Battery charging topology, infrastructure, and standards for electric vehicle applications: A comprehensive review

Abstract

Abstract The proposed study reports the essential parameters required for the battery charging schemes deployed for Electric Vehicle (EV) applications. Due to efficient power delivery, cost‐effectiveness, and environmental acclimation, EVs have emerged as a suitable alternative to the Internal Combustion (IC)‐based engines. However, prominent challenges for leveraging the EVs are the suitable availability of battery charging infrastructure for high energy/power density battery packs and efficient charging topologies. Despite the challenges, EVs are gradually being implemented across the globe to avoid oil dependency, which currently has a 5%–7% decline rate of post‐peak production. The vast deployment of EVs as private and commercial vehicles has created a major challenge for the grids in maintaining the power quality and peak load demand. This study, therefore, reviews the various battery charging schemes (battery charger) and their impact when used in EV and Hybrid EV applications. The available constituents of the battery chargers such as ac‐dc/dc‐dc converter topologies, modulations, and control techniques are illustrated in detail. The comprehensive study classifies the charging topologies depending upon the power and charging level. Some appropriate battery charging converter topologies that are suitable for domestic, industrial, and commercial applications like EVs are suggested in the study. In addition, a decision‐making inference is developed through a flow chart that decides on the suitable selection of the converter topology based on the required applications. Furthermore, the charging infrastructures along with the converters' design standards are also discussed concisely, which adds a significant contribution to the review article.

Full text

Received: 19 May 2021
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Revised: 12 July 2021
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Accepted: 29 July 2021
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IET Energy Systems Integration
DOI: 10.1049/esi2.12038
REVIEW
Battery charging topology, infrastructure, and standards for
electric vehicle applications: A comprehensive review
Siddhant Kumar
|Adil Usman |Bharat Singh Rajpurohit
School of Computing and Electrical Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Mandi, India
Correspondence
Adil Usman, School of Computing and Electrical
Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi,
Mandi 175075, India.
Email: adilusman@ieee.org
Abstract
The proposed study reports the essential parameters required for the battery charging
schemes deployed for Electric Vehicle (EV) applications. Due to efcient power delivery,
cost‐effectiveness, and environmental acclimation, EVs have emerged as a suitable alter-
native to the Internal Combustion (IC)‐based engines. However, prominent challenges for
leveraging the EVs are the suitable availability of battery charging infrastructure for high
energy/power density battery packs and efcient charging topologies. Despite the chal-
lenges, EVs are gradually being implemented across the globe to avoid oil dependency,
which currently has a 5%–7% decline rate of post‐peak production. The vast deployment of
EVs as private and commercial vehicles has created a major challenge for the grids in
maintaining the power quality and peak load demand. This study, therefore, reviews the
various battery charging schemes (battery charger) and their impact when used in EV and
Hybrid EV applications. The available constituents of the battery chargers such as ac‐dc/dc‐
dc converter topologies, modulations, and control techniques are illustrated in detail. The
comprehensive study classies the charging topologies depending upon the power and
charging level. Some appropriate battery charging converter topologies that are suitable for
domestic, industrial, and commercial applications like EVs are suggested in the study. In
addition, a decision‐making inference is developed through a ow chart that decides on the
suitable selection of the converter topology based on the required applications. Further-
more, the charging infrastructures along with the converters' design standards are also
discussed concisely, which adds a signicant contribution to the review article.
KEYWORDS
AC‐DC power converter, battery charger, charging station, DC‐DC power converters, electric vehicle (EV),
hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)
1
|
INTRODUCTION
Among various other factors, steady degradation of the
ecological system is due to the high emission of toxic gasses
from gasoline engines, which are commercially deployed in
automobiles as one of their applications. The applications of
energy sources like gasoline are rising drastically, which could
plummet to half of its current volume in the next 10–14 years
[1]. Apart from industrial and domestic applications, automo-
tive vehicles are the most prominent entities of carbon emis-
sion [1, 2]. Due to the proliferation in battery technologies and
the development of efcient battery chargers, EVs have
asserted themselves as the alternate transport medium. If EVs
are widely deployed, then they can completely halt carbon
(CO
2
) emission at the operating site [2]. Now, automobile in-
dustries have gradually adapted the EV technology for trans-
portation. The battery‐operated vehicles, based on their
application, have been categorised as Electric Vehicles (EVs),
Hybrid EVs (HEVs), and Plug‐in Hybrid Vehicles (PHEVs).
HEVs are the bridge between gasoline and fully EVs and have
a provision of more than one energy sources as a fuel. The
PHEVs are the HEV that have the facility to recharge the
This is an open access article under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution‐NonCommercial‐NoDerivs License, which permits use and distribution in any medium, provided the
original work is properly cited, the use is non‐commercial and no modications or adaptations are made.
© 2021 The Authors. IET Energy Systems Integration published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of The Institution of Engineering and Technology and Tianjin University.
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381

battery pack by plugging in the charging cable. PHEV is ad-
vantageous since a heavy battery pack is not required for
recharging. Most of the EVs, now, have the facility of charging
cable, and thus, fall into the category of PHEV [3].
With the burgeoning renewable energy applications and
charging infrastructures, the demand for EVs is escalating.
However, in the present existing infrastructure, the application
of EVs is limited since they can be charged only at off‐working
hours. Therefore, the development of new and advanced fast
charging infrastructure has led to the opportunity of charging
schemes, paving the way for multi‐enhanced applications of
EVs [4, 5].
Power electronic converters are the operational and control
unit of EVs. Applications of such devices are immense due to
their high efciency, more power capacity, low cost, lightweight
etc. The most prominent challenges for wide application are
the battery charging method and available infrastructure [6].
Various charging schemes are proposed in [4, 7–9] for various
battery‐driven vehicles.
Currently, the automobile industries are manufacturing the
charger with specications depending upon the charging
infrastructure standards available locally. Limited adoption and
a gradual expansion are the contrary trade‐off for the proper
deployment of the technology. PHEVs are, therefore,
preferred because of their fuel exibility and are popular for
industrial and commercial applications. Battery charging
infrastructure, methodology, and the energy/power density of
the battery pack are the most prominent challenges for the
application of EVs [4, 5, 10]. Once the infrastructure of battery
charging is developed fully, EVs can take over the market.
The growing demand and parallel deployment of EVs are,
currently, posing a major challenge to the grid power quality.
The vast deployment of EVs will invite tremendous harmonics
distortion to the utility. Power factor correction (PFC) circuits
along with active rectication, therefore, are used to minimise
the harmonic distortion, thus improving the efciency [9–11].
The proposed study intends to summarise existing battery
charging topologies, infrastructure, and standards suitable for
EVs. The proposed work classies battery‐charging topologies
based on the power and charging stages. A decision‐making
owchart further aids in selecting suitable battery chargers
for desired applications. The ow of the proposed study is as
follows: Section 2deals with the EV power components,
Section 3illustrates battery charging schemes. Section 4illus-
trates modulation and control strategies while section 5em-
phasises the choice of battery charging topology with the help
of a ow chart. Section 6discusses the available charging in-
frastructures and battery charging standards, respectively.
2
|
ELECTRIC VEHICLE
COMPONENTS
A typical block diagram of the EV is shown in Figure 1. Each
block is designed for specication and topology suitable for its
required applications. The existing battery charging topologies
are listed subsequently in Table 1.
The block ‘Grid’ represents an external power source
(single phase or three phase) used to power up/charge the
battery. The ac‐dc converter is single phase or three phase
based on the application (on‐board or off‐board). In addition,
the converters can be bidirectional if the application is meant
for vehicle‐to‐grid (V2G). Grid interconnected bidirectional
ac‐dc converters suffer from issues such as frequency syn-
chronisation (with grid), PFC, and high‐quality isolation, thus
compromising with the cost and weight [8, 11, 36, 37].
The battery pack consists of batteries and ultracapacitors
(UCs). A battery pack may comprise lead‐acid, nickel metal
hydride (NiMH), or lithium‐ion (Li‐ion) batteries. In modern
battery‐powered vehicles (BPVs), li‐ion batteries are used for
their high energy density, superior specic energy, less
discharge rate, compact size, and low maintenance re-
quirements [38].
The dc‐ac converter drives the traction motors connected
at the load side of the battery pack. Initially, the motor used to
be unidirectional, but in modern BPVs, bidirectional dc‐ac
converters are used for regenerative braking technology. The
dc‐dc converters are used to drive the dc loads. The PHEVs
have the exibility of fuels that has been shown with the
‘Gasoline Engine’ block in Figure 1as an alternative fuel
source [39, 40].
In modern EVs, ac‐dc converters are used for battery
charging applications but, as discussed, in many cases dc‐dc
converters also play a signicant role in EVs [27] either for dc
loads or in the second stage of the ac‐dc converters. Thus, the
selection of the optimum design is equally crucial [31, 41, 42].
Apart from efcient converter charging schemes, the literature
reports that the battery chemistry (responsible for charging and
discharging rates) is an important aspect. In [2, 38, 43] available
batteries associated with chemistry, classication, material, ef-
fects of charging speed etc. are thoroughly discussed. Further, it
elaborates the suitable battery choice based on application. A
battery pack consists of a suitable battery and UC. Without the
UC, an intense decrease in battery state‐of‐charge is observed,
which decreases the life cycle of the battery.
A battery (large energy capacity, low power density) has
more time constant, slow response than UC (low energy ca-
pacity, high power density); therefore, batteries cannot provide
FIGURE 1 Block diagram of a typical electric vehicle
382
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KUMAR ET AL.

TABLE 1Various AC‐DC and DC‐DC converter topologies
Topology/no. of
switches Stage Phase Switching frequency Modulation Isolation Drawbacks Remarks
Six switches [12–15], two‐
level full‐bridge [16]
Single‐stage DAB [14],
Two HB‐LC resonant
[12], two‐stage FB BB
[13, 16], single‐stage
BDHB with active
shunt lter [15]
Single‐
phase
[12–15]
Low (<25 kHz) [13, 14,
16], High (>50 kHz)
[12, 15]
New modulations
technique [14]. PWM
[16], Phase shift
control for ZVS [12,
15], bipolar [13]
Galvanic isolation [12–15]
non‐isolated [16]
Comparatively large
transformer is
required at lower
operating frequency
[12, 15], DQ‐frame
controller has slow
response [16]
Snubber circuit is not required,
lightweight, soft‐switching
range extends due to new
modulation technique, linear
power relationship [14]. Two
additional LC resonant
circuits are used to provide
optimal performance [12].
Provide reactive power to
utility, ve operation modes
[13]; omit output ripple
capacitor [15], on‐board
charging, for high power
application, DQ‐frame
controller provides zero
steady‐state error [16]
Eight switches [17–19] Single‐stage DAB [19],
Two stage [17], half‐
bridge [18]
Three [19],
single
[17, 18]
Medium [19], low [17]
high (>50 kHz) [18]
SVM [19], PWM [17], soft
switching for all
devices [18]
Galvanic isolation [17–19] Large transformer
requirement at lower
frequency [19]
Reduction in size, weight, and
high‐power density due to a
high‐frequency transformer,
low harmonic distortion [18,
19], PFC with fewer switches,
low switching losses [17]
Twelve switches [20] DAB
[11, 21–24]; DAB with
dual function circuit
[25], matrix converter
[26]
Single stage [11, 20, 24,
26], Two stage [21–23,
25]
Single [11,
20–22,
24, 25],
three
phase
[23]
Low [25], Medium [20,
23, 27], High
(>50 kHz) [11, 24],
very high [22]
(500 kHz) [21]
Carrier based [20], PSM
[11, 21, 23, 25], SVM
[26], PWM [22],
SHBM [24]
Medium frequency
transformer [20], high
frequency transformer
[11, 21–25], non‐
isolation [26]
Snubber circuit [20],
additional drive circuit
for four‐quadrant
switch operation [11].
Efciency at higher
frequency decreases
[23]
Better switching condition at
carrier‐based modulation
[20]. Minimal power
conversion stage, high
switching frequency
operation and low switching
losses, reduced size [11], wide
bandgap switches are used
[21], elimination of
transformer and DC link
capacitor [26]; SiC switches
are used [22]; ZCZVS, open‐
loop PFC [24]; reduction of
DC link capacitor, dual LV
charging circuit removes
power ripple at DC link [25]
Sixteen switches [11, 28] Single stage [28], Two‐
stage [11]
Three [28]
single
phase
[11]
Medium [28], High [11] Carrier based [28], PWM
[11]
Transformer isolation [11,
28]
Snubber circuit, low load
operation [28], limited
ZVS range [11]
Benecial switching conditions
can achieve using carrier‐
based modulation. [28], unity
PF, fast charger [11]
(Continues)
KUMAR ET AL.
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383

TABLE 1(Continued)
Topology/no. of
switches Stage Phase Switching frequency Modulation Isolation Drawbacks Remarks
Nine switches with
propulsion motor [29]
Two‐stage [29] Three‐
phase
[29]
Low (<25 kHz) [29] PSM [29] Transformer isolation is
not required
Limited for domestic
applications
Motor (windings) is used as the
inductor for DC converter
[29]
Three‐level PFC, buck
boost, 10 SW [17]
Quasi two‐stage [17] Single‐
phase
[17]
Low (<25 kHz) [17] PWM [17] Transformer isolation is
not required
More switching loss Topology can be useful for
higher power applications,
large voltage range (buck or
boost), bidirectional
operation can be achieved
with more number of gate
driver [17]
Two FB inverter, DC‐DC
converter, eight SW
[30], eight SW [31], 14
SW [32], six SW [33]
Two stage [30–33] Single
phase
[31–
33],
Two‐
phase
[30]
High (100 kHz) [30–32],
medium [33]
PSM [32, 33], PSM &
APWM [30], PWM
[31]
Two transformer isolation
[30], single
transformer isolation
[31–33]
More number of
components used,
complex operation
[32]
Small size, low cost, 7 kW power
rating, completer ZVS
switching, fewer conduction
losses, low secondary voltage
stress [32], ZVZCS, SOC
control, interleaved operation
[33]
Two full bridge
interleaved DC‐DC
converters [34], 3FB
interleaved DAB, 18
switches [35]
Two stage Two phase
[34],
three‐
phase
[35]
High (>100 kHz) [34]
low (10 kHz) [35]
PSM [34], FBM [35] Isolation is not required
[34], 3 transformer
isolation [35]
Primary switching loss
increases as output
power increases [34],
bulky, expensive [35]
Less conduction losses, high
power application, less
output inductor size, easy to
increase power handling
capacity [34], high power
application, current
frequency 60 kHz [35]
Abbreviations: BDHB, bi‐directional half bridge; DAB, dual active bridge; FB, full bridge; FBM, full bridge modulation; HB, half‐bridge; PFC, power factor correction; PSM, phase‐shift modulation; PWM, pulse width modulation; SHBM, single half‐
bridge modulation; SOC, state‐of‐charge; SVM, space vector modulation; ZCS, zero current switching; ZVS, zero voltage switching.
384
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KUMAR ET AL.

instant energy to the load as compared to UC during accel-
eration. For achieving fast response, a parallel conguration of
batteries is used, but this arrangement increases the size and
weight. Therefore, UCs are used in the battery pack for the
initial torque provided by the traction motor. They are also
used during regenerative braking and reduce the size as well
[33]. When compared to the battery, a capacitor has large
charging and discharging cycles. During the run time of EVs
with regenerative braking, several charging and discharging
cycles occurs. The repetition of the acceleration and deceler-
ation phenomenon decreases the life cycle of the batteries.
Therefore, series and parallel combinations of batteries parallel
with UCs are used to achieve the desired energy and power
densities, respectively, to enhance the performance and life of a
battery pack [33, 40].
High power density/energy motors are preferably used in
EVs; however, the traction mechanism generates the difference
between the EVs and the IC engine vehicles, respectively.
Advancement in power electronics control has provided an
opportunity for different electric motors to nd their appli-
cation in EVs and HEVs. The desired characteristics from a
motor for automotive application are high power, high starting
torque, high efciency, wide speed range, fast dynamic
response, compact size, low noise, easy to control, high per-
formance, low cost etc. [44, 45]. There are various types of
motors available for automotive application such as dc motor,
ac inductor motor, brushless dc motor (BLDC), permanent
magnet synchronous motor (PMSM), and switched reluctance
motor. The PMSM and BLDC motors are widely being
deployed over induction motors in commercial and domestic
EV applications [46, 47]. Distinct motors have their advantages
and limitations, some of them are mentioned below.
DC motors were widely used in an early stage of EV
application. Their high starting torque and dynamic response
with easy control (speed) techniques make them suitable for
automotive applications. They have certain disadvantages such
as high maintenance and high noise because of the brushes and
commutators [48].
Induction motors are ac‐operated motors and for xed
voltage and frequency provide a limitation on starting torque.
Thus, the variable voltage and frequency control technique is
used for their optimum performance. Although induction
motors are widely used and require low maintenance, their
control (consists of an inverter) schemes are complex
compared to dc motors [45].
The BLDC motors are a special type of PMSMs without
commutator and brushes. The commutation is done using
inverters. Because of electronics commutation, these motors
are compact, noiseless (less vibration) and require less main-
tenance. BLDC motors are preferred for low‐power automo-
tive applications [45, 48].
The PMSMs are very high performance motors and
available for high power applications. These motors are best
suited for high‐power and high‐performance vehicle applica-
tions. Similar to BLDC, they also consist of permanent mag-
nets in the rotor of the machine. A sinusoidal back
electromotive force (EMF) is a distinct characteristic of PMSM
compared to BLDC where back EMF has a trapezoidal char-
acteristic. PMSMs are the most preferable motor for auto-
motive applications like EVs [49].
The proposed study focusses on the comparison of distinct
converter topologies employed for effective battery charging
applications. A critical comparative analysis has been carried
out in successive sections. Some of the converters have been
compared and tabulated in Table 1. The table shows the
prominent battery charging topologies that can be adapted to
achieve an optimal system based on desired applications.
3
|
BATTERY CHARGING SCHEMES IN
EVs
Battery‐driven vehicles' powertrain mainly consists of power
sources, power converters, and loads. Power converters are the
intermediate controllable unit between energy sources and loads
and are, therefore, enormously vital in BPVs for efcient
charging and discharging. Nowadays, power converters are ex-
pected to perform way more than power conversion from a
battery to loads only [50]. In advanced drive topology, they also
feed the power back to the grid efciently. To achieve these
functions, switching devices such as metal oxide semiconductor
eld effect transistor (MOSFETs) and insulated gate bipolar
transistor (IGBTs) are used with the help of a suitable control
mechanism. MOSFETs are operated at a very high frequency
(up to a few MHz), whereas IGBTs are feasible for a few kHz
but can withstand at very high current (power). High‐frequency
operation and control assist the converters to possess smaller
inductive and capacitive components. Therefore, the size of the
converters decreases with increasing operating frequency. With
this dynamic change, the power electronic converters became of
interest in the eld of battery‐driven vehicles [51, 52].
As discussed, EVs can consist of different power con-
verters; therefore, suitable design topologies are available based
on the application. Power converters are categorised as high
and low power application converters (for EVs). High power
converters are used to drive traction motors and battery
charging [53], whereas low power converters are used for loads
such as cooling fans, lights, electronic gadgets etc. The dc‐dc
converters are used for both applications; thus, MOSFETs
or IGBTs are used based on power rating. Similarly, high po-
wer ac‐dc converters are used as battery chargers [33, 50].
Diode bridge rectiers (single or three‐phase) are widely
used for ac‐dc power conversion. These uncontrolled rectiers
inject large harmonics into the grid. A high peaky current (to
full the average dc) is observed at the rectier side while
extracting a high current from the grid. Some disadvantages
such as non‐sinusoidal input current (harmonic distortion),
output voltage harmonics, and poor input power factor
(because of the non‐sinusoidal input current drawn from the
grid) have been reported [7].
To overcome grid harmonic distortion issues, an electrical
network such as an active rectier, a current lter, a PFC cir-
cuit, a resonant converter topology, and a capacitive lter is
used.
KUMAR ET AL.
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385

The current lter or ac lters comprise the inductor (L),
capacitor (C), LC or LCL. The objective of these lters is to
limit the supply current response in its grid‐supplied shape
while injecting the high‐density dc into the battery or next
stage [36]. At low power and high operating frequencies, the
capacitor input lter can also serve this purpose. The capacitor
provides its charge at the switching instant [17, 54, 55].
The rectied power (ac‐dc) is fed to another converter,
which regulates the voltage level. The conversion of power
through two converters is stated as two‐stage power conver-
sion and the converters are called two‐stage converters. In this
way, the conventional rectier can be termed as a single‐stage
power converter. It has been reported that two‐stage power
converters are more feasible for high‐power applications. Also,
they provide low output ripple [29, 39]. Thus, they are used for
high‐density battery charging applications. At the nal stage,
depending on the type of traction motor, dc‐ac or dc‐dc
converters are used to power up the motor.
Harmonic distortion imposed on the grid by the battery
charger is one of the signicant challenges of the application.
Heat dissipation from the bridge rectiers decreases its ef-
ciency, whereas heatsinks increase the converter size and cost.
In modern battery chargers, PFC circuits are integrated with
the converter for distortion minimisation. The active recti-
cation with zero voltage switching (ZVS)/ZVS technique is
used to limit the power dissipation, thereby reducing the
converter size [6, 30].
A high operating frequency also decreases the converter
size (inductor and capacity), whereas at a higher frequency the
converter suffers from electromagnetic (EM) emission. A high
rate of change of voltage and current introduces the EM eld
through the converter layout. The interference of the EM eld
to the gate drive results in the distortion in switching. The
distorted switching scheme introduces additional harmonics
into the supply. Electromagnetic interference (EMI) issues are
introduced more by high‐frequency fast charging as compared
to low or moderate charging respectively. The high switching
level converter requires a faster transition to avoid high
switching losses, consequently, introduces large EM distur-
bances. For reduction of harmonics, a large EM lter is
required [56]. A suitable EMI lter further increases the size of
the converter. A large EMI lter is a bottleneck for high power
switching converters. The EMI suppression standards are listed
in Table 2.
3.1
|
DC‐DC converter
The following subsection explains the application of dc‐dc
converters in EVs. Usually, dc‐dc converters are used to
drive dc loads as illustrated in Figure 1. They are also used in
the second stage of ac‐dc power conversion. In conventional
BPVs, they are used to drive traction motors. Gradually, bidi-
rectional dc‐dc converters took place to feed the power to the
battery (regenerative braking mode). The literature reports that
in modern EVs, ac‐dc and dc‐ac converters are used for the
battery charging and traction motor. Thus, the application of
dc‐dc converters is limited to dc loads and for the second stage
of ac‐dc converters only. In some cases, dc‐dc converters are
also used for charging the battery directly from the dc grids
[18, 43, 60, 61].
The two widely used isolated dc‐dc converters, apart from
the conventional non‐isolated dc‐dc converter, for battery
charging applications are illustrated in Figure 2. The galvanic
isolation increases the safety margins in high‐power operations
as shown in Figure 2. Figure 2a shows a full‐bridge isolated
converter and Figure 2b shows a two‐level isolated dc‐dc
converter. As the number of levels increases, the output cur-
rent injection capability increases since multiple legs contribute
to the total current. The multilevel converter with a certain
phase shift in the individual response contributes to the output
ripple minimisation. Thus, it can provide better ripple rejection
at a lower operating frequency. Therefore, a small ripple
rejection lter is required in the integrated system. The con-
verter's leg operated at a lower switching frequency can mini-
mise EMI issues [56] since current sharing reduces the
magnetic ux. Although multilevel converters can handle high
power, with a small ripple lter, they are recommended for low
power applications only. At high power, they start injecting the
harmonics into the grid. A three‐phase multilevel converter is
recommended for high‐power fast battery charging applica-
tions [50]. As the level increases, the converter's complexity
and cost increase. Therefore, it is preferred for off‐board
charging applications.
In [33], the author proposes a highly dense (interleaved)
dc‐dc boost converter for ultra‐fast charging. In [62], different
topologies of buck, boost, and buck‐boost converters are
presented. In this work, single‐pole‐triple through switches
have been used instead of single‐pole‐double through switches.
They are advantageous in reducing the number of inductive
components. In this topology, one inductor is used; therefore,
the size and weight of the converter reduce. Cao and Ye [63]
propose that the switched capacitor (SC)‐based MOSFET is
more efcient since it replaces IGBTs with SC MOSFET
(high‐frequency application). The hardware prototype has also
been explained for agreement of the statements. It is found
that SC MOSFETs‐based converters are more efcient for low
voltage loads, whereas the boost converter is used for high
voltage loads. A few of the other dc‐dc converters are listed in
the comparison Table 1.
3.2
|
AC‐DC converter
This subsection discusses the ac‐dc converter topologies in
detail. Figure 1shows that the battery pack is connected to the
grid through the ac‐dc converter. Parameters such as charging
time, quality, harmonic distortion at the input etc. depend on
the ac‐dc converters [4, 12, 64]. In [9, 41, 43], the importance
of the above parameters is extended along with power density,
reliability, efciency, low cost, weight, and volume of con-
verters for EVs application. Similarly, [5, 65] discuss the eco-
nomics of rapid charging of the battery in EVs and elaborate
the market modelling for ac‐dc converter topologies in detail.
386
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KUMAR ET AL.

They highlight that a suitable converter topology with an
effective design is critical in achieving its application in
PHEVs.
Single‐stage converters are lightweight and low cost and
are, therefore, preferred as onboard charging. The different
single and two‐stage ac‐dc converters topologies are explained
in [12, 20, 21, 40, 55]. In [12], the converter topology consists
of two half‐bridge (HB) circuits, each port consists of an HB.
The input port HB consists of four MOSFETs whereas the
output (DC link) consists of two switches. An LC lter has
been used on each side to reduce the ripples. The inductor
reduces the sudden changes in current whereas the capacitor
sinks the voltage spikes. In [66], a Dual Active Bridge (DAB)
single‐stage with a PFC scheme has been presented. The
proposed scheme achieves ZVS to have higher efciency with
lower total harmonic distortion (THD). The isolated con-
verters such as DAB or resonant converters (full‐bridge con-
verter) are used for high‐power applications. The inductor in
series with the transformer is used to provide the desired step‐
up or step‐down voltage levels. The inductor in series with a
capacitor (resonant tank network) is inferred as series resonant
converters. The advantages of such converters are galvanic
isolation between the input‐output voltage levels and ZVS and
zero current switching (ZCS) [67] to minimise the switching
losses.
The authors in [13] propose a single‐phase two‐stage
bidirectional ac‐dc converter. It has been used as on‐board
charging in PHEVs. Two single‐stage ac‐dc converters are
shown in Figure 3. Figure 3a is a matrix‐based isolated single‐
phase ac‐dc converter, whereas Figure 3b shows a non‐isolated
three‐phase ac‐dc converter for fast charging; the latter con-
verter has an advantage over the former. The converter in
Figure 3b does not have the transformer and so is less bulky
compared to the converter shown in Figure 3a. Based on the
application, both topologies can be bidirectional. Figure 3a is
considered a slow charger because of the single‐phase single‐
stage topology. The same topology with multilevel/three‐
phase topology is used for fast charging. Since Figure 3b is a
three‐phase topology, it requires a comparatively less capacitive
bank for ripple reduction. An absence of the transformer and
less capacitor usage are other advantages of the given topology.
The power conversion in two stages is extensively used for
high power applications. Unlike the single stage, power con-
version takes place through two stages/converters. First, ac is
converted into dc (with some ripples). Then this dc is con-
verted into high‐frequency ac and high‐frequency ac is con-
verted into more suitable dc (controlled response with fewer
ripples) [11].
Two‐stage converters are bulky because more components
are used; therefore, single‐stage converters are more suitable for
on‐board charging (non‐commercial application) [21, 37].
Single‐stage converters are reported as slow chargers for low to
medium power rating applications. Two‐stage ac‐dc converters
are considered fast chargers. The second stage converter seeks
more power from the rst stage while producing smooth output
voltage. Two‐stage converters have complex design, are bulky
and expensive. So, they face challenges in on‐board charging [11,
21, 39]. In [68], the author proposes that the same limitation can
be avoided if it is used as an off‐board charger. Two‐stage
converters have more degrees of freedom and thus have more
control over the operation. The study [19] reports that two‐stage
(dc‐ac, for traction) converters are more suitable for the
regenerative braking system. In some cases, where a dc traction
motor is used, a bi‐directional dc‐dc converter is also used for
regenerative schemes [41]. Figure 4shows a few two‐stage ac‐dc
converters, whereas other topologies have been listed and
compared in Table 1. A three‐phase two‐stage topology is
shown in Figure 4a. This topology is used for off‐board high‐
power fast‐charging applications.
Figure 4b shows a simple non‐isolated two‐stage ac‐dc
converter. Non‐isolation restricts low power application and
usage of large dc‐link capacitors.
The applications of EVs are enormously increasing. One of
the hurdles in its success is the range anxiety issue. Therefore,
to charge the battery in real‐time or opportunity charging,
wireless power transfer (WPT) battery charging technology is
emerging [27]. In (WPT) technology, energy is transferred
through the air to charge the battery. The WPT can help get rid
of the range anxiety issue. It can also reduce the size of the
battery pack because of more wireless charging opportunities.
An inductive or capacitive transmitter and receiver is installed
at the charging station and vehicle, respectively. The beauty of
this technology is that the battery is charged in real‐time by the
infrastructure installed at the driving road or trafc signals.
Although this technology is not that efcient and mature, it is
an emerging area of interest in the scientic community.
Figure 5shows the ac‐dc topology for the inductive power
transfer (IPT) technology. Figure 5a shows the IPT with the
single‐stage ac‐dc converter topology shown in Figure 3a,
whereas Figure 5b indicates a two‐stage wireless battery
charging with an ac‐dc converter based on the topology shown
in Figure 4a. Power transfer efciency is an important aspect to
be considered in WPT technology. The efciency depends on
the distance between two coils.
4
|
MODULATION AND CONTROL
TECHNIQUES
Pulse‐width modulation technique avails the converter to reach
specic average voltage levels. The modulator controls the
width of switching pulses fed to the switches. In other words,
by modulating the switching pulses the output response can be
controlled. Since various modulating and control techniques, as
reported in literature are used in industrial applications,
therefore, it has a vital signicance in EVs too[12].
The application depends on the converter topology. One of
the conventional Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) techniques
compare the saw tooth wave to the dc level to generate pulses
of specic width. Articles [11, 14, 20, 28] discuss distinct
control strategies for single‐stage and two‐stage converters,
respectively. Norrga and Norrga et al. in [20, 28] explain carrier‐
based modulation; [11, 17, 21, 39] deal with phase‐shift mod-
ulation technique (allows soft‐switching ZVS/ZCS); Castelino
KUMAR ET AL.
-
387

et al. [19] propose a space vector modulation scheme to
calculate the duty ratio of the proposed converter. The same
scheme also recommends its application for achieving PFC
PWM, which is also suggested by [37, 69].
As discussed in [20, 28], switching losses and output ripples
are reduced by using the carrier‐based PWM technique. The
modulations used for the half and full bridge are known as single
half‐bridge modulation and full‐bridge modulation techniques,
respectively. These are widely used in DAB converters.
Several control topologies are available for the power
converter. In today's scenario, the controller domain is not
limited to the supervision of a subjected entity, but it also
enhances the overall efciency by achieving ZVS and ZCS
losses [12, 15, 43, 68]. The increase in efciency using ZVS/
ZCS allows an increase in the operating frequency to reduce
the power stage (inductor and capacitor) size [15]. The litera-
ture reports that the implementation of a closed‐loop control
scheme is challenging and with deviation in operating param-
eter, complete ZVS/ZCS may not achieve. Articles [20, 28]
report that for better control over the entire power electronic
system, a separate gate drive topology with optimum
communication should be used. The signicance of commu-
nication between the switches draws special attention when
bidirectional power ow is implemented, since in bi‐directional
operation negative power may ow such as from the vehicle to
other units or the motor to the battery if the regenerative
braking system is implemented [11, 12, 68]. Article [6] elabo-
rates the different optimisation techniques for charging appli-
cations in PHEVs, whereas in [70], the authors present the
trends for future standards and fast charging mechanisms using
diverse control and modulation techniques applicable for EVs.
The control techniques for the single‐stage ac‐dc converter
are simpler than the two‐stage converters since a lesser
number of switches are used. A simple proportional‐integral,
proportional‐integral‐derivative, etc. controller with a suitable
compensator can control the desired quantity. The digital signal
processor or eld‐programmable gate array are also used to
control and for communication as discussed in [20, 28]. The
papers [14, 19] use two phase‐controlled square waves for
bidirectional power ow whereas, in [69] pulse width variation
provides escalation in PFC.
As discussed, the design of a single‐stage ac‐dc converter is
less complex, but it suffers from ripples at lower operating
frequency. Filters are used to minimise the ripples but make
them bulky [20, 55, 71]. In other cases, bulky snubber circuits
are used in the absence of soft switching techniques [28]. Two‐
stage converters are used to reduce the ripples for reducing the
output lter capacitor for high‐power applications. Their
control techniques have more degrees of freedom to control
the desired parameters. The desired parameters are controlled
using current or voltage as a state variable at two of the stages
[37, 41, 55]. For instance, input or dc‐link current variables are
used to control output current at the second stage [37, 55]. A
deteriorated dynamic response is observed if the output dc is
used as a state variable. Kumar et al in [37] report that inductor
ripple currents are increased if the input current is a state
variable to be controlled; therefore, THD increases. THD
below a certain level (5 percent. IEEE standard) is crucial
when EVs are used in V2G mode. V. Monteiro et al. in [68]
suggest using predictive current control technique for THD
reduction. This technique also improves power quality at lower
THD. The comparison of different ac‐dc and dc‐dc converters,
for PHEVs, is summarised in Table 1.
Some recent research on the power converter topologies
for battery charging applications laid stress on the battery‐
charging infrastructure for the respective type of EVs. How-
ever, the charging scheme is restricted to a particular type of
topology. For instance, in [72] the authors discuss only the
single‐phase bidirectional ac‐dc converter for plug‐in electric
vehicles, whereas the application of dc‐dc converter topologies
is conned. Similarly, in article [35] the discussion is made only
on the front‐end ac‐dc topologies for a universal battery
charger scheme as an application for electric transportation;
here again, the dc‐dc converter schemes and other topologies
TABLE 2Standards for converter design [57, 58]
Operations
Standards
IEC SAE
Charging plugs, socket, and connectors, conductive
charging/levels/modes
IEC 62196 SAE J1772
Communication for PHEVs IEC61851 J2931/1
Wireless power transfer communication IEC 61980 SAE J2954
DC charging communication IEC61851‐24 SAE J2847/2
Charger efciency and power quality IEC61851 SAE J2894
Communication security IEC 15118 J2931/7
Electromagnetic interference suppression IEC 60940 SAE J2954
Harmonic injection IEC1000‐3 SAE‐J2894
Interconnection of utility grid with distributed power
sources (EVs)
IEEE 1547 [59], UL 62109 [10] (IEC
does not have)
SAE J2954 (unidirectional power ow G2V), J2931/5
(communication)
Abbreviations: IEC, International Electrotechnical Council; PHEVs, Plug‐in Hybrid Electric Vehicle; SAE, Society of Automotive Engineers; UL, Underwriters' Laboratories.
388
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KUMAR ET AL.

are conned. Moreover, articles [25, 54] discuss the advanced
charging mechanism adopted for the on‐board charging
schemes but again restrict the study to a specic topology. This
study has considered several limitations of the earlier work and
concluded through an inference on the choice of the convertor
topology and control strategy.
5
|
CHOICE OF CONVERTER
TOPOLOGY FOR BATTERY CHARGING
APPLICATIONS
Efcient loads, power conversion devices, and battery packs
make an EV efcient. This section discusses the selection of
optimal converter topologies for battery charging applications.
A choice of a suitable charger depends exclusively on the ap-
plications. The selection of suitable power converter follows an
inverted pyramid. Once the selection fulls the desire, it ter-
minates [32, 34]. The choice begins with the type of input
power supply, voltage level (there are three battery charging
voltage levels available, listed in Table 3). It narrows down as
per the applications that is the required rate of charging (type
of battery pack as well), efciency (topology, components used,
operating frequency, stress on the components, and type of
switching), control over different parameters, power quality
(THD) at the supply side, size, and cost.
A low‐cost converter that is efcient, has high power
density, high safety margin, less harmonic distortion at supply,
and is of smaller size, is always desired for all applications. A
converter with fewer components (active and passive) and high
operating frequency (reduction in passive components size)
suffers from low power density, EMI, low controllability, high
component stress (require large size/rating components), and
lower safety margins, while the converter with sophisticated
topologies suffers in terms of efciency, size, and cost. Further,
it requires more PWM pulses with a complex control. An
optimum trade‐off is generally made in the selection of con-
verter topology, which extensively depends on the complex
applications.
A ow chart in Figure 6recommends the suitable selection
of converter (but not restricted to) based on the challenges
discussed in the above sections. As mentioned, voltage levels
are one of the important parameters for the selection of battery
chargers; however, in Figure 6the choice of voltage level is not
FIGURE 3 Single‐stage AC‐DC converter topologies, applicable for
battery charging in PHEVs. (a) Isolated bidirectional ac‐dc matrix
converter. (b) Three‐phase non‐isolated bidirectional ac‐dc matrix
converter
FIGURE 2 DC‐DC converter topologies, applicable for battery
charging in PHEVs. (a) Bidirectional full‐bridge (FB) DC‐DC boost
converter. (b) High power FB interleaved boost converter
KUMAR ET AL.
-
389

shown since it is assumed that the selected topology can be
designed for the provided voltage level and power rating.
It is crucial to note that chargers with more switches in-
crease the size and cost of the charges (as discussed); therefore,
conventional charging topology with galvanic isolation (for
high power) is suitable for most of the applications. A charger
with more switches increases the switching complexity whereas
the implementation of EMC compliance, PFC, snubber, etc.
increases the size and cost further.
At high power, mode‐3 charging, maintaining the power
quality (input‐output) is a very important aspect. Thus,
charging with more devices is recommended to maintain the
stability and power quality of the grid.
6
|
CHARGING INFRASTRUCTURE
AND STANDARDS
Efcient charging infrastructure is one of the vital issues for
efcacious EV charging schemes. Lack of good battery charging
infrastructure (charging stations and/or charger) increases the
charging time and, consequently, limits the effective application
of EVs. The unavailability of the infrastructure leads to onboard
charging (more charging opportunity) and a heavy battery pack
(to overcome range anxiety), long charging time, and separate
chargers for different sites (single‐phase or three‐phase) are
required [6, 10, 74]. The charging infrastructure also impacts the
grid power quality used for charging. An inefcient charger in-
troduces the harmonics to the utility that creates an adverse
impact on utility transformers, which leads to instability. Though
the active rectiers with PFC can improve the power quality,
they are directly reected on the costs.
The success of EV application, however, depends on
efcient battery charging with wide acceptability and utility
coordination (balancing of peak load demand) [75]. A large
investment for infrastructure deployment is one of the other
barriers for wide‐scale application along with the available
infrastructure standards.
Battery charging infrastructure standards are being devel-
oped by different organisations based on the available market.
These standards have different congurations such as charging
plugs, power ratings (ac and dc), communication protocol,
power quality, efciency etc. The changing infrastructure
conguration varies due to different standards and countries'
policies. The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) consti-
tutes charging infrastructure policies for the United States,
while the International Electrotechnical Council (IEC) EV's
standards are widely used in Europe. The SAE and IEC are the
two widely accepted organisations for EV regulations. The
SAE covers all the standards associated with EVs, including
utility grid interconnection standards, whereas, IEC does not
have grid interconnection norms [10]. It is mainly provided by
FIGURE 4 Two‐stage ac‐dc converter topologies, applicable for battery charging in PHEVs. (a) Three‐phase two‐stage isolated ac‐dc bidirectional
converter. (b) Two‐stage non‐isolated ac‐dc converter
FIGURE 5 Topologies for wireless battery charging. (a) Bidirectional single‐stage matrix‐based converter for inductive power transfer (IPT). (b). Three‐
phase two‐stage ac‐dc converter with IPT
390
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KUMAR ET AL.

the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
and Underwriters' Laboratories (UL).
Some countries have their charging standards different
(have some similarities) from IEC and SAE standards. Japan,
China, and India have their own charging infrastructure that is
CHArge de MOve (CHAdeMO), Guobiao (GB/T), and
Bharat AC/DC‐001, respectively [10, 35, 57, 58, 69–71, 76, 77].
Table 3lists some of the standards essential for EVs.
The SAE and IEC are different in terms of charging plugs
[10], supply voltage, component ratings, some terminologies
etc.; otherwise they are similar. Charging potentials/power
(based on the charging speed) are segregated in three folds.
The IEC denes them in terms of ‘Modes’, whereas SAE
called them ‘Levels’ [10, 57, 58].
The charging potential/level for the battery charger is
based on the charging modes, converter rating, battery pack
etc. The chargers are categorised in the three modes/levels
according to the supply voltages and application power ratings.
Table 2discusses the available charging modes.
Different charging levels are intended for different
charging ratings and periods; thus, they are called low,
moderate, and fast charging modes/levels. The slow‐mode
or level‐1 or type‐1 charging type is designed for on-
board or portable applications for domestic applications. As
listed in Table 2, low power rating charges (smaller size
and long charging duration) can be carried with EV or
mounted on‐board, thus, it is mostly designed for personal
use [24, 78].
TABLE 3Standard converter rating and voltage levels for battery charging [10, 57, 58]
Charging type Voltage source Power rating Expected charging time Battery pack rating
Slow‐mode (level 1) 120 V
ac
1.4–1.9 kW 3–11 h 5–15 kWh (PHEVs); 16–50 kWh (EVs)
230 V
ac
48 V
dc
Moderate mode (level 2) 230 V
ac
4–19.2 kW 1–3 h
400 V
ac
200–450 V
dc
Fast mode (level 3) 208–600 V
ac
4–7.2 kW [73]; 50–100 kW 0.4–6 h 15–42 kWh (PHEV); 100 kWh (EVs)
600 V
dc
FIGURE 6 Flow chart for the choice of converter topologies for the PHEVs battery charging applications
KUMAR ET AL.
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391

The moderate‐mode or level‐2 or type‐2 charging facility is
designed for public and private locations. As the name sug-
gests, the charging time is less compared to the Mode‐1
charging scheme. Thus, Mode‐2 charging is dedicated to
moderate‐to‐long EV drive time or personal and public
application. Moderate charging, commercially, can gain success
because of its moderate size with easy to install features. High‐
performance EVs (cars) are provided type‐2 charging on board
and thus need only a power outlet for connecting from the
mains [75, 79].
Level‐3 or type‐3 or fast charging is intended for fast
charging speed, as the name suggests. Since the charging time
required is less than an hour, it is dedicated to commercial
applications. The charging stations are installed with type‐3
chargers in the cities and highways. The power level, type‐3
charger, is kept high; typically three‐phase off‐board charging
is required with safety measures.
In many countries, the existing power grid infrastructure is
not tuned for supplying adequate power for mass battery
charging current at the required power quality. At a larger scale,
type‐2 and 3 charging schemes can lead to distortion of the
power quality and even the life of the distribution transformer,
since the large current surge distorts the transformer di-
electrics, involves power loss, and even distorts the supplied
voltage. Thus, mass battery charging is one of the challenges
that can be faced by the electrical grid.
Disturbances created in the transformer and, subsequently,
on the grid can hugely impact the reliability of the electrical
grid. Therefore, real‐time condition monitoring of the power
equipment and the grid is very crucial. Communication chan-
nels are widely used for transmitting data to the centralised
control unit. Once the wide data is collected, it is processed to
extract useful information. Based on the past available data,
nowadays, machine learning algorithms are also used to predict
future dynamics [80].
Smart grids consist of a communication network with
central control. A huge data set is received through the
communication channel. Information on the grid system is
required for better control over the grid dynamics. A smart
grid is required because without control over the charging time,
the utility grid may get disturbed. One of the easiest ap-
proaches to control the peak load congestion on the grid is to
use a multi‐tariff electricity charge. In this approach, charging
hours can be shifted during off‐peak load. Such approaches use
smart metring techniques. Some of the other techniques
to overcome the peak power demand have been discussed in
[75, 81].
In [24, 78, 79] elaborate battery charging infrastructure for
EVs based on various algorithms have been discussed. An
activity‐based approach using multiday travel data for charging
infrastructure has also been discussed [79]. The design of
the prototype focusses on the supply of reactive power to
the grid when it is working as a V2G mode. It provides
normal battery charging if it works in the G2V mode. The
design consideration is such that it affects less the battery
life or state of charge even though the system provides
reactive power to the grid.
In future, EVs will be employed to a very dynamic grid
environment where they will have to face market uncertainties
associated with power availability (present and future); a
charged battery pack may be used as an energy source (V2G)
for peak power demand [12]. In all such cases, multitasking
EVs will have to ensure prot maximisation while saving time.
Their efcient operation would greatly depend on the market
and/or peer‐to‐peer communication. The prediction problem
associated with maximising protability is solved by the arti-
cial intelligence algorithm on the data provided by the grid
and peer‐peer communication [79, 82].
7
|
CONCLUSION
The comprehensive literature review carried out emphasises
the signicant power converter topologies, infrastructures, and
standards vital for the effective battery charging application in
EVs. The charging topologies are classied based on different
parameters like voltage levels, rated power, charging speed,
number of stages, and number of components. A decision‐
making ow chart is proposed to decide on the suitable to-
pology to be deployed for various industrial and commercial
applications like EVs. In addition, effective modulation tech-
niques, converter compensation, and charging infrastructure
schemes are also proposed in the study, which are some of its
unique contributions. Some of the key observations of the
study are as follows:
�Cost‐effective and lightweight charges (On‐board) are
preferred for non‐commercial applications, whereas
charging speed (Off‐board) is preferred for commercial and
high performance EVs applications.
�Availability of three potential levels (charging‐speed) in the
charging infrastructure (Level 1, 2, and 3) listed in Table 2.
�The IEC and SAE are the two most widely used standards
for charging converters and topologies (listed in Table 3).
�Off‐board charging techniques can lower down the cost and
weight of EVs once the charging stations are readily
available.
�A huge infrastructure is required for the wireless battery
charging technology.
The deployment of EVs as the alternative mode of
mobility and transportation is emerging tremendously. Ef-
cient operation and size reduction of the different components
of these vehicles with environmental concerns have given rise
to their wide application. However, in future, wide bandgap
(WBG) semi‐conductor devices will be in use drastically, which
will lead to a further decrease in size and increase power
handling capabilities of the power electronics converters. Since
WBG devices operate at very high frequencies, they introduce
a high frequency noise spectrum; thus, their implementation
requires an effective noise lter. In addition to the existing
techniques, some new techniques for increasing grid power
quality and stability for the wide application of EV charging
should be employed.
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KUMAR ET AL.

This report, therefore, introduces numerous batteries'
charging techniques and topologies suitable for EV applica-
tions. The run‐through model of the EV charging mechanism
is illustrated in the Appendix of the study. The report is useful
for researchers and scientists developing new converter to-
pologies for efcient battery charging schemes.
DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
Data sharing not applicable to this article as no datasets were
generated or analysed during the current study.
ORCID
Siddhant Kumar
https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3552-0877
Adil Usman https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8329-060X
Bharat Singh Rajpurohit https://orcid.org/0000-0001-
9843-6002
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How to cite this article: Kumar, S., Usman, A.,
Rajpurohit, B.S.: Battery charging topology,
infrastructure, and standards for electric vehicle
applications: A comprehensive review. IET Energy Syst.
Integr. 3(4), 381–396 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1049/
esi2.12038
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APPENDIX
FIGURE A1 Run‐through model of an Electric Vehicle (EV) charging mechanism in EV
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