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sustainability
Article
Training Conditions and Emotional Impact on Spanish Olympic
Swimmers and Rowers in Social Isolation Due to COVID-19.
Results of a Survey
David Moscoso-Sánchez 1, * , David Alarcón-Rubio 2, Manuel Trujillo-Carmona 3
and JoséCarlos Jaenes-Sánchez 2
Citation: Moscoso-Sánchez, D.;
Alarcón-Rubio, D.; Trujillo-Carmona,
M.; Jaenes-Sánchez, J.C. Training
Conditions and Emotional Impact on
Spanish Olympic Swimmers and
Rowers in Social Isolation Due to
COVID-19. Results of a Survey.
Sustainability 2021,13, 11148.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
su132011148
Academic Editors: Emiliano Ce,
Giuseppe Coratella, Stefano Longo
and Christian Doria
Received: 2 August 2021
Accepted: 6 October 2021
Published: 9 October 2021
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
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iations.
Copyright: © 2021 by the authors.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
distributed under the terms and
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
4.0/).
1Department of Social Sciences, Philosophy, Geography and Translation and Interpretation,
University of Cordoba, 14071 Cordova, Spain
2Department of Social Anthropology, Basic Psychology and Public Health, Pablo de Olavide University,
41013 Seville, Spain; dalarub@upo.es (D.A.-R.); jcjaesan@upo.es (J.C.J.-S.)
3Institute of Advanced Social Studies (IESA-CSIC), 14004 Cordova, Spain; mtrujillo@iesa.csic.es
*Correspondence: dmoscoso@uco.es
Abstract:
This article analyzes the results of a survey conducted in 2020 with Spanish Olympic
swimmers and rowers, who were confined to their homes due to the epidemiological crisis. The
questionnaire was administered between 23 April and 25 May. Responses to the questionnaire on
emotional and adaptive reactions during the COVID-19 confinement (REACOVID-19) were received
from 88 subjects, who represented 100% of the total population of Spanish Olympic swimmers
and rowers. Through this questionnaire, they were asked about their living conditions, their daily
training habits and their psychological, cognitive and emotional adaptation during the confinement.
The results show the commitment of these athletes to their sports goals and their responsibility in
respecting the confinement rules. Sixty-seven per cent of them stated that they had not left their
homes for 96 days. In these extreme circumstances, the majority trained an average of 11 to 13 h
a week and coped with the confinement with a positive attitude, in spite of the inconveniences
of social isolation, the lack of equipment and technical support for training and the limitations of
their physical space. The article analyzes which emotional and social factors influenced both their
motivation and their hours of training.
Keywords:
Olympic swimmers and rowers; social isolation; epidemiological crisis; COVID-19; Spain
1. Introduction
As a consequence of the world epidemiological crisis of SARS-CoV-2 (known as
COVID-19), the Spanish government decided to adopt unparalleled measures regarding
mobility and social distancing. The most important measure was the home confinement for
all of those who did not carry out essential activities (related to health, education, safety,
food supply, etc.), except for the strict acquisition of food and medicines. In this context,
sport in Spain was paralyzed, a unique situation in modern history which forced the athletes
to confine themselves to their homes for nearly two months, due to the postponement of
all training and sports events, important leagues and championships.
Many studies have been carried out in this country on sports habits and behaviors
in the population. The well-known Survey on Sports Habits in Spain, part of the official
statistics collected in the country, has been conducted by the Center for Sociological Re-
search (CIS) every 5 years since 1980. In the context of sports sociology, research has also
been carried out on high-level athletes [
1
], especially on their profiles and professional
careers [
2
,
3
]. Traditionally, however, it has been the field of sports psychology that has de-
voted greater efforts to studying aspects related to the motivation, mood and environmental
and emotional conditions of Olympic athletes [4–7].
Sustainability 2021,13, 11148. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132011148 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability
Sustainability 2021,13, 11148 2 of 18
Notwithstanding these studies, there are no antecedents of analysis of the situation of
athletes in contexts of isolation, in spite of there being some cases in elite sport of individuals
who have suffered isolation in war scenarios. After a comprehensive bibliographic review
in the main reference sources, no studies were found on this topic in the past. The studies
that we found were published between 2020 and 2021. However, there are also no specific
studies on Olympic athletes in isolation contexts, this study being the first to analyze the
training conditions and the emotional impact of Olympic swimmers and rowers in Spain.
The publications that exist are recent and arose from the present epidemiological
crisis, mostly studying the emotional impact on high-level and Olympic athletes [
8
–
17
].
In general, the results show their need for psychological and physical support during
confinement and the return to competition. Thus, guidelines and recommendations have
been published on the initiative of the Spanish Rowing Federation and the International
Society of Sport Psychology (ISSP) to help them overcome this situation in the best way
possible.
Some authors [
18
,
19
] suggest that the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic is associated
with mental and physical health challenges in athletes; and periods of inactivity, isolation
from athletic teams, distance from the athletic community, less qualified interactions with
athletic coaches and lack of social support have also been shown to cause emotional distress
and psychological disorders in athletes.
As a consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic, recent research has warned about the ef-
fect of confinement and social isolation on athletes’ physical activity and mental health [
20
].
Home confinement has meant a drastic change in athletes’ training
routines [19,21]
, and al-
though they attempted to maintain their physical activity during confinement, a reduction
in training time and intensity was observed [
21
–
23
]. During the confinement period, the
quality of athletes’ sleep was also reduced [
24
,
25
], and at the same time an increase was
evident in the number of sedentary activities [23–28].
Social distancing is another potential stressor due to the home confinement caused
by COVID-19 [
20
]. Reduced social relationships and companionship in sports practice is
associated with a longer period of sedentary activities and reduced well-being [
29
–
31
]. In
addition, due to confinement, athletes perceived a deprivation of personal contact with
their coaches and psychological support, and symptoms of mental illness such as stress
and depression have thereby increased [32–35].
There are 5,337 high-level athletes in Spain, of whom only 383 are Olympic athletes
from the different disciplines and modalities [
36
]. While the high-level athletes are selected
by the Higher Sports Council (CSD), the maximum organ that regulates national sport
and belongs to the Spanish Ministry of Culture and Sport, at the proposal of their sports
federations, the Olympic athletes are designated by the Spanish Olympic Committee
(COE) and awarded grants from Aids to Olympic Sports (ADO). Thanks to these aids, the
Spanish high-level and Olympic athletes are provided with resources and human services,
accommodation and technical means for their training and sporting excellence. They are
athletes who establish their sports objectives in the short, medium and long term, and who
formed part of the Olympic team for the Olympic Games of Tokyo 2020 (now Tokyo 2021).
During the months of confinement, these Spanish Olympic athletes were training in
their homes and suffering a great deal of anxiety regarding their future, given the fact that
the opportunity cost of a sports career is high (at the personal, family, educational and
professional levels, outside the field of sport) [
37
]. The situation experienced during the
confinement was one of extreme anxiety, because many of them saw their training and
competition calendars interrupted, without the necessary help in technical material and
without access to sports equipment, except for the basic items which are found in many
homes (weights, resistance bands, stationary bikes, etc.), during their isolation in their
places of residence.
Some meta-analyses have shown that the COVID-19 crisis has had negative effects
on the mental health of the general population [
38
–
40
]. Some risk factors for suffering
from these negative psychological symptoms have been lacking support networks during
Sustainability 2021,13, 11148 3 of 18
confinement, excessive media exposure to information about the incidence of COVID-19
and uncertainty about employment [39].
Numerous studies have shown that due to the COVID-19 confinement an inverse
association has been observed between reduced physical activity and well-being in the
general population [
41
,
42
], and especially with negative consequences for mental health,
as the symptoms of stress and depression increase due to a lack of physical activity [
43
–
45
].
Athletes are an especially at-risk group for suffering these negative psychological conse-
quences; reduced physical activity has had a negative effect on their sports performance,
and with it increased their stress and negative mood states [46–50].
The present study sheds light on the training conditions and emotional impact ex-
perienced by a group of Spanish Olympic swimmers and rowers during the period of
confinement. It is a pioneering study that presents key aspects of the exceptional training
conditions of Olympic athletes in Spain, although we believe that the results may be ex-
trapolated to other countries. Using a survey administered with the support of the sports
federations, 88 subjects were interviewed, representing 100% of the population from these
disciplines and 23% of the total number of Spanish Olympic athletes.
In conclusion, it is worth mentioning the enormous challenge that was involved in
collecting and analyzing the survey results obtained using one of the few means available
during the period of confinement and the state of alarm. In fact, during the context of the
confinement experienced in Spain in 2020, there were few options to contact the population
that was confined to home by the epidemiological crisis except by using a telephone survey
or a self-administered one on the Internet. This is explained by the fact that, during the
state of alarm decreed by the Spanish government because of COVID-19, it was physically
impossible to carry out interviews or ethnographic work in person.
The results of the study have served to issue a report with recommendations for the
design of a protocol for Olympic athletes to improve their training conditions and reduce
the emotional impact in the face of future epidemiological crises.
2. Methodology
The investigation consisted of the administration of a questionnaire on the living
conditions, training habits and emotional states experienced by a population of Olympic
athletes in Spain during the period of confinement. The survey was conducted via the
Internet, following the model defined by [
51
] (page 5): “A web survey is the mode of
conducting surveys which uses self-administered questionnaires housed in a web server
connected to Internet, accessed by the responders through their web browser”. This
survey was designed and administered using the Google Form tool, which is a safe tool
because the access to the database generated is limited to the users who administer the
questionnaire [52].
Different methodologies have analyzed the use of Internet surveys in the last few
years [
52
–
55
]. These authors underline that “a retrospective view of the evolution of
the collection of information using a survey reveals that computer assisted interviewing
(CAI) is gradually replacing traditional in person interviews. This type of computer-
administered questionnaires, as well as using all the available types of questions (single
answer, multiple choice, textual or numerical answer, etc.), is simpler to administer because
it —automatically— makes ‘jumps’ caused by filter questions, complex routes, etc., and
no less importantly, makes it possible to establish rules of consistency that are confirmed
before the information is recorded” [56] (page 138).
In the case of the present investigation, some of the experts’ recommendations have
been followed in the use of this type of data collection techniques [
45
,
46
,
52
,
57
], like the
definition of the objective and the profile of the population sample, the choice of the general
design of the survey and the validated questionnaire, and the delimitation of the protocol
for contacting the responders.
We are conscious that Google Form is not an ideal tool for a web survey. However,
without the capacity to act with agility in another way, as a consequence of a completely
Sustainability 2021,13, 11148 4 of 18
unforeseen historical event and of the suspension of economic activity in Spain—which
prevented us from contacting multidisciplinary research teams, unable to continue their
professional activity—the optimal execution of the survey was very difficult to achieve.
2.1. Questionnaire
The research team agreed on the design of the questionnaire, starting with the search
for references in Medline and Google Scholar, with the aim of finding examples of studies
with people in situations of isolation. The team also contacted Dr. Manuel Trujillo, Professor
of Psychiatry at New York University and Chief of Psychiatry at Bellevue Hospital, an
expert in this type of situation.
Both the recommendations of Dr. Trujillo and the short version of the POMS ques-
tionnaire by Andrade [
58
] for adult athletes and the general population were of great help,
and were complemented with questions about the impact of confinement on areas such as
sleep, concentration and mood state. The construction of the questionnaire was aimed at
gaining more information about their psychological, cognitive and emotional adaptation.
Once the questions and answer options had been drawn up, the research team debated
the questionnaire and arrived at a consensus on its final version, entitled Emotional and
Adaptive Reactions to the COVID-19 Confinement (REACOVID-19) [
13
,
48
]. In total, the
questionnaire comprised 43 questions.
The questionnaire was initially tested on a sample of 10 athletes to confirm that it was
appropriate and understandable. Four coaches and four sports psychologists, blinded to the
study objectives, were recruited for the validation as recommended by Osterlind [
59
], with
a Likert scale to assess the comprehension and adequacy of the items. The questionnaire
measurement model was validated using a Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) in a sample
of 1248 Spanish athletes, reaching an acceptable model fit and reliability indicators [37].
Among the questions, there was a first block on sociodemographic characteristics,
where information was sought on age, sex and educational level, as well as the country and
region of residence. The second block asked for information on the conditioning aspects
of the athletes’ lives during the confinement: the size of their homes, the availability of
open space, their family’s working situation and their leisure activities. The third block
requested information about the type of activity that they carried out and their level of
dedication, training habits and equipment, information on monitoring by their coaches
and information received from the clubs or federations, etc., during the confinement. The
fourth block asked their opinion on the postponement of the Olympic Games and the
effect that it would have on their sports career. Lastly, a fifth block collected data on their
psychological, cognitive and emotional adaptation, in the situation of confinement that
existed in Spain at that moment.
2.2. Administration of the Survey
Once the survey had been designed and validated, it was tried out with a pre-test
on ten high-level athletes, five coaches and three sports psychologists, to guarantee that
the questions were perfectly understandable and did not give rise to confusion. From
the first days of confinement, the questionnaire began to be disseminated using the list
of contacts of the Spanish Rowing Federation, the Royal Spanish Swimming Federation
and the Andalusian Center for Sports Medicine (CAMD) in the Department of Education
and Sport of the Andalusian Regional Government. The questionnaire was administered
between 23 April and 25 May.
2.3. Sample
All the Olympic athletes participating in the study were from the disciplines and
modalities of swimming and rowing, and represented the total population with this profile.
They were 88 Olympic swimmers and rowers, 65 from the different swimming disciplines
(swimming, water polo, synchronized swimming, diving and open waters) and 23 from
two rowing modalities (Olympic rowing and sliding seat rowing); 54% were men and 46%
Sustainability 2021,13, 11148 5 of 18
women. The mean age of the athletes was 21.64 years. Regarding their educational level,
the majority had completed secondary education (41%), a degree (31%) and post-graduate
studies (12%). Most of these athletes lived in the following regions: Catalonia (51%),
Andalusia (11%), the Canary Islands (9%), the Valencian Region (6%), the Madrid Region
(6%) and Murcia (6%).
2.4. Data Analysis
The strategic decisions adopted to take advantage of the results were as follows: First,
the data obtained through the survey were processed following a scrupulous cleaning
of the matrix. Once the valid data base for the analysis of the results was defined, we
converted the original “xml” source code from the Excel spreadsheet to a “sav” source
code to adapt it to the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences version 25.
Second, mostly descriptive statistics were calculated as frequency and cross tables, to
obtain a first description of the material and social conditions, the training conditions and
the different dimensions of the emotional impact of the athletes during confinement.
Third, the descriptive results motivated some important questions and hypotheses:
(a) A first hypothesis was that the smaller size of the house, the loss of family jobs and
the lack of adequate sports equipment would be the factors that would most affect athletes
in their training.
(b) A second hypothesis was that the emotional impact caused by the suspension of
their training and competitions would also have influenced the emotional impact.
To test the hypotheses, some inferential statistics were also calculated to ascertain the
relations among variables, like Spearman’s correlation (
ρ
(rho)) and principal component
analysis (CATPCA). This allowed us to examine which factors could most influence the
training hours of these athletes. The CATPCA is a statistical information reduction tech-
nique. In our study, this technique served to summarize the information contained in 36
variables into only 2 dimensions.
3. Results
3.1. Material and Social Conditions of the Confinement
The material and social conditions experienced by the athletes during the confinement
were measured with different variables.
In the first place, the questionnaire inquired about the home conditions in which they
found themselves during the confinement, in particular the dimensions of the home where
they spent the confinement and the availability or not of a terrace or garden. The results
show that the home conditions in which the athletes spent the confinement were very
dissimilar: 13% lived in homes of less than 70 m
2
, 31% in homes measuring between 70
and 90 m
2
, 29% in homes measuring from 90 to 120 m
2
and, finally 28% in homes of more
than 120 m
2
. Equally, while 66% said that they had a terrace or garden, 34% of the Olympic
athletes spent the confinement in closed apartments without gardens or terraces.
In the second place, they were asked about their compliance with the rules of confine-
ment ordered by the Spanish government during this period. Practically all the athletes
responded that they had respected the confinement rules a lot, or quite a lot (99%), with
67% stating that they did not leave their home even when they were given permission to
go out with their underage children, from April 26 on. Furthermore, 76% believed that
it was necessary to respect the quarantine. This means that the majority of the Spanish
Olympic athletes surveyed spent 96 days without leaving their homes, including in situa-
tions in which they were called to participate in the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games. All of this
demonstrates that, either due to responsibility or to guarantee their health with a view to
their sports interests, the majority of these athletes strictly complied with the confinement
in their homes. It could be that this was because of the fear of catching COVID-19, which
would have affected the smooth continuity of their sports careers.
In the third place, the analysis of the material and social conditions of the athletes
during the confinement also took into account the working situation of the family members
Sustainability 2021,13, 11148 6 of 18
due to the epidemiological crisis, as it was considered that it could possibly influence
their moods. This indicator was incorporated to ascertain the level of emotional pressure
experienced in the family during the confinement. The results show that 37% of the
Olympic athletes stated that someone in their family had lost their job, and 78% of these
had this happen to one of their parents or siblings.
Finally, they were asked what leisure activities they carried out during the confinement
to tackle their boredom. The responses highlight the activities related to the use of digital
technology and communication: social networks (94%), videoconferences or calls to friends
and relatives (93%) and video games (59%). They also spent their time in other traditional
activities, like listening to music (93%), watching television (86%) and reading (69%). A
large percentage (89%) of these athletes used their time during the confinement for studying.
Furthermore, other common leisure activities were learning something new (71%) and
relaxation exercises (62%).
3.2. Training Conditions
Regarding the training habits and behaviors of the Olympic athletes surveyed, the
results show that they maintained a mean weekly training regime of 11–13 h, although
some significantly surpassed this mean, as 31% trained more than 16 h per week during
the confinement (see Table 1). Apart from the training hours, 84% of the Olympic athletes
surveyed stated that they were able to organize themselves to be able to train.
Table 1. Weekly training hours.
Less than 5 h 0%
5 to 7 h 24%
8 to 10 h 16%
11 to 13 h 25%
14 to 16 h 5%
More than 16 h 31%
Mean 11–13
h/week
Source: Authors’ own.
In spite of everything, 50% said that during this period they had lost quite a lot or
a lot of their physical fitness. As they are athletes that need to use aquatic facilities and
equipment to develop part of their training, during the confinement and the state of alarm
in Spain they did not have access to them or to any other sports equipment except for the
most basic kinds which are usually found in the home (weights, stationary bikes, resistance
bands, mats, etc.), so that during a period of up to 96 days their training was limited to the
opportunities they had at home, which were insufficient for training at this level. Therefore,
the dedication that the surveyed athletes devoted to their training shows that, beyond the
difficulties deriving from the social isolation and the epidemiological crisis, these Olympic
athletes had an enormous amount of will power and capacity to maintain their training
under extreme conditions.
With respect to the logistic conditions during the confinement, the results show
that 67% were able to count on “little” or “no” suitable equipment for training at home.
Regarding the monitoring of their training sessions by their coaches, 64% said that they
were able to count on “quite a lot” or “a lot” of support from them. Apart from monitoring
the training, when they were asked whether the federation informed them about the
evolution of the situation in their sport, 53% of the Olympic athletes answered that they
received little or no information. On this point, it should be clarified that the sports
federations did not receive sufficient information from the national government or the
regional governments. Furthermore, as there was a state of alarm, the officials from the
Sustainability 2021,13, 11148 7 of 18
sports federations could not continue with their activities during the confinement, as all
non-essential economic activity in the country had been suspended.
In this context, it is normal that half the Olympic athletes surveyed (51%) declared
that they had found it quite or very difficult to motivate themselves to train. Bearing in
mind the cost in personal and professional opportunities that a sports career implies, the
reaction of the athletes from the point of view of motivation manifests their strength of
character and their will power with regard to their sport objectives.
With regard to their anxiety over the holding of the 2020 Tokyo Olympic Games, 98%
considered the postponement advisable, an almost unanimous response, in spite of the
fact that 34% of the Olympic athletes participating in the survey said that they had been
affected by the postponement of the Olympic Games. It may be that some of them were
in optimal form to participate in these Games, and perhaps others were of an age and
category that meant they could be excluded as they were postponed, or perhaps they still
had to compete in decisive events to be able to take part in Tokyo. Moreover, in spite of
the enormous opportunity cost which these athletes incurred with the postponement of
the 2020 Tokyo Olympic Games, the situation caused by the epidemiological crisis of the
coronavirus provoked many spontaneous reactions, in the whole world, on the part of
Olympic athletes, who organized themselves and issued public statements denouncing
the pressure that they were receiving from the international federations and sponsors to
compete, at all costs, in the programmed sport events [34].
3.3. Emotional Impact
The questionnaire administered in this study also tackled different aspects of the
psychological, cognitive and emotional adaptation of the Olympic athletes, faced with the
situation of confinement experienced in Spain.
A first block of questions on this topic aimed to collect information on the individual
cognitive-emotional and environmental conditions. The responders were asked about their
self-perception regarding sleep, concentration, irritability, fear of the possibility of a relative
dying, possible obsessive behaviors or rituals that could have arisen momentarily or their
eating regime.
The data show that 8 out of 10 Olympic athletes experienced, to different degrees
and in different ways, more irritability than normal (48% to a considerable extent), sleep
disturbances (47% to a large degree), difficulties to concentrate (43% just a little), fear of the
possibility of a relative dying due to COVID-19 (28% to a considerable extent) or moments
of anxiety (the majority only a little, 42%). To a lesser extent than the aforementioned
tendencies, they experienced the appearance of obsessive behaviors or rituals that they did
not have before (31% a little and 10% a great deal), and they ate more than usual (16% say
quite a lot or a lot). The results of the survey also show that 43% had some fierce arguments
with other people for trivial reasons.
The second block of questions inquired about different emotions and mood states
experienced during the state of alarm. In a framework of answer options from 1 to 5
for each one, where 1 meant “no” experience related to the listed emotions, 2 “a little”,
3 “quite a lot”, 4 “a lot” and 5 “a great deal”, the analysis of means shows the emotional
states experienced by the Spanish Olympic swimmers and rowers during the state of alarm
decreed because of the epidemiological crisis.
Table 2groups the emotions experienced and their values as a function of the mean
levels of each (“high level”, “medium level” and “low level”). The first group includes
those that manifested a high level of representation with a mean of about 3 to 4, relating to
the options of “quite a lot” and “a lot”. The emotions and feelings exclusively shown here
could be undoubtedly qualified as “positive”: friendly, understanding, helpful, considerate
and kind. A second group includes those emotions that scored around the mean (“a little”
and “quite a lot”), within a range from 2.25 to 2.75. This group includes a greater variety
of emotions, although most of them have in common mood states related to restlessness,
tiredness and discomfort: positive, nervous, active, restless, tired, agitated, tense, weary,
Sustainability 2021,13, 11148 8 of 18
melancholic, full of energy, fatigued, upset and irritable. Lastly, a third group of emotions
scored at a low mean level (“no” or “a little”), showing a lower frequency among the
surveyed athletes. This third group of emotions referred to aspects with an emotional load
which could be considered mainly “negative”: bad tempered, despairing, angry, weak,
exhausted, resentful, lonely and unhappy.
Table 2. Emotions experienced during the state of alarm by Spanish Olympic Athletes (means).
High Level
(quite a lot–a lot)
Medium Level
(a little–quite a lot) Low Level
Friendly 3.26 Positive 2.74 Bad tempered 2.19
Understanding
3.11 Nervous 2.72 Despairing 2.19
Helpful 3.06 Active 2.65 Vigorous 2.15
Considerate 3.04 Restless 2.62 Angry 2.03
Kind 2.96 Tired 2.53 Weak 2.03
Agitated 2.43 Exhausted 1.97
Tense 2.42 Resentful 1.95
Weary 2.42 Lonely 1.81
Melancholic 2.41 Unhappy 1.81
Full of energy 2.36
Fatigued 2.31
Upset 2.30
Irritable 2.25
Source: Authors’ own.
3.4. Correlation between the Hours of Training and the Different Material, Social, Emotional and
Logistic Factors
After obtaining the results of the survey, we wondered what factors could have
influenced the athletes’ training hours. We started with the hypothesis that factors like
the size of their homes, the monitoring by their coaches or the emotional impact on each
athlete could have influenced their training hours.
To clarify this issue, and bearing in mind that the size of the sample represented
100% of the Spanish Olympic athletes in the disciplines of swimming and rowing, we
performed a Spearman correlation
ρ
(rho), the results of which are very important for the
establishment of future strategies for the Olympic teams if faced with health crises which
demand the home confinement of the athletes for long periods.
In contrast to what we researchers thought with regard to the material, social and
logistic conditions of the athletes (see Table 3), the size of their homes and whether or
not they had a garden or terrace was the factor that least influenced their training hours.
However, the monitoring or lack of it on the part of the coach (0.388), the information
provided by the federation on the situation of the sport (0.360), the availability of adequate
equipment for training (0.348) and the capacity of the athletes to organize themselves
(0.338) were the factors which most influenced the training hours.
Regarding the emotional situation of the athletes (see Table 3), the results show that
the factor which most influenced the training hours was their capacity to keep motivated
during the confinement (–0.399) and, next, the availability and access to psychological
assistance (–0.311). Sleep disturbances (–0.138) and irritability (–0.104) also exerted an
influence, although to a lesser degree than the former factors.
Sustainability 2021,13, 11148 9 of 18
Table 3. Spearman’s correlations test.
Spearman’s correlations among material, social and sports conditions and training hours
During confinement, did your coach monitor you? 0.388
During confinement, did your federation inform you about the evolution of the
situation in your sport? 0.36
During confinement, did you have equipment for adequate training? 0.348
During confinement, could you organize yourself to train? 0.338
During confinement, did your club or team inform you about the situation of your
sport (if there were competitions or not, if some sports events were cancelled, etc.)?
0.23
Did you have a garden or outdoor terrace during confinement? −0.110
Square meters of the place of confinement 0.044
Spearman’s correlations between emotional situation and training hours
In general, has it been difficult to keep motivated for training? −0.399
Have you had access to a psychologist? −0.311
Have you received any psychological information during this time? 0.27
Have you been afraid that a relative might die? 0.174
Have you consulted a psychologist during this time? 0.149
Have you had sleep disturbances/difficulties? −0.138
Have you had any fierce arguments for trivial reasons? −0.104
Spearman’s correlations between moods and training hours
Have you felt . . . vigorous? 0.365
Have you felt . . . active? 0.312
Have you felt . . . positive? 0.253
Have you felt . . . full of energy? 0.242
Have you felt . . . melancholic? 0.193
Have you felt . . . considerate? 0.172
Have you felt . . . exhausted? 0.161
Have you felt . . . helpful? 0.147
Have you felt . . . kind? 0.145
Have you felt . . . tired? 0.131
Have you felt . . . resentful? 0.131
Have you felt . . . friendly? 0.128
Have you felt . . . weak? −0.151
Source: Authors’ own.
With regard to mood states and their correlation with training hours (see Table 3), the
main mood states that correlate with more training hours are positive: vigorous (0.365),
active (0.312), positive (0.253) and full of energy (0.242). In second place, other positive
mood states also influenced the training hours: considerate (0.172), helpful (0.147), kind
(0.145) and friendly (0.128). However, it was revealed that some negative mood states
can also influence the training hours, although to a lesser extent: melancholic (0.193),
exhausted (0.161), tired (0.131) and resentful (0.131). The only mood state that appeared
to be negatively related to the training hours was weakness (–0.151): those that felt weak
trained for fewer hours.
Lastly, we wanted to discover if there was a relation between the leisure activities per-
formed by the Olympic athletes in their confinement and the training hours (
see Figure 1)
.
The results highlight an important trend: those who spent more time with digital leisure
pastimes (video games, video conferences, television and social networks) spent less time
training, and those who spent their leisure time in relaxing activities (mindfulness, relax-
ation, yoga, cooking, learning something new or other activities) trained more hours on
average during the confinement. At the extremes, among those who practiced mindfulness
during the confinement, 48% trained during 16 or more hours per week, and among those
that spent their time playing video games, 27% (twenty points less) trained 16 or more
hours per week.
Sustainability 2021,13, 11148 10 of 18
Figure 1. Training hours according to the leisure activities performed (%). (Source: Authors’ own).
3.5. Analysis of Principal Components That Influenced Training Hours
To summarize the prolific information obtained from the survey on the emotional
situation of the athletes during the confinement, a categorical principal component analysis
(CATPCA), was conducted, as the variables used were neither continuous nor ordinal [
60
].
This analysis was used to confirm the weight and relation that the emotional com-
ponents had regarding the subjects’ training hours. Thirty-five variables were included
(see Table A1 in Appendix A), and the results analyzed were reduced to two dimensions
(see Table 4). To facilitate the understanding of the dimensions, the sign of the variables
that have a positive sense has been changed: for example, in “have you felt active?”, the
highest category has been changed to “no”. Thus, in all the emotional variables the highest
value is always negative. Dimension 1 has an eigenvalue of 13.6, which represents 39% of
the variance of the set of indicators. In this type of ordinal variables and with this type
of questions, it is a very high percentage. The second dimension represents 17% of the
variance, which is not as high as the former dimension but is in no way negligible. In
both cases, the Cronbach’s alpha is very high, which indicates great coherence among the
transformed variables.
Table 4. Reduction of the dimensions following the principal component analysis (CATPCA).
Dimension Cronbach’s Alpha Total (Eigenvalue) % of Variance Explained
1 0.954 13.575 39%
2 0.853 5.831 17%
Total 0.976 19.407 55%
Source: Authors’ own.
The first dimension clearly refers to the emotional state of the athlete, highlighting the
questions referring to mood, irritability, bad temper, etc. The second dimension, in contrast,
with a smaller number of variables, seems to refer more to questions of a social character,
and thus not to the mood of the athlete, but to their relationship with other people and
their physical sensations. These dimensions can be seen in Figure 2through the positioning
of each of the variables in the space formed by the two dimensions. We can see that most
of the variables that describe emotional states are situated in dimension 1 with positive
Sustainability 2021,13, 11148 11 of 18
values, showing the positive value of dimension 1
0
s negative emotional states. Equally
highlighted is the possibility that a relative could lose their job as a negative emotional
element. Regarding dimension 2, the variables that have the most influence are a group
that reflects the emotional situation, but more related to the physical sensations of the
athletes and their social effects, with this dimension being positive when the variables are
positive.
Figure 2. Analysis of principal components influencing training hours. (Source: Authors’ own).
Through a new analysis of the categorical principal components (CATPCA), we
summarize these two dimensions in indicators, establishing a Spearman’s correlation with
two variables of interest (the number of hours trained and the difficulty for maintaining
motivation). The results of this analysis (see Table 5) show that the correlation with the
variable related to the difficulty of maintaining motivation is very high with indicator 1, and
also high, although less so, with indicator 2. Thus, motivation would be influenced by all
types of emotional questions. In contrast, the training hours are not related to dimension 1,
Sustainability 2021,13, 11148 12 of 18
but they are related to dimension 2. This means that the training hours do not have a direct
relation with the emotional states of the athletes, but rather with the way in which their
emotional situation impacts their physical-mental sensations.
Table 5.
Spearman’s correlations between emotional and social dimensions, and the difficulty of
maintaining motivation and training hours.
Analysis Variables Indicator 1 Indicator 2
Has it been difficult to keep motivated?
0.505 0.333
Training hours −0.001 −0.226
Source: Author’s own.
4. Conclusions
In spite of the existence of an academic tradition concerned with the social study of
sport, there is no known scenario in our recent history in which these disciplines have
been systematically studied regarding habits, behaviors and sports attitudes in contexts of
social isolation. In this respect, it can be said that the confinement experienced by these
athletes due to the epidemiological crisis of the coronavirus has been a fully-fledged social
experiment both for sports psychology and sociology. The impossibility of collecting social
data from an unexpected crisis of such magnitude and the establishment of a state of alarm
that prevented any type of non-essential economic and professional activity during the
confinement cannot be ignored.
The strategic decision of carrying out the present study by the team coordinated by
Jaenes [
14
] is worthy of recognition, given that the confinement experienced in the spring
of 2020 is unparalleled as a social experiment, also in the world of sport, and specifically in
the world of high-level and Olympic sport. In this sense, the present study is the first to
analyze the training conditions and the emotional impact among Olympic swimmers and
rowers in Spain.
We summarize below the key points of the study:
1. The global epidemiological crisis of SARS-CoV-2 caused the Government of Spain to
decree a confinement for people who did not carry out essential activities (health, education,
security, food, etc.).
2. This situation forced the suspension of training and sports events in the major
leagues and championships for several months. In some cases, the athletes lacked the help
of coaches and psychologists. During that time, the Spanish Olympic athletes were training
at home, only with basic materials (dumbbells, elastic bands, stationary bikes, etc.).
3. In order to find out about the personal and sporting situation of these athletes, and
to know how this could influence their training, a survey was carried out among Spanish
Olympic swimmers and rowers. Responses were obtained from 88 subjects, that is, 100%
of the total population of Spanish Olympic swimmers and rowers.
4. The main results of this survey are as follows:
In relation to material and social conditions, 73% stated that they had spent the con-
finement in a home with less than 120 m2, and of these 34% did not have a terrace or
garden. In addition, 34% stated that a family member had lost their job. During confine-
ment, most spent their leisure time mainly on social networks (94%), videoconferences
or calls to friends or family (93%), listening to music (93%), studying (89%) or watching
television (86%). Their responsibility in respecting the confinement instructions deserves
to be highlighted, as 67% said they had not left home for 96 days. Despite being Olympic
athletes, 98% considered the postponement of the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games appropriate,
even though 34% admitted that this postponement would affect them directly (because of
their age, category, fitness, etc.).
Regarding the training conditions, all the athletes trained during confinement (regard-
less of the size of their homes and whether or not they had a terrace or garden, and whether
or not they enjoyed the support and monitoring of coaches or technicians), and they did it
without having suitable aquatic equipment; 67% did not even have adequate equipment to
Sustainability 2021,13, 11148 13 of 18
train at home, but only basic sports equipment. In such extreme circumstances, the athletes
trained for an average of 11 to 13 h per week, and 64% had the support of their coaches
virtually. Despite this, 51% admitted that it was difficult for them to stay motivated to
train, and 50% reported that during that period they had lost their fitness. After analyzing
the data, the commitment of our athletes to their sporting goals and their responsibility in
respecting the confinement instructions is clear. To keep training without the certainty of a
competition schedule is no easy task.
Regarding their psychological, cognitive and emotional adaptation, 48% experienced
more irritability than normal, 47% suffered from sleep difficulties, 35% had concentration
problems, 28% were afraid of the possibility of the death of family members and 25%
suffered moments of anxiety. Despite the emotional impact, the majority faced the con-
finement with a positive attitude, since in the emotional attitudes scale the highest values
(between 2.96 and 3.26 out of 5) express having had a friendly, understanding attitude
during confinement and feeling helpful, considerate and kind. The greatest manifestations
of negative affection were experienced at their highest level by less than half of these
athletes. All in all, the results show the need for psychological and physical support for
these athletes during a confinement and on their return to competition.
Finally, we wondered what factors could have most influenced the training hours of
these athletes. The Spearman correlation
ρ
(rho) showed that the monitoring or lack of it
on the part of the coach, the information provided by the federation on the situation of the
sport, the availability of adequate equipment for training and the capacity of the athletes
to organize themselves had a considerable influence. Equally, the following emotional
dimensions were important: feeling vigorous, active, positive and full of energy and,
additionally, the capacity to keep motivated during the confinement and the availability
and access to psychological assistance. Leisure activities during the confinement were also
an influence, showing that those who spent more time doing relaxing activities trained for
more hours and those who spent more time with digital pastimes trained for less hours.
Lastly, the categorical principal component analysis (CATPCA) limited the dimensions
that influenced the training hours to two groups, revealing an unprecedented conclusion:
that the emotional state of the athletes during the confinement led to a state or sensation of
physical-mental exhaustion which affected their motivation to train. A situation which is
probably being experienced by all individual athletes during this health crisis. In fact, the
results are close to those obtained in a study carried out among the sports population in
Italy [61].
Our study shows that physical activity and training during confinement were as-
sociated with the mental health of Spanish swimmers and rowers. Similar results have
been observed in samples of athletes from other disciplines in conditions of confinement
similar to those established by the Spanish government. García-Tascón et al. [
24
], in a large
sample of Spanish athletes from different disciplines, observed that the confinement due
to COVID-19 entailed a decrease in physical activity and the intensity of training, with a
negative effect on athletes’ health. Mon-López et al. [
25
] observed, in a sample of Spanish
handball players, that during confinement the reduction in the amount and intensity of
training was associated with a worse sleep quality and negative emotional states.
A conclusion that we can reach from the results obtained in our study and others
is that, in situations such as those produced by the confinement due to the COVID-19
pandemic in Spain, maintaining physical activity and having adequate training conditions
are protective factors for the mental health of athletes. Lorenzo Calvo et al. [
29
], in a study
on Spanish professional basketball players during the confinement period, showed that
negative emotional states were associated with lower training frequency and sleep quality.
Pons et al. [
34
], in a sample of young Spanish athletes, found that young people with worse
training conditions suffered greater mental health problems. The relationship between
sport, physical activity and mental health has been observed worldwide as a consequence
of confinement conditions similar to those in Spain [
48
,
62
–
65
]. This relationship between
mental health and physical activity can work both ways, Chirico et al. [
59
] observed, in
Sustainability 2021,13, 11148 14 of 18
a sample of Italian athletes during the COVID-19 confinement, that anxiety negatively
influenced the intention to do physical activity. A lesson learned for future crises is that
to protect the mental health of athletes, sports organizations should implement psycho-
logical support programs combined with the promotion of training conditions and the
maintenance of physical activity [7].
All in all, this study offers the possibility to understand our Olympic athletes a little
more in extreme conditions and in circumstances which until now were neither known nor
experienced. To conclude, the results of the study have served to issue a report that we
have sent to the Higher Sports Council, the Spanish Olympic Committee and the Sport
Federations of Swimming and Rowing. This report provides useful recommendations
for the design of a protocol that will help Olympic athletes to improve their training
conditions and reduce the emotional impact of future epidemiological crises. Among the
main recommendations, three stand out. The first recommendation is that these athletes
remain isolated in groups, not individually, with other athletes and with their coaches, in
high-performance centers and sport residences with appropriate facilities and equipment.
The second recommendation is to reduce the use of social networks and the Internet,
focusing instead on relaxing leisure activities (meditation, Pilates, mindfulness, yoga,
reading, etc.). The third recommendation is to provide Olympic athletes with the support
of psychologists in confinement situations
We must report several limitations. These limitations, in turn, suggest several recom-
mendations:
1. It would have been advisable to ask about the athletes’ training conditions and the
subjective perception of their emotional state under normal conditions, and not only during
confinement. This would have made it possible to contrast the responses in two different
situations: normal and in confinement. Hence, the results of this study should not be
interpreted in causal terms, but this cross-sectional analytical study can provide information
on the association between risk factors and psychological health outcomes, as other studies
have done. Therefore, we encourage future researchers to take this possible improvement
into account. Future research will require a longitudinal study to analyze changes in
emotional states and—more importantly—their connection with athletic performance.
2. Another limitation of this study is the absence of data on Olympic athletes from
other sport disciplines, both individual (athletics, cycling, climbing, etc.) and collective
(soccer, rugby, basketball, etc.). Hence, the results of this study should not be interpreted
in causal terms, but this cross-sectional analytical study can provide information on the
association between risk factors and psychological health outcomes, as other studies
have done. Future research should compare the psychological and emotional effects of
confinement on individual and team athletes, as well as the differences between different
sport specialties, in search of an evidence-based set of interventions for each one.
Despite these limitations, we believe that the methodological decisions ensured, as
much as possible, the proper conduct of the study in such a complex context, thanks to the
multidisciplinary work of sociologists, psychologists, specialists in survey techniques and
statisticians.
Author Contributions:
Conceptualization, J.C.J.-S. and D.A.-R.; methodology, D.M.-S.; validation,
J.C.J.-S. and D.A.-R.; formal analysis, D.A.-R., D.M.-S. and M.T.-C.; investigation, J.C.J.-S.; resources,
D.M.-S.; data curation, M.T.-C.; writing—original draft preparation, D.M.-S.; writing—review and
editing, J.C.J.-S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement:
The data presented in this study are available on request from the
corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to the protection of personal data, in
accordance with the legislation on personal data of the Spanish authorities.
Sustainability 2021,13, 11148 15 of 18
Acknowledgments:
We would like to thank Manuel Trujillo for his help in guiding the ideas for
the development of the questionnaire on situations of social isolation. We also want to thank Juan
Antonio Domínguez-Álvarez (Research Technician of the Higher Council for Scientific Research of
the Government of Spain) for his help and guidance in the design of the web survey, given that he is
a European expert on this issue.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appendix A
Table A1.
Variables used in the principal component analysis, reduced to two dimensions. (Source:
Authors’ own).
Variable Dimension 1
(Positive Is Irritable)
Dimension 2
(Positive Is Not Friendly)
Have you felt . . . irritable? 0.874 −0.175
Have you felt . . . bad tempered? 0.868 −0.234
Have you felt . . . upset? 0.868 −0.129
Have you felt . . . resentful? 0.860 −0.195
Have you felt . . . despairing? 0.842 −0.109
Have you felt . . . nervous? 0.812 −0.322
Have you felt . . . more irritable than
you usually do? 0.797 −0.017
Have you felt . . . angry? 0.793 −0.083
Have you felt . . . tired? 0.780 −0.148
Have you felt . . . tense? 0.752 −0.354
Have you had moments of anxiety? 0.756 0.108
Have you felt . . . unhappy? 0.751 −0.231
Have you felt . . . exhausted? 0.736 0.024
Have you felt . . . weary? 0.726 0.061
Have you felt . . . agitated 0.703 −0.371
Have you felt . . . weak? 0.698 0.206
Have you felt . . . melancholic? 0.697 −0.180
Have you felt . . . fatigued? 0.690 0.000
Have you felt . . . restless? 0.659 −0.309
Have you had sleep
disturbances/difficulties? 0.610 0.268
Have you felt . . . lonely? 0.585 −0.226
Has a relative lost their job? 0.505 −0.156
Have you had difficulty concentrating
on what you had to do? 0.489 0.142
Have you noticed obsessive behaviors
or rituals that you did not have before? 0.271 −0.016
Have you eaten more than you usually
eat? 0.243 0.070
Have you felt . . . friendly? 0.085 0.852
Have you felt . . . considerate? 0.095 0.834
Have you felt . . . positive? 0.372 0.761
Have you felt . . . helpful? 0.199 0.739
Have you felt . . . vigorous? 0.308 0.731
Have you felt . . . kind? 0.315 0.705
Have you felt . . . active? 0.431 0.681
Have you felt . . . full of energy? 0.363 0.645
Have you felt . . . understanding? 0.313 0.633
Have you been afraid that a relative
might die? −0.046 0.237
Sustainability 2021,13, 11148 16 of 18
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