Despite the drawbacks of non-thermal pasteurization techniques,
they stand out over thermal treatments for not applying high temper-
atures to the system. Additionally, these technologies reduce microbial
and enzymatic load, decrease particle size, and decrease product viscos-
ity. Thus, non-thermal pasteurization processes provide products with
high added value since they can preserve thermosensitive compounds.
Innovative thermal technologies use processing temperatures higher
than non-thermal techniques. Thus, they allow less retention of ther-
mosensitive compounds. However, microwave and ohmic heating
equipment are easier to operate and present lower costs than non-
thermal technologies equipment, such as high pressure and supercritical
carbon dioxide. Furthermore, innovative thermal treatments stand out
concerning the conventional pasteurization methods, especially by their
ability to distribute heat to the systems. Innovative thermal treatments
apply energy in a volumetric manner, reducing the thermal degradation
eects on products’ thermolabile compounds. Otherwise, the implemen-
tation of emerging technologies in large-scale industrial processes needs
to be evaluated considering the diculty of designing these types of
equipment and the initial investment costs. Despite these diculties,
emerging technologies are associated with high energy eciencies as
they allow short processes requiring low energy. Each emerging tech-
nology presents its characteristics of cost-benet for presenting dierent
equipment and pasteurization mechanisms. Among the emerging tech-
nologies, UV radiation technology is easier to be applied industrially.
UV irradiation equipment is low cost, is easily integrated into indus-
trial systems, and requires a low initial investment. On the other hand,
supercritical and high-pressure technologies demand more adaptations
to be implanted in industrial scales. These technologies employ critical
process conditions requiring more complex and expensive equipment.
10
R. Bocker and E.K. Silva Future Foods 5 (2022) 100098
The eects of the emerging technologies on the rheological char-
acteristics of the product is another aspect to be evaluated. Ultrasound
technology has been provided better rheological characteristics to prod-
ucts than the high-pressure. High pressure applied for a long process-
ing time on beverages promotes macroscopic compression and, conse-
quently, protein aggregation. This phenomenon was observed in the al-
mond beverage treatment. The application of high pressure at 300°C
in the processing of almond drink promoted its protein aggregation.
In contrast, ultrasound technology promoted a reduction in its particle
size. On the other hand, treatments using supercritical carbon dioxide
have promoted phase separation of the product. The process promotes
a reduction of the emulsion homogeneity by the formation of colloidal
aggregates of casein micelles. These aggregates may precipitate after
treatment, reducing the kinetic stability of the product.
Emerging technologies are being widely applied in several coun-
tries due to their advantages. According to Jermann et al. (2015) , high-
pressure processing and microwave technologies are the most commer-
cially used technologies. UV radiation is the third most applied emerg-
ing technology in North America. The pulsed electric eld occupies this
same position in European commercial applications.
7. Final considerations
Plant-based non-dairy alternative milk is prospecting in the expand-
ing market linked to consumers whose increasingly looking for func-
tional products with greater added nutritional value. Besides that, the
agri-food commercialization scenario observes an increase in the con-
sumption of plant-based beverages at the expense of milk. Thus, tech-
niques are increasingly developed to increase the shelf life of the product
and its physicochemical stability, supplying this growing demand. In ad-
dition to improving shelf life and safe product, emerging pasteurization
technologies promote the maintenance of thermosensitive compounds
in products. Thus, these innovative technologies promote a better nutri-
tional balance to the product than conventional pasteurization technolo-
gies. However, more studies are needed to understand the mechanisms
of these emerging technologies on the inactivation of microorganisms
and enzymes of products. Researchers also need to observe the eects
of these technologies on the sensory and nutritional properties of the
food. Furthermore, treatment conditions for each raw material need to
be studied to optimize projects and enable the implementation of these
technologies on an industrial scale.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors conrm that there are no known conicts of interest
associated with this publication.
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