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Policy brief for Costa Rica 2021, https://www.dropbox.com/s/qjnkq6h5mxsdu8i/Costa%20Rica%202021%20-%20Lancet%20Countdown%20Policy%20Brief.pdf?dl=0

Authors:

Abstract

The Lancet Countdown: Tracking Progress on Health and Climate Change is a multi-disciplinary collaboration monitoring the links between health and climate change. It brings togethers lead researchers from 43 academic institutions and UN agencies in every continent, publishing annual updates of its findings to provide decision-makers with high-quality evidence-based recommendations. The Lancet Countdown South America exists to promote research on health and climate change in the region, to encourage regional engagement on how climate change is affecting health across the continent, and challenge countries to respond in line with the evidence. It is the only academic centre in South America specifically researching climate change and health and is based at the Clima centre at Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia (UPCH) in Lima, Peru.
The Lancet Countdown on Health and Climate Change
Policy brief for
Costa Rica
2021
Introducon
Since the 1980s Costa Rica has seen a connuous increase in surface
temperatures while precipitaon has not registered a consistent
signal.1,2 There has not been an increase in water supply, but the rise
in temperatures has led to aridity, also increasing potenal evaporaon
in areas such as the northwest of Guanacaste, which has the coun-
try’s driest climate. This has led to drier soils, and an increase in the
number of forest res and their health eects, aecng those who work
outdoors and are exposed to extreme condions during the dry season.
Heat stress, the working condions in which heat puts health and
safety at risk, causes a direct increase in condions such as fague,
heat stroke, and exacerbaon of chronic diseases
3
during work periods
longer than 6 hours.4 Heat stress and dehydraon are associated with
chronic kidney disease, in manual labourers 4–6 especially in low- and
middle-income countries in tropical and subtropical zones.
7
For all
workers they have negave eects on producvity, and cause poverty
and socioeconomic inequity.4
In response to the Paris Agreement and the IPCC report,
8
Costa Rica
developed a Naonal Policy on Adaptaon to Climate Change 2018-
20309 and a Naonal Decarbonizaon Plan 2018-205010 as tools for
adaptaon and migaon. Despite clear policies, progress is slow on
key issues, including acons to improve governance. There is a lack
of clarity on how sectors and instuons will be integrated towards
achieving reported objecves.11 Furthermore, in key areas like trans-
port, Costa Rica has increased its fossil fuel use and ranks third in Lan
America in the number of private vehicles per thousand inhabitants.12
Over the past three decades extreme climate events and variaons in
seasonal weather paerns have had a high impact on health
13
, both
directly (e.g., increased morbidity and mortality rates) and indirectly
(e.g., food insecurity).14 Extreme weather events, such as heat waves
and heavy precipitaon, are occurring with greater frequency and
intensity8, posing new threats to health systems15. Climate change has
repercussions on physical and mental health as well as social well-be-
ing.16
Climate change magnies inequalies. Low- and middle-income
countries are more aected as they are, in general, exposed to higher
temperatures and their economies are largely based on agriculture
and outdoor acvies exposed to extreme weather events. Adaptaon
measures are not always adopted.
15
In Costa Rica, according to the
State of the Naon 2020 report17, COVID-19 has increased poverty
and social vulnerability. Within months, between 3 and 8 percent of
the populaon reached extreme precarity because of rapid growth in
unemployment.
In this policy brief we analyse the evidence provided by the 2021 global
Lancet Countdown report for Costa Rica and propose three fundamen-
tal areas for intervenon.18 Due to the climac and labour characteris-
cs of Costa Rica, the number of working hours lost due to heat is crical
and becomes a public health issue. Risk analysis at the local level is vital
for eecve migaon and adaptaon acons by communies. Finally,
a topic widely discussed but on which there has been lile progress is
the improvement of transport to make it sustainable, healthy, accessi-
ble, and ecient. This brief is aimed at policy makers to serve as a guide
for making decisions based on scienc evidence.
2
1
PROMOTE LOCAL INTERVENTION MECHANISMS AND TIMELY ASSESSMENT FOR HEAT
STRESS IN THE WORKPLACE
Epidemiological evidence and climate data at regional level must inform adaptaon and mi-
gaon acons in agriculture, commerce, tourism, educaon and the health sector, parcularly
for vulnerable populaons. Strategic plans and policies at the local level are required to prevent
diseases related to heat exposure. Intervenons to tackle heat stress in the workplace, and
their mely assessments, are crucial, especially in communies where poverty and reduced
access to health care are common.
DEVELOP AND IMPLEMENT ACTION PLANS TO REDUCE GREENHOUSE GAS EMISSIONS
LOCALLY, TAKING A GENDER AND INEQUITY FOCUS ESPECIALLY IN VULNERABLE
POPULATIONS.
A territorial approach to community health risks caused by climate change makes it possi-
ble to respond to the specic needs of the populaon. The 2021 global Lancet Countdown
report data show that the number of municipalies that carry out these risk assessments must
increase.18 Costa Rica should extend the current pilot program to 20 municipalies each year
for the next 4 years, priorizing the cantons with especially vulnerable populaons for the rst
two years. The plans should include all relevant governmental instuons.
Recommendaons
3
PRIORITIZE SCIENTIFIC EVIDENCE AND ENVIRONMENTAL OBJECTIVES IN DECISION-MAK-
ING REGARDING TRANSPORT AND MOBILITY.
Country-level data indicate that improvements in the transport and mobility sector require a
change in governance. The evidence calls for urgent acon in this area because of its signi-
cant contribuon to greenhouse gas emissions and a public health threat.
Changes in the workforce
The warming of the global climate system and its impacts in Lan
America and the Caribbean have been visible for three decades.
13
In 2020, for example, one of the three warmest years on record,
there was a notable increase in the temperature of the Caribbean
Sea with repercussions on climate regulaon.
19
In the 2021 global
Lancet Countdown report, 295 billion potenal working hours were
lost globally as a result of extreme heat, 79% occurring in countries with
low human development indices.
18
In Costa Rica, a record 41 million
potenal working hours were lost in 2020, with the agricultural sector
accounng for over one third.
In Costa Rica, the adverse impact of heat stress in the workplace has
been reported in agricultural communies, especially in sugarcane
workers in the province of Guanacaste.20 The immediate health risks
of heat stress are relavely well documented, but lile is known about
the long-term eects of repeated exposure to extreme heat. Chronic
Kidney Disease of Nontradional Cause (CKDnT), a serious public health
problem,20–23 disproporonately aects males from low-income rural
agricultural areas on the Pacic coast in the province of Guanacaste
in the cantons of Liberia, Nicoya, Santa Cruz, Bagaces, Carrillo, Cañas,
Abangares, Nandayure, La Cruz and Hojancha, and the canton of Upala
in the province of Alajuela.20,22,23,24
In these areas there is a marked dry season from November to April,
and a rainy season from May to October, usually with clear mornings,
signicant morning heang and insolaon (high solar radiaon),
and aernoon rains. During the months of July and August there is
a decrease in rainfall, where insolaon increases again. The way in
which CKDnT develops in agricultural workers is not well understood,
but occupaonal heat stress causes renal dysfuncon in individuals.25
While the Costa Rican government has enacted measures for the
prevenon and treatment of CKDnT, cases connue to increase
including in areas not declared at risk.
26
It is vital for the country to
develop strategic plans and policies at the local level to prevent and
control diseases related to heat exposure. Intervenons and their
mely assessments in the workplace are necessary for the prevenon
of disease progression, especially in communies where poverty
and reduced access to health care are common. To this end, the
development of a standardized assessment method and idencaon
of research needs on heat and its health eects in key populaons
should be promoted to provide data for decision making.
Climate change risk assessment at city level
Costa Rica is administravely divided into seven provinces and 82
cantons, which have had democracally elected local governments
since 2002. The 2021 global Lancet Countdown report
18
indicates
that 81% of cies that parcipated in the Carbon Disclosure Project
(CDP) survey have completed or are implemenng climate change risk
assessments. The most vulnerable populaons were idened globally
as the elderly, children, low-income households, and women.
Climate change risk assessment at the cantonal level will allow more
targeted prevenon, investment, policy development and acon plans
aimed specically at the populaon at risk. Costa Rica has high spaal
climate variability due to its complex topography and limited economic
resources. In the CDP survey, cies in low- and middle-income countries
are underrepresented in the sample. In the case of Costa Rica, only
14 out of a total of 82 municipalies parcipated in the survey. These
corresponded to cantons with a high or very high human development
index.27
Of these 14 municipalies, eight idened risks at the level of health
and public health systems associated with climate change, where
vector-borne diseases (5 municipalies), interrupon of health services
(4 municipalies) and interrupon of drinking water, sanitaon and
wastewater services (4 municipalies) stood out.
The climate change risk assessment must guide policies and acons
aimed at adaptaon and migaon at the local level, with a gender
focus in the idened cantons, as well as considering the most
vulnerable populaons, with plans specically directed at migang the
greatest eects on these people. Progress at local level assessments
has been made by pilot plans in 6 municipalies to address climate
change policies. For example, the Municipality of Belen has a Cantonal
Climate Change Strategy
27
, but this represents less than 10% of the total
cantons and does not include those with greater vulnerability.
Therefore, the country should extend this trial to 20 municipalies
each year for the next 4 years, to implement risk assessments and
specic acon and migaon plans. Priority should be given to the
most vulnerable regions in the rst two years. We emphasise that
policies should be local and respond to the specic characteriscs of
each canton, since Costa Rica is characterized by regional heterogeneity
in terms of income, human development, populaon, and climate.17
Healthy and sustainable transportaon
Sustainable transport is fundamental to control CO2 emissions. Around
18% of global CO
2
emissions come from the transport sector.
29
Despite
eorts to electrify the vehicle eet and increase the number of electric
vehicles globally, they represent less than 1% of the total. Planning
laws and policies aimed at improving transportaon play an important
role in public health, as the harmful eects of long-term exposure to
parculate maer measured as PM
10
and PM
2.5
from vehicles have
been linked to increased total mortality, increased mortality from
cardiovascular and cancer disease30,31.
The situaon in Costa Rica is crical and the 2018 State of the Naon
Report12 points out a governance and planning problem. Fiy percent
of workers commute at distance from where they live. Up to 3.8% of
GDP in economic costs is derived from transport congeson. There is a
sustained growth in the use of fossil fuels for the transportaon sector.
In 2019, the consumpon of these fuels was 8.2% higher than in 1992
17
.
In addion, Costa Rica has the third highest number of private vehicles
per thousand inhabitants in Lan America, and the transportaon
sector accounts for 66% of hydrocarbon consumpon and 54% of
CO2 emissions12. In 2019, 2,742,361 cubic meters (m3) of fuel were
consumed, of which 1.4 million were gasoline and 1.3 million were
diesel.17
The 2018 State of the Naon report idened ve areas for aenon:
untangling governance bolenecks, transforming public transport so
that it is accessible and ecient, promong changes in the vehicle
eet, encouraging non-motorized means of transport and, nally,
improvements in road infrastructure.
12
In 2021, some progress
has been made to x these problems, but legal, administrave and
polical obstacles have a negave inuence. For example, the polical
feasibility of projects such as public transport sectorizaon, mulmodal
integraon of public transport, and the urban train and electronic
payment system are stagnant and policized. The benets, scienc
evidence and links to health climate change are not considered a
priority.
This has prevented real progress in other areas such as small steps with
pilots in terms of sectorizaon of public transport and electricaon of
the vehicle eet. Some local governments are exploring new forms of
mobilizaon with the creaon of bicycle lanes; however, these iniaves
must be accompanied by road safety educaon and respect on the road
to minimize accident risk to pedestrians and cyclists. Moreover, 30.6%
of the deaths due to trac accidents in 2018 correspond to this group
(cyclist and pedestrians), considered as vulnerable road users.12
The Naonal Decarbonizaon Plan 2018-2050 includes mobility
and transportaon
10
, and by 2020, of the 18 goals related to green
transportaon, 15 were iniated but only one has been concluded
despite a deadline for meeng goals by 2022. Governance is where
there seem to be more dicules, since this secon only refers to the
proposed Law for the modernizaon of RECOPE and some changes in
organizaon and planning at the transport ministry level. This secon,
which is the most urgent for the others to move forward, connues to
be the weakness in the proposals to improve the sector.
We emphasize that the priority areas connue to be those outlined
by the 2018 State of the Nation Report. We also recommend
breaking down governance bolenecks by priorizing data, scienc
evidence, public administraon transparency and polical will, so that
the objecves set by the naonal plans can be achieved within the
established meframes.
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Organisaons and acknowledgements
This policy brief was wrien by Dr. Zaray Miranda-Chacón, MD, PhD (School of
Medicine, UCR), Ana Leonor Rivera Chavarría, MD, MSc (INCIENSA - UCR), Geison
Rivera-Bermúdez(UCR), Dr. Adriana Troyo, PhD (CIET – UCR), Prof. Hugo G.
Hidalgo, PhD (CIGEFI – UCR), and Prof. Eric J.Alfaro, PhD (CIGEFI - UCR). Revisions
and extensive edits were provided by Michelle Soto, Licda; María Jesús Arias,
Paula Barrantes, Oscar Campos, Angélica Carvajal, Adela Chacón, Valeria Díaz
and Glen Marnez. Review on behalf of the Lancet Countdown was carried out
by Marisol Yglesias-González, MScIH; Assoc. Prof. Andrés G. Lescano, PhD; Dr.
Frances MacGuire, PhD and Dr. Marina Romanello, PhD.
THE LANCET COUNTDOWN
The Lancet Countdown: Tracking Progress on Health and Climate Change is a
mul-disciplinary collaboraon monitoring the links between health and climate
change. It brings togethers lead researchers from 43 academic instuons and
UN agencies in every connent, publishing annual updates of its ndings to
provide decision-makers with high-quality evidence-based recommendaons.
For its 2021 assessment, visit www.lancetcountdown.org/2021-report/
THE LANCET COUNTDOWN IN SOUTH AMERICA
The Lancet Countdown South America exists to promote research on health
and climate change in the region, to encourage regional engagement on how
climate change is aecng health across the connent, and challenge countries
to respond in line with the evidence. It is the only academic centre in South
America specically researching climate change and health and is based at the
Clima centre at Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia (UPCH) in Lima, Peru.
SCHOOL OF MEDICINE, UNIVERSITY OF COSTA RICA
The School of Medicine of the University of Costa Rica is the rst training house
for medical and surgical professionals in Costa Rica, with countless contribuons
to the public health of our country. Its purpose is to train medical professionals
with solid scienc, ethical and humanisc bases that respond to their social
and professional context.
COSTA RICAN INSTITUTE FOR RESEARCH AND
EDUCATION ON NUTRITION AND HEALTH (INCIENSA)
The acvies of the Costa Rican Instute for Research and Educaon on
Nutrion and Health (INCIENSA) (hps://www.inciensa.sa.cr/) are oriented to
public health research, epidemiological surveillance, and teaching and quality
assurance. Epidemiological surveillance acons support the idencaon,
measurement, follow-up, and treatment of priority health events.
RESEARCH CENTER IN GEOPHYSICS, UNIVERSITY OF
COSTA RICA (CIGEFI – UCR)
The Research Center in Geophysics of the University of Costa Rica (CIGEFI - UCR,
hp://cige.ucr.ac.cr/) was created in February 1979; it is aached to the Vice
Rector's Oce of Research of the University of Costa Rica. It is dedicated to the
study of meteorology, climatology and hydrology of Central America.
RESEARCH CENTER FOR TROPICAL DISEASE,
UNIVERSITY OF COSTA RICA (CIET – UCR)
CIET (hps://ciet.ucr.ac.cr/) is a muldisciplinary scienc research unit
where tropical diseases are studied. The research aims to nd soluons for
the prevenon and control of infecous agents, through the study of their
biological and epidemiological characteriscs, as well as the development of
beer diagnosc methods.
This policy brief has been produced to accompany “The 2021 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change” which published with The Lancet on Oct 20, 2021.
This document has not been published by, or peer-reviewed by, The Lancet.
Informe de
Políticas para
Costa Rica
2021
The Lancet Countdown on Health and Climate Change
Desde la década de 1980, Costa Rica ha experimentado un
aumento continuo de las temperaturas de superficie, mientras
que las precipitaciones no han registrado una señal
consistente.1,2 No ha habido un aumento del suministro de agua,
pero el incremento de las temperaturas ha provocado aridez,
aumentando también la evaporación potencial en zonas como el
noroeste de Guanacaste, que tiene el clima más seco del país.
Esto ha provocado que los suelos estén más secos y que aumente
el número de incendios forestales y sus efectos sobre la salud,
afectando a quienes trabajan al aire libre y están expuestos a
condiciones extremas durante la estación seca.
El estrés térmico, las condiciones de trabajo en las que el calor
pone en riesgo la salud y la seguridad, provocan un aumento
directo de afecciones como la fatiga, la insolación y la
exacerbación de enfermedades crónicas durante los periodos de
trabajo superiores a 6 horas.4El estrés térmico y la deshidratación
se asocian a las enfermedad renal crónica en los trabajadores
agrícolas , especialmente en los países de ingresos bajos y
medios de las zonas tropicales y subtropicales. Para todos los
trabajadores éstos tienen efectos negativos en la productividad, y
son causa de pobreza e inequidad socioeconómica.
En respuesta al Acuerdo de París y al informe del IPCC, Costa Rica
desarrolló una Política Nacional de Adaptación al Cambio
Climático 2018-2030 y un Plan Nacional de Descarbonización
2018-2050 como herramientas de adaptación y mitigación. A
pesar de la claridad de las políticas, el progreso es lento en temas
clave, incluyendo las acciones para mejorar la gobernanza. Falta
claridad sobre cómo se integrarán los sectores y las instituciones
para lograr los objetivos señalados. Además, en áreas clave como
el transporte, Costa Rica ha aumentado el uso de combustibles
fósiles y ocupa el tercer lugar en América Latina en cuanto al
número de vehículos privados por cada mil habitantes.
En las últimas tres décadas, los fenómenos climáticos extremos y
las variaciones en los patrones meteorológicos estacionales han
tenido un gran impacto en la salud , tanto de forma directa (por
ejemplo, el aumento de las tasas de morbilidad y mortalidad)
como indirecta (por ejemplo, la inseguridad alimentaria). Los
fenómenos meteorológicos extremos, como las olas de calor y las
fuertes precipitaciones, están ocurriendo con mayor frecuencia e
intensidad , lo que supone nuevas amenazas para los sistemas de
salud. El cambio climático tiene repercusiones en la salud física y
mental, así como en el bienestar social.
El cambio climático aumenta las desigualdades. Los países de
ingresos bajos y medios se ven más afectados porque, en general,
están expuestos a temperaturas más altas y sus economías se
basan en gran medida en la agricultura y en actividades al aire
libre expuestas a fenómenos meteorológicos extremos. No
siempre se adoptan medidas de adaptación. En Costa Rica, según
el informe Estado de la Nación 2020 , el COVID-19 ha aumentado
la pobreza y la vulnerabilidad social. En pocos meses, entre el 3 y
el 8 por ciento de la población alcanzó la precariedad extrema
debido al rápido crecimiento del desempleo.
En este informe de políticas analizamos la evidencia
proporcionada por el informe global 2021 de Lancet Countdown
para Costa Rica y proponemos tres áreas fundamentales de
intervención. Debido a las características climáticas y laborales de
Costa Rica, el número de horas de trabajo perdidas debido al calor
es crítico y se convierte en un problema de salud pública. El
análisis de riesgos a nivel local es vital para que las comunidades
realicen acciones efectivas de mitigación y adaptación. Por último,
un tema ampliamente debatido pero en el que se ha avanzado
poco es la mejora del transporte para hacerlo sostenible,
saludable, accesible y eficiente. Este informe está dirigido a los
responsables políticos para que les sirva de guía a la hora de
tomar decisiones basadas en pruebas científicas.
Introducción
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DESARROLLAR Y APLICAR PLANES DE ACCIÓN PARA REDUCIR LAS EMISIONES DE GASES
DE EFECTO INVERNADERO A NIVEL LOCAL, ADOPTANDO UN ENFOQUE DE GÉNERO Y
DESIGUALDAD, ESPECIALMENTE EN LAS POBLACIONES VULNERABLES.
Un enfoque territorial de los riesgos para la salud de las comunidades causados por el
cambio climático permite responder a las necesidades específicas de la población. Los
datos del informe global de Lancet de 2021 muestran que el número de municipios que
realizan estas evaluaciones de riesgo debe aumentar. Costa Rica debería ampliar el
programa piloto actual a 20 municipios cada año durante los próximos 4 años, priorizando
los cantones con poblaciones especialmente vulnerables durante los dos primeros años.
Los planes deberían incluir a todas las instituciones gubernamentales pertinentes.
DAR PRIORIDAD A LA EVIDENCIA CIENTÍFICA Y A LOS OBJETIVOS MEDIOAMBIENTALES
EN LA TOMA DE DECISIONES SOBRE TRANSPORTE Y MOVILIDAD.
Los datos a nivel de país indican que las mejoras en el sector del transporte y la movilidad
requieren un cambio en la gobernanza. Las evidencias exigen una actuación urgente en
este ámbito por su importante contribución a las emisiones de gases de efecto invernadero
y por ser una amenaza para la salud pública.
PROMOVER LOS MECANISMOS DE INTERVENCIÓN LOCAL Y LA EVALUACIÓN OPORTUNA
DEL ESTRÉS TÉRMICO EN EL LUGAR DE TRABAJO.
Las pruebas epidemiológicas y los datos climáticos a nivel regional deben servir de base
para las acciones de adaptación y mitigación en la agricultura, el comercio, el turismo, la
educación y el sector sanitario, especialmente para las poblaciones vulnerables. Se
necesitan planes y políticas estratégicas a nivel local para prevenir las enfermedades
relacionadas con la exposición al calor. Las intervenciones para hacer frente al estrés
térmico en el lugar de trabajo, y su evaluación oportuna, son cruciales, especialmente en
las comunidades donde la pobreza y el acceso reducido a la atención sanitaria son
comunes.
2
Recomendaciones
1
3
Costa Rica está dividida administrativamente en siete provincias y
82 cantones, que cuentan con gobiernos locales elegidos
democráticamente desde 2002. El informe global 2021 de Lancet
Countdown indica que el 81% de las ciudades que participaron
en la encuesta del Proyecto de Divulgación de Carbono (CDP) han
completado o están implementando evaluaciones de riesgo de
cambio climático. Las poblaciones más vulnerables fueron
identificadas globalmente como los ancianos, los niños, los
hogares con bajos ingresos y las mujeres.
La evaluación de los riesgos del cambio climático a nivel cantonal
permitirá una prevención más específica, inversiones, desarrollo
de políticas y planes de acción dirigidos específicamente a la
población en riesgo. Costa Rica presenta una gran variabilidad
climática espacial debido a su compleja topografía y a sus
limitados recursos económicos. En la encuesta del CDP, las
ciudades de los países de ingresos bajos y medios están
infrarrepresentadas en la muestra. En el caso de Costa Rica, sólo
14 de un total de 82 municipios participaron en la encuesta. Y
estos correspondían a cantones con un índice de desarrollo
humano alto o muy alto.
De estos 14 municipios, ocho identificaron riesgos a nivel de los
sistemas de salud y de salud pública asociados al cambio
climático, donde se destacaron las enfermedades transmitidas
,,,,,
El calentamiento del sistema climático global y sus impactos en
América Latina y el Caribe son visibles desde hace tres décadas. ,
En 2020, por ejemplo, uno de los tres años más cálidos de los que
se tiene constancia, se produjo un notable aumento de la
temperatura del Mar Caribe con repercusiones en la regulación
del clima. Según el informe global 2021 de Lancet Countdown, se
perdieron 295.000 millones de horas potenciales de trabajo en
todo el mundo como consecuencia del calor extremo, el 79% de
las cuales se produjeron en países con bajos índices de desarrollo
humano. En Costa Rica, se perdió un récord de 41 millones de
horas potenciales de trabajo en 2020, y el sector agrícola
representó más de un tercio.
En Costa Rica, el impacto adverso del estrés por calor en el lugar
de trabajo se ha reportado en comunidades agrícolas,
especialmente en trabajadores de la caña de azúcar en la
provincia de Guanacaste. Los riesgos inmediatos para la salud del
estrés por calor están relativamente bien documentados, pero se
sabe poco sobre los efectos a largo plazo de la exposición
constante al calor extremo. La Enfermedad Renal Crónica de
Causa no Tradicional (ERCnT), un grave problema de salud
pública, afecta desproporcionadamente a los hombres de las
zonas rurales agrícolas de bajos ingresos de la costa del Pacífico
en la provincia de Guanacaste en los cantones de Liberia, Nicoya,
Santa Cruz, Bagaces, Carrillo, Cañas, Abangares, Nandayure, La
Cruz y Hojancha, y el cantón de Upala en las provincias de
provincia de Alajuela.
En estas zonas existe una marcada estación seca de noviembre a
abril, y una estación lluviosa de mayo a octubre, generalmente
con mañanas despejadas, importante calentamiento e insolación
matinal (alta radiación solar) y lluvias vespertinas. Durante los
meses de julio y agosto se produce una disminución de las
precipitaciones, donde la insolación vuelve a aumentar. La forma
en que se desarrolla la ERCnT en los trabajadores agrícolas no se
conoce bien, pero el estrés térmico laboral provoca disfunción
renal en los individuos.
Aunque el gobierno costarricense ha promulgado medidas para la
prevención y el tratamiento de la ERCnT, los casos siguen
aumentando incluso en zonas no declaradas de riesgo. Es vital
que el país desarrolle planes y políticas estratégicas a nivel local
para prevenir y controlar las enfermedades relacionadas con la
exposición al calor. Las intervenciones y sus evaluaciones
oportunas en el lugar de trabajo son necesarias para la
prevención de la progresión de la enfermedad, especialmente en
las comunidades donde la pobreza y el acceso reducido a la
atención en salud son comunes. Para ello, debe promoverse el
desarrollo de un método de evaluación estandarizado y la
identificación de las necesidades de investigación sobre el calor y
sus efectos sobre la salud en poblaciones clave, a fin de
proporcionar datos para la toma de decisiones.
por vectores (5 municipios), lainterrupción de los servicios de
salud (4 municipios) y la interrupción de los servicios de agua
potable, saneamiento y aguas residuales (4 municipios).
La evaluación de riesgos del cambio climático debe orientar las
políticas y acciones de adaptación y mitigación a nivel local, con
un enfoque de género en los cantones identificados, así como
considerar a las poblaciones más vulnerables, con planes
específicamente dirigidos a mitigar los mayores efectos sobre
estas personas. Se ha avanzado en las evaluaciones a nivel local
mediante planes piloto en 6 municipios para abordar las políticas
de cambio climático. Por ejemplo, la Municipalidad de Belén
cuenta con una Estrategia Cantonal de Cambio Climático , pero
ésta representa menos del 10% del total de cantones y no incluye
a los de mayor vulnerabilidad.
Por lo tanto, el país debería ampliar este ensayo a 20 municipios
cada año durante los próximos 4 años, para implementar
evaluaciones de riesgo y planes de acción y mitigación
específicos. Debería darse prioridad a las regiones más
vulnerables en los primeros años. Insistimos en que las políticas
deben ser locales y responder a las características específicas de
cada cantón, ya que Costa Rica se caracteriza por la
heterogeneidad regional en términos de ingresos, desarrollo
humano, población y clima.
Evaluación de riesgo del cambio climático a nivel
de ciudad
Cambio en la fuerza laboral
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20,22,23,24
25
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27
27
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Esto ha impedido que se produzcan verdaderos avances en otros
ámbitos, como pequeños pasos con pilotos en cuanto a la
sectorización del transporte público y la electrificación de la flota
de vehículos. Algunos gobiernos locales están explorando nuevas
formas de movilización con la creación de ciclovías; sin embargo,
estas iniciativas deben ir acompañadas de educación vial y
respeto en la carretera para minimizar el riesgo de accidentes
para peatones y ciclistas. Además, el 30,6% de los fallecidos por
accidentes de tráfico en 2018 corresponden a este colectivo
(ciclista y peatón), considerado como usuario vulnerable de la vía
pública.
El Plan Nacional de Descarbonización 2018-2050 incluye la
movilidad y el transporte , y para 2020, de los 18 objetivos
relacionados con el transporte verde, se iniciaron 15 pero sólo se
ha concluido uno a pesar de que se ha establecido un plazo para
cumplir los objetivos en 2022. La gobernanza es donde parece
haber más dificultades, ya que este apartado sólo se refiere a la
propuesta de Ley para la modernización de RECOPE y a algunos
cambios en la organización y planificación a nivel del Ministerio de
Transporte. Este apartado, que es el más urgente para que los
demás avancen, sigue siendo el punto débil de las propuestas
para mejorar el sector.
Insistimos en que las áreas prioritarias siguen siendo las señaladas
por el Informe del Estado de la Nación 2018. También
recomendamos romper los cuellos de botella de la gobernanza,
priorizando los datos, la evidencia científica, la transparencia de la
administración pública y la voluntad política, para que los
objetivos marcados por los planes nacionales puedan ser
alcanzados en los plazos establecidos.
Transporte saludable y sostenible
El transporte sostenible es fundamental para controlar las
emisiones de CO . Alrededor del 18% de las emisiones mundiales
de CO proceden del sector del transporte. A pesar de los
esfuerzos por electrificar la flota vehicular y aumentar el número
de vehículos eléctricos a nivel mundial, éstos representan menos
del 1% del total. Las leyes y políticas de planificación destinadas a
mejorar el transporte desempeñan un papel importante en la
salud pública, ya que los efectos nocivos de la exposición a largo
plazo a las partículas medidas como PM y PM procedentes de
los vehículos se han relacionado con el aumento de la mortalidad
total y el aumento de la mortalidad por enfermedades
cardiovasculares y el cáncer.
La situación en Costa Rica es crítica y el Informe del Estado de la
Nación de 2018 señala un problema de gobernanza y
planificación. El 50% de los trabajadores se desplazan a distancia
de su lugar de residencia. Hasta el 3,8% del PIB en costos
económicos se deriva de la congestión del transporte. Hay un
crecimiento sostenido del uso de combustibles fósiles para el
sector del transporte. En 2019, el consumo de estos combustibles
fue un 8,2% mayor que en 1992 . Además, Costa Rica es el tercer
país con mayor número de vehículos privados por cada mil
habitantes en América Latina, y el sector transporte representa el
66% del consumo de hidrocarburos y el 54% de las emisiones de
CO . En 2019 se consumieron 2.742.361 metros cúbicos (m ) de
combustible, de los cuales 1,4 millones fueron de gasolina y 1,3
millones de diésel.
El informe del Estado de la Nación de 2018 identificó cinco áreas
de atención: destrabar los cuellos de botella de la gobernanza,
transformar el transporte público para que sea accesible y
eficiente, promover cambios en la flota vehicular, incentivar los
medios de transporte no motorizados y, por último, mejoras en la
infraestructura vial. En 2021 se han logrado algunos avances para
solucionar estos problemas, pero los obstáculos legales,
administrativos y políticos influyen negativamente. Por ejemplo,
la viabilidad política de proyectos como la sectorización del
transporte público, la integración multimodal del transporte
público, y el tren urbano y el sistema de pago electrónico están
estancados y politizados. Los beneficios, las pruebas científicas y
los vínculos con el cambio climático para la salud no se consideran
prioritarios.
El informe del Estado de la Nación de 2018 identificó cinco áreas
de atención: destrabar los cuellos de botella de la gobernanza,
transformar el transporte público para que sea accesible y
eficiente, promover cambios en la flota vehicular, incentivar los
medios de transporte no motorizados y, por último, mejoras en la
infraestructura vial. En 2021 se han logrado algunos avances
para solucionar estos problemas, pero los obstáculos legales,
administrativos y políticos influyen negativamente. Por ejemplo,
la viabilidad política de proyectos como la sectorización del
transporte público, la integración multimodal del transporte
público, y el tren urbano y el sistema de pago electrónico están
estancados y politizados. Los beneficios, las pruebas científicas y
los vínculos con el cambio climático para la salud no se consideran
prioritarios. dddddd
29
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Referencias
The Lancet Countdown: Tracking Progress on Health and Climate Change
es una colaboración multidisciplinar que supervisa los vínculos entre la
salud y el cambio climático. Reúne a los principales investigadores de 43
instituciones académicas y organismos de las Naciones Unidas de todos
los continentes, y publica actualizaciones anuales de sus conclusiones
para ofrecer a los responsables de la toma de decisiones
recomendaciones de alta calidad basadas en pruebas. Para ver su
evaluación de 2021, visite www.lancetcountdown.org/2021-report/
La Escuela de Medicina de la Universidad de Costa Rica es la primera casa
formadora de profesionales médicos y quirúrgicos en Costa Rica, con
innumerables aportes a la salud pública de nuestro país. Su propósito es
formar profesionales médicos con sólidas bases científicas, éticas y
humanísticas que respondan a su contexto social y profesional.
Lancet Countdown Sudamérica existe para promover la investigación
sobre la salud y el cambio climático en la región, para fomentar el
compromiso regional sobre cómo el cambio climático está afectando a la
salud en todo el continente, y desafiar a los países a responder en línea
con la evidencia. Es el único centro académico de Sudamérica que
investiga específicamente el cambio climático y la salud. Tiene su sede en
el centro Clima de la Universidad Peruana Cayetano Heredia (UPCH) en
Lima, Perú.
Este informe de política fue escrito por la Dra. Zaray Miranda-Chacón, MD,
PhD (Escuela de Medicina, UCR), Ana Leonor Rivera Chavarría, MD, MSc
(INCIENSA- UCR), Geison Rivera-Bermúdez(UCR), Dra. Adriana Troyo, PhD
(CIET - UCR), Prof. Hugo G. Hidalgo, PhD (CIGEFI - UCR), y Prof. Eric
J.Alfaro, PhD (CIGEFI- UCR). Las revisiones y ediciones extensas fueron
proporcionadas por Michelle Soto, Licda; María Jesús Arias, Paula
Barrantes, Oscar Campos, Angélica Carvajal, Adela Chacón, Valeria Díaz y
Glen Martínez. La revisión en nombre de Lancet Countdown fue realizada
por Marisol Yglesias-González, MScIH; Assoc. Prof. Andrés G. Lescano,
PhD; Dr. Frances MacGuire, PhD y Dr. Marina Romanello, PhD.
El Centro de Investigación en Geofísica de la Universidad de Costa Rica
(CIGEFI- UCR, http://cigefi.ucr.ac.cr/) fue creado en febrero de 1979; está
adscrito a la Vicerrectoría de Investigación de la Universidad de Costa
Rica. Se dedica al estudio de la meteorología, climatología e hidrología de
Centroamérica.
CIET (https://ciet.ucr.ac.cr/) es una unidad de investigación científica
multidisciplinar donde se estudian las enfermedades tropicales. La
investigación tiene como objetivo encontrar soluciones para la
prevención y el control de los agentes infecciosos, mediante el estudio de
sus características biológicas y epidemiológicas, así como el desarrollo de
mejores métodos de diagnóstico.
Las actividades del Instituto Costarricense de Investigación y Enseñanza
en Nutrición y Salud (INCIENSA) (https://www.inciensa.sa.cr/) están
orientadas a la investigación en salud pública, la vigilancia epidemiológica
y la docencia y garantía de calidad. Las acciones de vigilancia
epidemiológica apoyan la identificación, medición, seguimiento y
tratamiento de los eventos prioritarios de salud.
TH E L ANCE T CO UNTD OWN
LA NCET COU NTD OWN EN SUD AMÉ RICA
FACULTAD DE MEDICINA DE LA UNIVERSIDAD DE
COSTA RICA
CENTRO DE INVESTIGACIÓN DE ENFERMEDADES
TR OPI CALE S, U NIVE RSID AD D E CO STA RI CA (CIE T - UCR)
CENTRO DE INVESTIGACIÓN EN GEOFÍSICA,
UNIVERSIDAD DE COSTA RICA (CIGEFI - UCR)
INSTITUTO COSTARRICENSE DE INVESTIGACIÓN Y
EDUCACIÓN EN NUTRICIÓN Y SALUD (INCIENSA)
Este informe político se ha elaborado para acompañar a “The 2021 report of the Lancet Countdown on health and climate change”, que se publicó en The Lancet el 20 de octubre de 2021. Este
documento no ha sido publicado ni revisado por The Lancet.
Organizaciones y reconocimientos
ResearchGate has not been able to resolve any citations for this publication.
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The death toll of the epidemic of chronic kidney disease of nontraditional origin (CKDnt) in Mesoamerica runs into the tens of thousands, affecting mostly young men. There is no consensus on the etiology. Anecdotal evidence from the 1990s pointed to work in sugarcane; pesticides and heat stress were suspected. Subsequent population-based surveys supported an occupational origin with overall high male-female ratios in high-risk lowlands, but small sex differences within occupational categories, and low prevalence in non-workers. CKDnt was reported in sugarcane and other high-intensity agriculture, and in non-agricultural occupations with heavy manual labor in hot environments, but not among subsistence farmers. Recent studies with stronger designs have shown cross-shift changes in kidney function and hydration biomarkers and cross-harvest kidney function declines related to heat and workload. The implementation of a water-rest-shade intervention midharvest in El Salvador appeared to halt declining kidney function among cane cutters. In Nicaragua a water-rest-shade program appeared sufficient to prevent kidney damage among cane workers with low-moderate workload but not among cutters with heaviest workload. Studies on pesticides and infectious risk factors have been largely negative. Non-occupational risk factors do not explain the observed epidemiologic patterns. In conclusion, work is the main driver of the CKDnt epidemic in Mesoamerica, with occupational heat stress being the single uniting factor shown to lead to kidney dysfunction in affected populations. Sugarcane cutters with extreme heat stress could be viewed as a sentinel occupational population. Occupational heat stress prevention is critical, even more so in view of climate change.
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Although several empirical studies and systematic reviews have documented the mental health impacts of global climate change, the range of impacts has not been well understood. This review examines mental health impacts of three types of climate-related events: (1) acute events such as hurricanes, floods, and wildfires; (2) subacute or long-term changes such as drought and heat stress; and (3) the existential threat of long-lasting changes, including higher temperatures, rising sea levels and a permanently altered and potentially uninhabitable physical environment. The impacts represent both direct (i.e. heat stress) and indirect (i.e. economic loss, threats to health and well-being, displacement and forced migration, collective violence and civil conflict, and alienation from a degraded environment) consequences of global climate change.
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Objectives: Recent studies in Central America indicate that mortality attributable to chronic kidney disease (CKD) is rising rapidly. We sought to determine the prevalence and regional variation of CKD and the relationship of biologic and socioeconomic factors to CKD risk in the older-adult population of Costa Rica. Methods: We used data from the Costa Rican Longevity and Health Aging Study (CRELES). The cohort was comprised of 2657 adults born before 1946 in Costa Rica, chosen through a sampling algorithm to represent the national population of Costa Ricans >60 years of age. Participants answered questionnaire data and completed laboratory testing. The primary outcome of this study was CKD, defined as an estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) <60 ml/min/1.73m(2) . Results: The estimated prevalence of CKD for older Costa Ricans was 20% (95% CI 18.5 - 21.9%). In multivariable logistic regression, older age (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 1.08 per year, 95%CI 1.07-1.10, p<0.001) was independently associated with CKD. For every 200 meters above sea level of residence, subjects' odds of CKD increased 26% (aOR 1.26 95% CI 1.15-1.38, p<0.001). There was large regional variation in adjusted CKD prevalence, highest in Limon (40%, 95% CI 30%-50%) and Guanacaste (36%, 95% CI 26-46%) provinces. Regional and altitude effects remained robust after adjustment for socioeconomic status (SES). Conclusions: We observed large regional and altitude-related variations in CKD prevalence in Costa Rica, not explained by the distribution of traditional CKD risk factors. More studies are needed to explore the potential association of geographic and environmental exposures with the risk of CKD. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.