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Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111680 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph
Article
Effect of Vibration Massage and Passive Rest on Recovery of
Muscle Strength after Short-Term Exercise
Wiesław Chwała
1
, Paweł Pogwizd
2
, Łukasz Rydzik
3,
* and Tadeusz Ambroży
3
1
The Department of Biomechanics, University of Physical Education, Cracow, Al. Jana Pawla II 78,
31-571 Cracow, Poland; wieslaw.chwala@awf.krakow.pl
2
Research and Development Department of Vitberg, Marcina Borelowskiego 29, 33-300 Nowy Sącz, Poland;
ppogwizd@o2.pl
3
Institute of Sports Sciences, University of Physical Education, 31-571 Krakow, Poland; tadek@ambrozy.pl
* Correspondence: lukasz.gne@op.pl; Tel.: +48-730-696-377
Abstract: Background: The aim of the study was to compare the effect of vibration massage and
passive rest on accelerating the process of muscle recovery after short-term intense exercise.
Methods: Eighty-four healthy men aged 20 to 25 years participated in the study. Study participants
performed isometric (ISO-M Group) and auxotonic (AUX-M group) contraction exercise in the
lower limbs. Vibration massage was administered after exercise in the first recovery period. In the
same period, controls rested passively, without the support of vibration massage. To assess the
effectiveness of the applied vibration, a 4-fold measurement of the maximum force of the muscles
involved in the exercise was performed under conditions of isometric contractions on a leg press
machine set at an angle of 45° degrees upwards. Results: Differences in maximum strength during
isometric contraction were found compared to baseline in favor of the groups subjected to the
experimental vibration massage. Differences were demonstrated in muscle strength between the
study groups (p < 0.005). The second period of passive rest in all groups did not bring significant
changes in the values of maximal lower limb strength. Conclusions: Properly selected characteristics
of the vibration effect can be an effective method in accelerating recovery and regaining lost motor
capabilities of muscle groups fatigued by exercise. This offers the potential to shorten rest periods
between sets of repetitions in training or between training units.
Keywords: recovery; fatigue; muscle; vibration; massage; sport; training
1. Introduction
Intense physical activity leads to fatigue, resulting in a deterioration of exercise
capacity, manifested by a decrease in intensity and efficiency of muscle work [1,2]. In the
case of maximal physical exercise, muscle fatigue is experienced from the first seconds
[3,4]. The magnitude and nature of the functional changes in the body induced by physical
exercise are largely influenced by the intensity, duration, and specificity of the exercise
[5]. They are also affected by the size and type of muscle groups involved in performing
the specific work, the type of contraction of the muscles involved, and the individual body
metabolism [6].
Researchers point to possible differences during isometric and auxotonic muscle
work. During auxotonic and isometric exercise, alternating muscle contraction and
relaxation facilitate blood circulation, which supplies the intensely working muscles with
oxygen and energy substrates and helps remove metabolic products from them [7–9].
The situation is different when muscles work under isometric conditions. During
isometric exercise, muscles put pressure on blood vessels. Isometric muscle work
increases the rate of fatigue, which means a reduction in the ability to perform exercise
[4]. As a result, even at low loads of 25–30% of the maximum voluntary contraction
Citation: Chwała, W.; Pogwizd, P.;
Rydzik, Ł.; Ambroży, T. Effect of
Vibration Massage and Passive Rest
on Recovery of Muscle Strength after
Short-Term Exercise. Int. J. Environ.
Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph
182111680
Academic Editors: Fabrizio Perroni
and Erica Gobbi
Received: 29 September 2021
Accepted: 5 November 2021
Published: 7 November 2021
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Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
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Attribution (CC BY) license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses
/by/4.0/).
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680 2 of 15
(MVC), venous blood outflow from the muscles is limited [10]. This is despite a significant
increase in blood pressure [7,8]. The free flow of blood is restricted, which in turn
interferes with the supply of essential nutrients and the removal of metabolic products.
Athletes strive to reduce the effects of fatigue and delay the onset of its symptoms.
Fatigue increases during each training unit, after successive sets of exercises, especially
during exercises at maximal or submaximal intensity [11]. This is due to depletion of
energy stores and significant acidification of the body [12]. The state of increasing fatigue
determines the time of recovery breaks between successive sets and the frequency of
training units of a specific exercise. The use of effective methods of athletic recovery can
significantly accelerate the process of regaining body performance and increase the
effectiveness of training. Various methods and techniques are used to improve the
effectiveness of post-exercise recovery. One criterion for evaluating the effectiveness of
the recovery method used is whether a faster recovery to the baseline levels can be
observed compared to that after passive rest [13]. Today, a number of methods are used
to accelerate recovery, including different techniques of massage, which is a therapeutic
procedure used for a long time in sports [14]. Research shows that using massage before
competitions improves athletic performance [15]. The use of massage after exercise
reduces muscle soreness and helps prevent potential injuries [16]. It has also been
demonstrated that massage significantly modifies the length of tendons [17]. In sports,
massage is one of the most popular forms used to accelerate athletic recovery. The effect
of mechanical whole-body vibration (WBV) on the body, which was used in the present
study, is similar to classical massage using vibration techniques.
It is recognized that an increase in blood flow resulting from the application of WBV
can accelerate the process of post-exercise recovery by enhancing nutrient exchange
[18,19], removing metabolic by-products that inhibit tissue repair, and improving the
efficiency of oxygen supply between capillaries and the fluid surrounding the body cells
[5,20]. Furthermore, the increase in blood flow produces a thermal effect [21,22], initiating
a healing response in tissues damaged during exercise, which can be further enhanced by
the heat produced by vibrating muscle fibers [23–26].
Previous research results have indicated discrepancies between individual authors
as to the effects of vibration on restoring strength and speed capabilities of muscles in the
recovery period following intense exercise. Studies [27–30] have shown that vibration is
effective in relieving exercise-induced muscle pain. Unfortunately, these studies provide
limited information on how the reduction of exercise-induced muscle pain affects the rate
at which muscle strength returns to baseline or hypercompensation of muscle strength.
A study by Barnes et al. [31] failed to confirm the positive effects of vibration applied
after eccentric contractions of the lower limb muscles on an isokinetic dynamometer.
Dabbs et al. [32] also argued that vibration does not help with muscle recovery, which
does not translate into improvements in the level of variables that characterize vertical
jumps on the platform. In contrast, Annino et al. indicated that the use of WBV during
rests between sets delays muscle fatigue and results in better competitive performance of
athletes [33].
This study aimed to compare the two forms of recovery (with vibration and passive
rest) in supporting muscle recovery after a single submaximal exercise (isometric and
auxotonic).
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
The study was a randomized control trial with repeated measures. The study
involved 84 young men aged 20 to 24 years who had not suffered from orthopedic injuries
within a year of the study and had not suffered from other conditions that could
significantly affect the results of maximum muscle strength measurements. The
participants who were enrolled in the study participated in weekly recreational physical
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680 3 of 15
activity of similar intensity, volume, and nature of sporting activities. The characterization
of study participants is presented in Table 1. Prior to participation in the tests, the
competitors were informed about the research procedures, which were in accordance with
the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki WMADH (2000). Obtaining the
competitors’ written consent was the condition for their participation in the project. The
research was approved by the Bioethics Committee (No. (KB/245/FI/2020).
Table 1. Characteristics of study participants by group.
Group/Variable ISO-M ISO-P AUX-M AUX-P
Number [n] 21 21 21 21
Age [years] 20.4 ± 1.78 19.9 ± 1.91 21.1 ± 1.24 20.7 ± 1.55
Body mass [kg] 79.1 ± 11.33 74.9 ± 5.67 72.4 ± 8.34 78.6 ± 8.31
Body height [m] 1.81 ± 0.97 1.79 ± 0.81 1.78 ± 0.86 1.81 ± 0.10
BMI [kgm
−2
] 24.1 ± 1.26 23.2 ± 1.96 22.9 ± 2.04 23.9 ± 1.13
ISO-M—experimental group subjected to the isometric muscle exercise using vibration sessions in the first period of
recovery and passive rest in the second, AUX-M—experimental group subjected to the auxotonic muscle exercise using
vibration sessions in the first period of recovery and passive rest in the second, ISO-P—control group subjected to
isometric exercise using only passive recovery in both periods intended for recovery, AUX-P—control group subjected to
auxotonic exercise using only passive recovery during the periods intended for recovery.
2.2. Procedure
Eighty-four participants were randomized into 4 equal groups. Each respondent
drew lots to determine their group. Each study group was tested by the same researchers,
using the same measurement tools and identical measurement procedures. The
experimental design is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1. Experimental design.
Each participant began the activity with a standard warm up consisting of 15
alternating repetitions of flexion and extension of the lower limb joints on a leg press
machine (Body Craft F660, Fort Lauderdale, OH, USA) in a seated position (the back at 45
degrees to the ground), with the machine set at an angle of 45° degrees upwards. The load
was selected individually and was 30% of one repetition maximum (1RM); it was tested
one day prior to the actual testing. The whole procedure was repeated three times. In the
starting position, the angle of limb flexion at the knee joints measured between the thigh
and the shank was monitored with a goniometer and was 80° (0°: full joint extension). The
ankle joints in the initial setting were in a neutral position (90° angle between the foot and
the lower leg). The angle at the hip joint was determined by the flexion angles of the knee
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680 4 of 15
and ankle joints and the individual dimensions of the lower limb segments. The
adjustment of the leg press machine ensured constant angle settings in the knee and ankle
joints. The pelvis and upper body were stabilized with straps.
To determine the baseline maximum level of strength of the lower limb muscles, a
measurement of the maximum force of isometric contraction was carried out after the
warm up on a measuring stand in a seated position, with the leg press machine set at an
angle of 45° degrees upwards and the lower limb joints positioned in the starting position,
as described above.
In order to determine the maximum level of strength of the lower limb muscles, after
the warm up using leg press machine (Body Craft F660, Fort Lauderdale, OH, USA),
repetitions with maximum force were performed. The crane was set at 45° and the
working procedure was as described above.
Next, each subject was subjected to submaximal physical exercise that loaded the
lower limb muscle groups, in particular, aimed at their fatigue. Groups ISO-M and ISO-P
performed exercise consisting of 3 min isometric exercise following the warm up of the
lower limb muscles during one 60-s submaximal contraction at 75% of individual maximal
strength, in a seated position with the leg press machine set at an angle of 45° degrees
upward.
Groups AUX-M and AUX-P performed one auxotonic exercise, consisting of 20
repetitions at the level of 75% of individual maximum strength without recovery breaks
by alternate extension and flexion of the joints of the lower limbs with the upper body and
pelvis stabilized by straps, on a leg press machine in a seated position, with the machine
positioned at 45° degrees upward. The flexion angles of the lower limbs in the starting
position were identical to those during the measurement of maximal strength.
Immediately after the completion of the exercise, the maximum strength of the
muscles involved in the exercise was measured a second time in the experimental and
control groups.
Next, participants from experimental groups ISO-M and AUX-M were subjected to
the first 20-min recovery period with the use of vibration sessions. Study participants from
control groups ISO-P and AUX-P recovered passively without vibration sessions in the
same position as study participants from groups ISO-M and AUX-M.
The third measurement of the level of maximal strength of the lower limb muscles
was performed after the first recovery period.
After the measurement, the second 20 min of post-exercise recovery was started
(passive rest in all groups).
The final (fourth) measurement was taken immediately after the end of the second
20-min passive rest in all groups.
2.3. Vibration Sessions
Vibration massage of the involved muscles was performed during rest after
submaximal exercise in groups ISO-M and AUX-M. The vibration was generated by a
device designed at Vitberg. An author’s vibration program was developed specifically for
the study, which, during a 20-min procedure, generated vibrations in the frequency range
of 20 to 50 Hz, amplitude < 0.5 mm, and varied in terms of the duration of intervals (from
1 to 4 s) [21,34]. The characteristics of the vibration intervention also took into account the
fact that there was a possibility of individual variation in adaptation to the applied
vibration frequency, resulting from individual characteristics and properties of the
neuromuscular spindles, different numbers and locations of mechanoreceptors and
proprioreceptors, or different elastic characteristics of the muscle-tendon complex and the
proportion of type II fibres in the muscle [35]. The vibrating mattress and vibrating
module were used in the study, with their total application surface allowing for
simultaneous (without changing the position of the mattress and the participant during
the procedure) massaging of the muscle groups of both lower limbs engaged previously
in the exercise (Figure 2).
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680 5 of 15
Figure 2. Position of the test subject during vibration massage application. Source: Figure taken by
the authors of the paper.
2.4. Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis was performed using the STATISTICA 13.3 PL software. The
exercise-induced changes in maximal leg strength during both periods of recovery were
used to determine their absolute increase compared to baseline (measured after the warm
up) in subsequent periods of the experiment. The significance of statistical differences
between the maximum relative values of changes in muscle strength was tested by
ANOVA for repeated measures and using Tukey’s post-hoc test. Friedman ANOVA test
with Dunn’s post-hoc test was used in the case of the lack of normal distribution. The
significance of differences between maximum relative values of increments of the
variables analyzed in all groups was assessed by one-way analysis of variance ANOVA
using Tukey’s post-hoc test. In the case of the lack of normal distribution or lack of
homogeneity of variance tested by Levene’s test, ANOVA Kruksal–Wallis test was
applied, followed by Dunn’s post-hoc test. For variables with values showing the
characteristics of a normal distribution, the arithmetic mean and standard deviation (± s)
are given, while for variables whose values did not have a normal distribution, in addition
to the means, the median and quarter deviation (Me ± Q) are also reported. Furthermore,
a measure of the effect size was calculated by presenting eta-squared values.
3. Results
Table 2 shows the basic statistical variables (ΔFwmax_w-p, ΔFwmax_r1-p,
ΔFwmax_r2-p), expressed in Nkg−1 for all groups studied.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680 6 of 15
Table 2. Changes in the maximum relative strength compared to baseline expressed in Nkg-1, in individual stages of the
experiment in groups of participants.
Variables/Parameters/Group ISO-M ISO-P AUX-M AUX-P
ΔFwmax_w-p
[Nkg−1]
𝑥 ± s −3.6 ± 2.13 −4.1 ± 2.38 −3.2 ± 1.49 −4.2 ± 2.69
Me ± Q - −4.2 ± 1.17 - −2.9 ± 2.22
Min. −8.1 −11.4 −5.9 −8.7
Max. −0.4 −1 −0.6 −0.6
ΔFwmax_r1-p
[Nkg−1]
𝑥 ± s 1.2 ± 2.65 −2.6 ± 4.64 0.4 ± 2.27 −2.5 ± 2.10
Me ± Q 1.3 ± 0.74 - - -
Min. −6.1 −16.7 −4.5 −7.4
Max. 8.7 5.1 7.2 0.3
ΔFwmax_r2-p
[Nkg−1]
𝑥 ± s 1.3 ± 3.73 −2.5 ± 3.35 0.3 ± 2.04 −2.1 ± 2.78
Me ± Q - - - -
Min. −6 −9.1 −3.2 −6.5
Max. 8.5 3.62 4.6 4
Figure 3 shows the percentage changes of the maximum relative strength of the
examined muscles between successive periods for each group compared to the baseline
taken as 100%.
Figure 3. Graphical representation of changes in the maximum relative strength compared to
baseline expressed in % in individual periods of the experiment in groups of participants.
ΔFwmax_w-p—post-exercise change in relative strength following exercise relative to baseline,
ΔFwmax_r1-p—change in relative strength after the first recovery period, relative to baseline,
ΔFwmax_r2-p—change in relative strength after the second recovery period, relative to baseline.
The mean values of changes in ΔFwmax recorded after each period of the experiment
relative to baseline were then subjected to the analysis of the statistical significance of
differences for repeated measures in all groups of participants. Strong effect size was also
demonstrated in most measurements. The results of the post-hoc tests and effect size are
presented in Table 3.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680 7 of 15
Table 3. Results of the ANOVA analysis of variance for repeated measures and the post-hoc test for changes in maximal
relative strength compared to baseline in individual periods of the experiment in groups of participants.
Variable/Group
ΔFwmax_w-p [Nkg−1]
vs.
ΔFwmax_r1-p [Nkg−1]
ΔFwmax_w-p [Nkg−1]
vs.
ΔFwmax_r2-p [Nkg−1]
ΔFwmax_r1-p [Nkg−1]
vs.
ΔFwmax_r2-p [Nkg−1]
ISO-M p < 0.001
N η2 = 0.82 p < 0.001 N η2 = 0.83 p = 0.82 N η2 = 0.18
ISO-P p < 0.01
N η2 = 0.76 p < 0.05 N η2 = 0.76 p = 0.79 N η2 = 0.38
AUX-M p < 0.001
P η2 = 0.85 p < 0.001 P η2 = 0.85 p = 0.98 P η2 = 0.05
AUX-P p = 0,097
N
ΔFwmax_w-p—post-exercise change in relative strength following exercise relative to baseline, ΔFwmax_r1-p—change
in relative strength after the first recovery period, relative to baseline, ΔFwmax_r2-p—change in relative strength after the
second recovery period, relative to baseline, N—significance of differences tested by Dunn’s post hoc test, P—significance
of differences tested by Tukey’s post hoc test. η2—measure of eta-squared effect size.
The results of the analysis of variance in intergroup comparisons indicate the
presence of statistically significant differences in the variable studied only within some
pairs of groups of participants in subsequent periods of the experiment. Between-group
comparisons revealed strong measures of effect size. As a result of post-hoc testing and
effect size, groups of participants with the statistically significantly different values of the
variable analyzed were separated as presented in Table 4.
Table 4. Results of the analysis of variance ANOVA (F-test; Tukey’s post-hoc test) and its
counterpart for non-parametric ANOVA Kruskal–Willis tests (Dunn’s post hoc test) of the changes
in maximum relative strength compared to baseline in subsequent periods of the experiment
between groups of participants.
Variable/Group ΔFwmax_w-p
[Nkg-1]
ΔFwmax_r1-p
[Nkg-1]
ΔFwmax_r2-p
[Nkg-1]
ISO-M/ISO-P
p = 0.71 N
p < 0.005 N η2 = 0.37 p < 0.001 P η2 = 0.39
ISO-M/AUX-M p = 1.00
N η2 = 0.87 p = 0.73 P η2 = 0.08
ISO-M/AUX-P p < 0.001
N η2 = 0.62 p < 0.005 P η2 = 0.40
ISO-P/AUX-M p = 0.055
N η2 = 0.27 p < 0.05 P η2 = 0.37
ISO-P/AUX-P p = 1.00
N η2 = 0.61 p = 0.98 P η2 = 0.48
AUX-M/AUX-P p < 0.005
N η2 = 0.61 p = 0.05 P η2 = 0.38
ΔFwmax_w-p—post-exercise change in relative strength following exercise relative to baseline,
ΔFwmax_r1-p—change in relative strength after the first recovery period, relative to baseline,
ΔFwmax_r2-p—change in relative strength after the second recovery period, relative to baseline,
N—significance of differences tested by Dunn’s post hoc test, P—significance of differences tested
by Tukey’s post hoc test. η2—measure of eta-squared effect size.
The post-exercise changes in maximum relative strength ΔFwmax_w-p between the
different groups of participants are shown in Figures 4–6.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680 8 of 15
Figure 4. Graphical representation of the results of ANOVA Kruskal–Willis analysis for the
ΔFwmax_w-p variable between all tested groups of participants.
Figure 5. Graphical representation of the results of ANOVA Kruskal–Willis analysis for the
ΔFwmax_r-p variable between all tested groups of participants.
Figure 6. Graphical representation of the results of ANOVA (F-test) for the ΔFwmax_r2-p variable
between all tested groups of participants.
4. Discussion
In the ISO-M group of participants, who performed submaximal isometric exercise
and underwent vibration massage during the recovery period, a statistically significant (p
< 0.001) and most substantial increase in the maximum relative strength of about 4.8 Nkg-
1 was observed after the first recovery period, which corresponded to an average increase
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680 9 of 15
of about 16% compared to the value of post-exercise maximum relative strength (Table 2
and Figure 3). It can therefore be concluded that the increase in strength is related to the
application of vibration massage. Fuller et al. claim that vibration massage has similar
efficacy to classical massage [36]. Furthermore, in the AUX-M group, subjected to
auxotonic exercise and experimental vibration exposure, an average increase in strength
of approximately 12% was recorded during an identical period of the experiment, which
accounted for an increase in the relative strength of 3.6 Nkg-1 compared to the value of
the variable recorded after the exercise test (Table 2 and Figure 3). In addition, in this case,
the results of the statistical analysis confirmed the presence of significant differences at p
< 0.001. This may indicate the efficacy of the vibration massage in muscle recovery
resulting in increased strength. Similar findings were reported by Mukhtar et.al, who
showed that vibration therapy had a significant positive effect on neuromuscular
performance, resulting in improved upper extremity strength [37].
It should be added that in the groups subjected to vibration massage, the values of
maximum relative strength in maximum isometric contraction exceeded the baseline
levels already after the first period of recovery. The recovery of previously lost relative
strength, together with the occurrence of the hypercompensation effect, was noted in both
groups (by 3.5% in the ISO-M group and 1.2% in the AUX-M group), even though they
differed in the form of physical exercise to which the muscles were subjected. Scientific
research has shown that vibration therapy is an effective recovery method [38].
In the ISO-P group (isometric contraction/passive rest), there was also a statistically
significant (p < 0.01) increase in relative strength after the first recovery period. However,
it was not as significant as in the groups with vibration massage and averaged to about
4.4%, which translated into an increase in the maximal relative force of 1.5 Nkg-1 after the
first recovery period (Table 2 and Figure 3). In conclusion, the process of restoring relative
strength after an analogous isometric exercise in the first recovery period in the group
with vibration massage was more than three times faster than in the group with passive
rest.
Furthermore, in participants from the AUX-P group (auxotonic muscle
contraction/passive rest), despite a 7% increase in relative strength observed after the first
recovery period (Figure 3) compared to the value recorded after the exercise test, the
statistical analysis did not confirm the presence of statistically significant differences.
Similarly as in the case of submaximal isometric contractions, the effectiveness of the
vibration massage was confirmed in the statistical comparisons determining the rate of
restoring the lost relative strength following auxotonic exercise. The efficiency of
recovery, expressed by the restoration of the relative strength, was similarly about three
times higher than in the case of passive rest. Our study confirmed the differences in the
increase in relative strength after the first recovery period between ISO-M, ISO-P, AUX-
M, and AUX-P groups. The recorded increases in maximum strength induced by vibration
massage can be explained by muscle recovery that occurs as a result of muscle vibration
[38,39].
The different observations of the authors of studies [31,32,36,40–43] regarding the
evaluation of the effect of vibration massage aimed to ensure athletic recovery of muscles
that have been previously fatigued during high-intensity exercise may be due to several
factors. The nature and pattern of the vibration massage may be an important problem.
This problem has also been noticed by Cochrane and Booker and Park who believe that
following vibration, any changes related to muscle motor activity depend on the mutual
relations between vibration parameters such as frequency (Hz), amplitude (mm), and
vibration duration (s) [44,45]. A direct comparison of these studies is difficult due to the
lack of homogeneity of the physical effort, the varied measurement methodology, the
characteristics of the vibrations produced, and the variety of positions in which the
vibration massage was performed. All this may explain the considerable discrepancies in
the results obtained by individual researchers in the studies cited.
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680 10 of 15
Previous results reported by various authors indicate a considerable scatter
concerning the optimal parameters of vibration stimulus suggested by them.
Consequently, there are no unequivocal guidelines for the effective choice and application
of vibration parameters. Issurin suggests that low-frequency vibration massage (f = 15–50
Hz) increases the local temperature of the tissues subjected to vibration, causing relaxation
of myofascial tissues, a decrease in emotional tension, and a general calming effect [21].
On the other hand, a massage using high-frequency vibrations leads to an increase in
excitability of the central nervous system, increases muscle tension, and has a rapid
warming effect. However, according to the same author, a massage with the use of both
low- and high-frequency vibrations brings positive effects. Despite this, Issurin [21]
recommends that the massage time for high-frequency vibration should be much shorter
than in the case of lower-frequency vibration stimulus. In our study, the vibration time
also decreased with increasing vibration frequency. Furthermore, Rittweger et al. reported
that vibration frequencies below 20 Hz lead to relaxation in muscles, while frequencies
over 50 Hz can cause acute muscle pain in untrained individuals [46]. There are also
reports which indicate that the vibration frequency range of 30–50 Hz is most effective to
activate muscle fibers [47]. Ronnestad suggested that the optimal vibration frequency for
professional athletes should be 50 Hz [48]. Low-frequency vibrations of 5–15 Hz, on the
other hand, can speed up the process of post-exercise recovery due to increased blood
flow to and from the injured muscle and stimulate muscle receptors to relieve muscle
tension [34].
A very interesting suggestion was made by Lamont et al. who recommend starting
vibration sessions with lower frequencies and amplitudes and gradually increasing them
while shortening the exposure to vibrations [49]. The vibration interaction algorithm in
our study also started from the lowest frequencies. However, the vibration based on 26
and 30 Hz frequencies used in the studies by Bullock et al. [50], Barnes et al. [31], and
Dabbs et al. [32] did not produce the expected beneficial effects. Furthermore, vibration
wi th freq uencie s of 20, 35, and 50 Hz, u sed in t he studies b y Marin e t al., p roduce d posit ive
results during post-exercise recovery [23]. Higher vibration frequencies suggested by
Issurin [21] did not allow Lau and Nosak [27] and Fuller et al. [36] to demonstrate the
effectiveness of the vibration procedure during the recovery period after exercise. The
presented facts may suggest that vibration frequency is not the only parameter that
significantly affects the outcomes of vibration sessions performed during post-exercise
recovery. The results of our study provide compelling evidence that different frequencies
and amplitudes of vibrations may be required, depending on the expected effects of
vibration sessions.
The study used a vibration stimulus with completely different frequency
characteristics than those used in previous experiments. No publications to date have
presented studies in which the frequency and amplitude of a vibration stimulus are varied
smoothly during a single vibration program. During the determination of the
characteristics of the vibration intervention, it is critical to remember that the time of
recovery of motor skills lost due to exercise depends on many factors: age, muscle mass,
type of muscle fibers, level of previous fatigue, fitness level, and specific personal
susceptibility to vibration interventions [51]. The mechanism developed by the authors
for the effect of the vibration stimulus was partially similar to the suggestions made by
Lamont et al. [49]. Another key factor in increasing the effectiveness of vibration massage
used in our study was the variation of rest duration (1–4 s) in generating the vibration
stimulus in successive sets of vibration in the control program. This view was also noted
by Issurin [21], who pointed to the positive effect of vibration stimuli only when
intermittent vibration massage was applied. However, subjecting participants to
continuous and prolonged vibration massage led to a noticeable decrease in the values of
biomechanical variables in the muscles tested.
The characteristics of low-amplitude vibration stimuli proposed in our study were
intended to induce a relaxing effect rather than reinforce a stress factor for pre-fatigued
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680 11 of 15
muscles. This need was also emphasized by Cardinale and Lim [35]. Furthermore, the
support of muscle recovery was supposed to be based on increased blood flow as
mentioned by Weerapong et al. [16]. A study conducted by Kerschan-Schindl et al. [52]
found an increase in mean blood flow rate in the femoropopliteal artery as a result of
vibration massage performed on a vibration platform (f-26 Hz A-3 mm). An increase in
local blood flow rate immediately after the vibratory stimulus was also confirmed by other
researchers [21,53]. The explanation for this mechanism is based on the assumption that
rhythmic muscle contractions are observed when the body is subjected to vibration [54],
which can cause changes in the peripheral arteries. According to Kerschan-Schindl et al.
[52], the increase in blood flow rate may be due to a decrease in blood viscosity and
vasodilation induced by vibration. Therefore, the increase in blood flow rate resulting
from the applied vibration can accelerate the process of post-exercise recovery by
enhancing nutrient exchange, removing metabolic by-products [40] that inhibit tissue
repair and improving the oxygen supply between capillaries and the fluid surrounding
body cells [55]. The low value of vibration amplitude was further intended to eliminate
the possible adverse phenomenon of potentiation of muscle fatigue due to the vibration
procedure, as mentioned by Barnes et al. [31]. The results of the study conducted by
Zoladz et al. [56] show that already after a 10-s maximal power exercise test on an
isokinetic cycle ergometer, a 25% loss of maximal power was observed, indicating the
onset of pronounced fatigue. During short-term dynamic efforts, the immediate energy
supply to muscles is obtained from adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and phosphocreatine
(PCr) [57,58]. Unfortunately, their content in muscle cells is limited. During the first
seconds of exercise, the content of ATP and phosphocreatine in muscle cells decreases
rapidly. In the study by Hultman and Sjoholm [59], stimulation of the muscle to
contraction for 2.5 s resulted in 26% depletion of PCr stores. Phosphocreatine resynthesis
and elimination of glycolytic products occur partly during and partly following the
exercise [60–62]. Therefore, symptoms of fatigue are observed even during short-term
efforts of submaximal intensity [63–65]. Another key factor in increasing the effectiveness
of vibration massage used in our study was the use of breaks in generation of the vibratory
stimulus during the program. This was also observed by Issurin [21], who indicated a
positive effect of vibration only when intermittent vibration sessions were applied.
In our study key information was provided by the recorded results of changes in the
maximum relative strength of the tested muscle groups, which were recorded at the end
of the first and second recovery periods. Based on these results, it was found that vibration
sessions conducted in the first period of recovery significantly accelerated the process of
post-exercise recovery and restoration of strength capabilities of the examined muscles.
In the case of groups where recovery during each period consisted solely of passive rest,
even a time of 40 min was insufficient to recover the previous strength capabilities lost
due to exercise.
The use of vibration massage resulted in much more effective muscle recovery in the
case of fatigue caused by isometric exercise. This is confirmed by the results of the
recorded changes in strength after each recovery period, with their rate of return to pre-
exercise levels and the possible effect of hypercompensation being significantly higher for
the groups subjected to isometric exercise. The reason for this may be the fact of lower
regression of energy substrate levels recorded during isometric exercise as demonstrated
by Konturek [66] and Ortega et al. [67]. During static exercise, tense muscles put pressure
on blood vessels, thus impeding the blood flow, which in turn interferes with the supply
of essential nutrients and the removal of metabolic products [7,8]. Consequently, during
static muscle work, conditions are created for oxygen debt and an increase in the
proportion of anaerobic metabolism causing their acidification [68,69]. Furthermore, the
increase in blood flow due to the application of vibration intervention [21,53] facilitates
the exchange of nutrients and the removal of metabolic by-products [40,55] which were
accumulated during the exercise with isometric muscle work. According to Lattier et al.
[70], a very important factor in the acceleration of post-workout relaxation and ability to
Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2021, 18, 11680 12 of 15
undertake the next effort is lactate removal from blood and muscles. This view is also
supported by other researchers [71,72], who believe that blood lactate accumulation is at
least partly responsible for the delayed return to homeostasis after fatigue. Therefore, this
helps explain why the vibration interaction in our study led to better recovery after
isometric exercise.
Post-exercise rest is an essential part of ensuring body homeostasis. There are
scientific studies which stress that in the case of fatigue caused by physical exertion, the
athlete should rest actively. Research [73,74] has shown that light exercises, applied after
physical exercise, can accelerate the recovery from muscle fatigue and is more effective
than passive rest. In a study [75], a higher rate of lactate decomposition was observed
during active recovery compared to passive rest. The authors explain this fact by the
increased blood flow that occurs during active rest, which in turn facilitates the removal
of previously accumulated lactate. Ahmaidi et al. [76] and Thiriet et al. [77] also found that
low-intensity active rest between repeated sets of intense exercise results in lower blood
lactate concentration compared to passive rest. According to Bush et al., [78] whole body
vibration (WBV) induces small muscle contractions during which there is a change in
muscle length. Barnes et al. [31] believe that, consequently, muscles subjected to vibration
massage are forced to do extra work, which can be a form of active rest after exercise.
5. Conclusions
Based on the results obtained in the present study, it seems right to state that the use
of our vibration procedure, aimed at previously fatigued muscle groups, is an effective
method to accelerate the process of their recovery and regaining the lost motor abilities.
Properly chosen parameters of the vibration procedure during active inter-exercise
muscle recovery can significantly shorten the necessary breaks in training units and
between training sessions and improve training efficiency.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, W.C., P.P.; methodology, W.C., P.P.; software, W.C.,
T.A., Ł.R., and P.P.; validation, W.C., Ł.R., T.A., and P.P.; formal analysis, W.C., Ł.R., T.A., and P.P.;
investigation, W.C. and P.P.; resources, W.C., T.A., and P.P.; data curation, W.C. and P.P.; writing—
original draft preparation, W.C., T.A., Ł.R., and P.P.; writing—review and editing, W.C., T.A., Ł.R.,
P.P., and T.A.; visualization, W.C., Ł.R., T.A., and P.P.; supervision, W.C., P.P., Ł.R., and T.A; project
administration, P.P.; funding acquisition, W.C., T.A., and P.P. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: Research procedures, project implementation, and open access funding were conducted
with the program of the Minister of Science and Higher Education (Poland) under the name
‘Regional Initiative for Perfection’ within the years 2019–2022, project No. 022/RID/2018/19.
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the
Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Bioethics Committee (No. KB/245/FI/2020).
Informed Consent Statement: Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the
study.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available on request from the
authors. Some variables are restricted to preserve the anonymity of study participants.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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