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Agronomy 2021, 11, 1824. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11091824 www.mdpi.com/journal/agronomy
Article
Quality Characteristics of Spelt Pasta Enriched with
Spent Grain
Ancuța Chetrariu and Adriana Dabija*
Faculty of Food Engineering, Stefan cel Mare University of Suceava, 720229 Suceava, Romania;
ancuta.chetrariu@fia.usv.ro
* Correspondence: adriana.dabija@fia.usv.ro; Tel.: +40-748-845-567
Abstract: Agri-industrial by-products are valuable resources that can become ingredients for ob-
taining value-added products, thus supporting the circular economy. Spent grain is the primary
by-product from the beer and whisky industry, is rich in fiber and protein, and can be successfully
incorporated into pasta production. After dough properties were assessed, the resulting pasta was
evaluated for chemical composition, phenolics content, as well as antioxidant activity. The cooked
pasta quality was similarly evaluated on its physical properties, hardness, color profile of dry and
hydrated pasta, and its sensory characteristics, as well as on the microstructure of the final prod-
ucts. Non-traditional ingredients such as spent grain and spelt flour influence the rheological
properties of the dough and sensory acceptability and quality of the final cooked product. Spelt
flour with the addition of spent grain can be used to obtain dry pasta of acceptable quality, with a
high fiber content and biologically active compound, such as phenolic compounds. Using appro-
priate technologies, but also balanced recipes can incorporate suitable amounts of spent grain in
pasta, resulting in final products characterized by desired dietary-nutritional values, as well as op-
timal sensory properties.
Keywords: spent grain; valorization; spelt flour; pasta; functional food
1. Introduction
Pasta is one of the most common, most consumed, but also the most versatile foods
in the world. In 2019, around 16 million tons of pasta were produced, and this production
increased during the pandemic period. In Italy, the country representative for pasta,
annual pasta consumption is 23.1 kg/per capita, in Greece 11.4 kg/per capita, and in
France and Germany 8 kg/per capita [1,2]. Traditionally, pasta is a ready-to-eat product
produced from durum wheat (semolina) [3], but lately it is also produced from other
flours, mixtures of flours with or without the addition of vegetables or other by-products,
resulting in quality products that maintain a good consistency after cooking. Pasta is
availablemainly in two forms: dry or fresh, in a variety of shapes and variants. Among
the advantages of pasta is the extended shelf life, a large variety of recipes and short
preparation time.
The good consistency of pasta after cooking is closely correlated with the content of
gluten and protein, a good quality pasta havingprotein content between 13.5–14.5 g/100 g
and a suitable glutenins and gliadins balance, which are the two components of gluten
[4].
One of the challenges of pasta with added ingredients is the color, because in the
acceptability of consumers, pasta obtained from durum wheat must have a yellow color
[5]. New trends in food are moving in the direction of low-fat products, high-nutrition,
and energy foods, with pasta successfully meeting these consumer requirements [6].
In recent years, the sustainable use of organic waste and agri-food by-products has
Citation: Chetrariu, A.; Dabija, A.
Quality Characteristics of Spelt Pasta
Enriched with Spent Grain.
A
gronomy 2021, 11, 1824. https://
doi.org/10.3390/agronomy11091824
Academic Editor: Ersilia Alexa
Received: 13 August 2021
Accepted: 8 September 2021
Published: 11 September 2021
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Agronomy 2021, 11, 1824 2 of 18
become one of the main principles of the circular economy and one of the most important
challenges of food engineering. There are numerous research initiatives aimed at har-
nessing renewable resources resulting from food production by converting these materi-
als into biopolymers, fertilizers, energy, human nutrition, animal nutrition, etc. Fur-
thermore, food industry waste and by-products are a good source of protein, minerals,
fatty acids, fibers and bioactive compounds that can prevent nutrition diseases and in-
crease the physical and mental well-being of consumers [7–10].
Agro-industrial products account for about 30% of all globally produced foods.
Spent grains (SG) is the main by-product of beer industry and the distillation industry,
accounting for about 85% of the total by-products generated. This by-product results
from the mashing process consisting of insoluble barley malt residues, which mainly in-
clude the grain coating [8]. Spent grains has been scientifically proven to be a rich source
of dietary fiber and protein, vitamins, minerals (silicon, calcium, and phosphorus), anti-
oxidants, polyphenols and essential fatty acids. It consists mainly of dietary fibers (hem-
icellulose, cellulose and lignin) and proteins, which represent approximately 30–50% and
19–30% of its composition, respectively [7]. Food by-products, such as spent grain, are
rich in fiber, protein, amino acids, vitamins, fatty acids and can be added to improve the
nutritional value of pasta, turning them into value-added ingredients [11]. In order to
obtain pasta, several researchers investigated the partial replacement of flour with in-
gredients obtained from agro-industrial by-products [10,12–15].
The agricultural use of spent grain through compost production is commonly ap-
plied in the beer and distillation industry [16]. Spent grains are more prone to compost-
ing than other by-products in the alcoholic beverage industry, mainly due to their rela-
tively low moisture content. Their high protein and fiber content make the final product
suitable for a wide range of applications, such as soil improvement and organic fertilizer.
Spent grain is used to produce bioethanol, biobutanol, heat (dry spent grain up to 55%
moisture) [17], but also for the production of value-added compounds (e.g., xylitol, lactic
acid, vitamins and antioxidants), as a medium for the production of micro-organisms and
enzymes, as raw material for the extraction of sugars and proteins, as an adsorbent for
the removal of organic materials from effluents and the immobilization of various sub-
stances [9]. Due to its nutritional and functional properties, spent grain has been used to
obtain food products, such as bakery products, cereal mixes, pastries and confectionery,
snacks, pasta, etc. [18–20]. Although research has intensified in recent times, the degree of
recovery of this valuable by-product is still quite low, as it is often used in animal feed
[21].
Triticum aestivum var. spelta (spelt flour) has a delicate nutty flavor and contains nu-
trients with health benefits (lowers cholesterol levels, helps eliminate toxins) [22].
Spelt-based products are more digestible compared to those obtained from common
wheat [22]. Wang et al., 2020 found in their study that spelt flour is higher in antioxidant
and mineral micronutrient and has more potential health benefits compared to common
wheat flour [23], the same result reported by Wójtowicz et al. [22].
The circular economy involves turning by-products into useful resources by mini-
mizing wastes, so it is very important to find the optimal process and percentage of sub-
stitute for obtaining high quality pasta [11].
Nutritional values of pasta, such as high digestibility, slow-release carbohydrates
and relatively low glycemic index compared to bread, pizza and other cereal foods, lead
to ever-increasing consumption of this food worldwide. On the other hand, foods pro-
moting health by incorporating ingredients of plant or animal origin into manufacturing
recipes are considered to be nutritional products with added-value [24]. Nutritional im-
provement of pasta mainly involves increasing the content of protein and dietary fiber
and fortification with vitamins and minerals. In recent years, there has been a particular
interest in the use of cereal by-products in manufacturing recipes for the incorporation of
substances with beneficial physiological effects (folic acid, dietary fiber, polyphenols,
Agronomy 2021, 11, 1824 3 of 18
arabinoxylans and lignans). These include spent grain from the beer industry and distil-
lation industry [25–27].
The novelty of this study is the use of spent grain flour from the whisky industry
mixed with spelt flour in the production of pasta, a flour little used in this direction. Most
studies are based on the use of brewers spent grain, but the novelty of this study is the
use of distillery spent grain. The aim of this present work was spent grain valorization by
use in pasta formulation made with spelt flour.
2. Materials and Methods
The spent grain flour was obtained from spent grain from whisky production kindly
provided from a local factory, Alexandrion Group (Ploiesti, Romania). Spent grain was
stored at −18 °C, dried at 50 °C for 24 h and then ground with the help of a mill and then
sieved. For this study, the fraction of less than 200 µm was used. The ground spent grain
was stored in paper bags at room temperature until further use. All chemicals used in
this paper were of analytical grade and were purchased from Sigma Aldrich (St. Louis,
MO, USA). Spelt flour was purchased from a local market and had Romanian origin.
2.1. Pasta Processing
Spelt flour and different percentages of spent grain flour (5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%)
were mixed in a Kitchen Aid mixer (Whirlpool Corporation, Benton Harbor, MI, USA)
with appropriate amount of water in order to obtain dough moisture of 32%. The tem-
perature of the dough was maintained at 40 °C for a resting time of 45 min; the pasta was
extruded using a Kitchen Aid accessory with a small macaroni mold. Pasta was dried at
40°C in an air oven for 6 h.
2.2. Determination of Dough Properties
2.2.1. Dynamic Rheological Behavior
A Thermo-HAAKE, MARS 40 (Karlsruhe, Germany) with parallel plates geometry
was used to determine the dynamic rheological behavior of pasta dough. Dough samples
were tested for linear viscoelastic region (LVR). The complex modulus G* (Pa) was de-
termined by frequency sweep test, in the linear viscoelastic region previously deter-
mined, at a strain of 15 Pa and a frequency range from 0.1 to 20 Hz, that was in the LVR
[4].
2.2.2. Dough Texture Profile Analysis
For the dough texture profile (TPA) analysis, was used a Perten TVT-6700 tex-
turometer (Perten Instruments, Hägersten, Sweden). 50 g of dough were compressed
twice at 50% height with a 35 mm cylinder probe, at 5.0 mm/s speed and a trigger force of
20 g [13]. Firmness, adhesiveness, springiness and cohesiveness were analyzed in tripli-
cate.
2.3. Pasta Quality Parameters
2.3.1. Dry Pasta/Cooked Pasta Color
The color of the dried pasta was evaluated with a Konica Minolta CR-400 colorime-
ter (Tokyo, Japan), using CIELab color space coordinates, where L* values describe black
to white (0 to 100), a* is the degree of redness (positive) or greenness (negative), and b* is
yellowness (positive) or blueness (negative). Four pasta samples were arranged over a
white background and the colorimeter was placed over the samples to collect data [28].
Samples were measured in triplicate and the Chroma meter was calibrated with a
white-board of the device. Determination of the color change with the addition of spent
grain is done with the equation described below [15]:
∆E = √(∆L)2 + (∆a)2 + (∆b)2 (1)
Agronomy 2021, 11, 1824 4 of 18
where ∆L= L*sample – L* control, ∆a= a* sample – a* control, ∆b= b* sample – b* control
Khan et al., 2014 [15] described ∆E as an index for determining visual color differ-
ences and described it in terms of related values as follows in Table 1:
Table 1. Differences between ∆E values.
∆E Differences
0 to 0.5 trace difference
0.5 to 1.5 slightly noticeable; hard to detect with the human eye
1.5 to 3.0 noticeable; detectable by trained people
3.0 to 6.0 appreciable; detectable by ordinary people
6.0 to 12.0
larger than 12
large; large difference in the same color category
extreme; another color category
2.3.2. Dry Pasta Fracturability/Cooked Pasta Texture
Dry pasta fracturability was determined using the maximum force F (g) needed to
break a pasta piece. A Perten TVT-6700 device (Perten Instruments,Hägersten,Sweden)
equipped with an aluminum break rig set adjusted to 10 mm width was used. The test
speed was 2 mm/s and the trigger force 5 g [29].
For the determination of firmness, adhesiveness, stringiness and stickiness of
cooked pasta was used a Perten TVT-6700 device (Perten Instruments, Hägersten, Swe-
den) equipped with a 35 mm cylinder probe using a double cycle compression at a speed
of 0.2 mm/s. Measurements were made in duplicate.
2.3.3. Determination of Antioxidant Activity
Total polyphenolics (TP) content were analyzed according to the method described
by Iuga and Mironeasa, 2021 [13] with some modification. A sample of 2 g of raw pasta
\were grinded and mixed with 20 mL methanol 80% (v/v) and sonicated for 40 min in a
sonication bath at 37 °C and 45 Hz then the mix was centrifuged for 5 min at 4000 rpm.
The phenolic content was determined using the Folin–Ciocalteau method as described:
0.2 mL of extract was mixed with 2 mL of Folin–Ciocalteau reagent, diluted 1:10, and 1.8
mL of sodium carbonate 7.5% (w/v) into a tube. The mixture was left for 30 min at room
temperature in the dark. The total polyphenolic content was determined at 750 nm
wavelength using a UV-VIS-NIR spectrophotometer (Shimadzu Corporation, Kyoto, Ja-
pan). The calibration curve of the polyphenols was performed by using gallic acid at
concentrations of 10–200 mg/L with the regression coefficient R2 = 0.99872 and equation y
= 0.00949x + 0.02950. The samples were analyzed in triplicate and results were expressed
in µg gallic acids equivalents per gram (µg GAE/g).
Total antioxidant activity was determined by 2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH)
by adding 2 mL of extract described above with 2 mL of DPPH solution 0.1 mM in
methanol (9.85 mg DPPH dissolved in 250 mL methanol), as described by Ikram et al.,
2020 [30]. The mixture was shaken for 2 min and kept for 30 min at room temperature, in
a dark place, and then the absorbance was determined at 517 nm using a UV-VIS-NIR
spectrophotometer (Schimadzu Corporation, Kyoto, Japan). The antioxidant capacity
was measured in three repetitions for each sample, using distilled water as a blank sam-
ple, as described in Equation (2).
% Inhibition of DPPH = [(1 − As/Ab)] × 100 (2)
where As= absorbance of sample, Ab = absorbance of blank sample
Agronomy 2021, 11, 1824 5 of 18
2.3.4. Pasta Cooking Quality
• Swelling index
The grams of water absorbed per gram of dry pasta (m0), named swelling index is a
good indication of the integrity of protein matrix that restricts water penetration. Deter-
mination of this index is performed by drying the cooked pasta (m1) to constant weight
and employing Equation (3) [5].
SI = (m0 − m1)/ m1 (3)
Where m0 and m1 were the weight of dry pasta and cooked, respectively.
A sample of 10 g of pasta was cooked to its optimum time, drained for 2 min and
then dried in a laboratory oven at 105°C to constant weight [15]. A disrupted gluten
network will allow granules to absorb more water and gelatinize, so that an increase of
cooked weight and swelling index will be observed. Acceptable pasta quality is related to
absorption of 50–200 g of water/100 g pasta and a swelling index of approximately 1.8,
without considering pasta with additional ingredients that could affect both parameters,
in addition to pasta microstructure [5,28]. The reported values were the average of at
least two replicas for each sample.
• Optimal Cooking Time
Twenty-five grams of pasta were put into 300 mL of boiling water without salt ad-
dition and have been boiled. One piece of pasta was pressed between two glass plates at
every 30 s. Optimal cooking time (OCT) is considered when the starchy central core was
disappeared [31,32]. Cooking time was determined in duplicate.
• Cooking Loss
Cooking loss (CL) was determined gravimetrically by weighting the residue after
evaporating the cooking water because some parts of pasta were dissolved in the water
during cooking. A small cooking loss indicates a better protein network developed [31].
Cooking loss parameter is one of the most important attribute that affect consumer ac-
ceptance of fiber-enriched pasta [33]. Ten grams of pasta were cooked in 100 mL of boil-
ing water without salt addition. After boiling for optimal cooking time, the volume of
water was brought to the initial volume. Dry matter was determined on 25 mL of cooking
water, dried to constant weight at 105°C [14]. The residue was weighed and expressed as
grams of matter los per 100 g of pasta [31]. Cooking loss was determined in duplicate.
• Water Absorption
The swelling of the starch and its gelatinization represents the amount of water ab-
sorbed by the cooked pasta and is determined in relation to the dried pasta. Water ab-
sorption (WA) during cooking was calculated from the weight of pasta before cooking
and after cooking at the optimal cooking time. WA was determined as described in
Equation (4):
WA = [(w-w0)/w0] × 100 (4)
Where w and w0 were the weight of cooked and raw pasta, respectively.
• Hydration Test
Hydration test (HT) was evaluated using a 1:20 ratio pasta: water, using the Schet-
tino et al., 2021 [31] method. Five grams of sample were placed in a glass containing 100
mL of water and placed in a thermostatic bath at 25°C. Samples were removed after 5, 10,
15, 30, 60, 90, and 180 min of incubation and drained for 1 min and weighed. All samples
were calculated in duplicate and expressed as (Equation (5)):
HT = [(w1-w0)/w0] × 100 (5)
where w1 was the weight of hydrated and raw pasta and w0 was the weight of dry sam-
ple.
Agronomy 2021, 11, 1824 6 of 18
2.4. Proximate Analysis of Spent Grain Pasta
All samples were subjected to proximate analysis. The moisture of the pasta was
determined by the method of drying in the air oven at 105°C until the constant weight.
The ash content was determined in an oven at 550 °C for 8 h, until a white or light grey
residue is obtained, without traces of charcoal in the calcination furnace. Crude protein
content was determined by standard Kjeldhal method, using 5.7 conversion factor (Velp
Scientifica, Usmate, Italy) and lipids content was determined by standard Soxhlet
method, using hexane as extraction solvent. Total dietary fiber was assessed by enzy-
matic method using the AOAC Method 2011.25 with a Megazyme total dietary fiber as-
say kit (Megazyme, Ireland). The carbohydrate content was calculated by the difference
(carbohydrate content = 100 − protein content − lipids content − ash). All samples were
measured in triplicate.
2.5. Water Activity
Water activity (Aw) measurement was done using the water activity meter AquaLab
4TE (Decagon Devices Inc., Pullman, WA, USA) at 25°C. All samples were measured in
triplicate.
2.6. Sensory Analysis of Cooked Pasta
Sensory evaluation took place on pasta samples cooked at optimal cooking time
(OCT), paste: distilled water ratio 1:10 by a panel of seven experts selected according to
their sensorial skills and trained in sensory vocabulary and identification of particular
attributes. Parameters such as: firmness during chewing of the product, resistance to
breaking after cooking, appearance, color, smell and taste, general acceptability were
evaluated. For each attribute a nine-point hedonic rating scale was used, where one cor-
responded to low attribute intensity, and nine to high attribute intensity.
2.7. Microstructure
To determine the roughness and microstructure of the paste surface, a Mahr
CWM100 microscope (Mahr, Gottingen, Germany) was used, and the images were pro-
cessed using Mountain Map software 8 (digital Surf, Lavoisier, France) (trial version).
The images were registered after scanning three different areas.
2.8. Statistical Analysis
Results are presented as mean ± Standard Deviation (SD). The obtained data were
processed by using the SPSS 26.0 (trial version) software (IBM, New York, NY, USA). The
differences between means were evaluated by analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tuk-
ey’s test at 5% significance level, statistically significant differences being considered at p
< 0.05.
3. Results
The most used flour for pasta processing is durum wheat semolina due to the spe-
cific properties of proteins and gluten, but also because of its yellow color [34];while for
the gluten-free pasta, the most used cereal is sorghum [35]. Chemical composition of spelt
flour was (%w/w, dry basis): 3 ± 0.01% lipids, 8 ± 0.05% fiber, 14 ± 0.09% protein, 64 ±
1.15% carbohydrates, 2.11 ± 0.04% ash, 11.26 ± 0.08% moisture, 313 ± 1.14 s falling num-
ber, 32.73 ± 2.14% wet gluten, 2 ± 0.02 mm gluten deformation index, and 74 ± 1.54% hy-
dration capacity. Spent grain flour had the following characteristics (%w/w, dry basis):
moisture (5.04 ± 0.42%), ash (3.47 ± 0.02%), protein (18.88 ± 0.37%), lipids (7.11 ± 0.39%),
and fibers (22.67 ± 0.42%), as we obtained from previous study [20]. The addition of spent
grain in pasta formulation was analyzed on rheological properties of dough, and on dry
and cooked pasta. Cooking quality was evaluated by determining optimal cooking time,
swelling index, cooking loss, water absorption, and hydration test.
Agronomy 2021, 11, 1824 7 of 18
3.1. Determination of Dough Properties
3.1.1. Dynamic Rheological Behavior
It is very important to find optimal forms in the pasta recipe and suitable technolo-
gies because the diversification of the raw materials used often significantly alters the
rheological properties of the dough, with a consistent decrease in its technological capa-
bilities. The elastic module (G’) and the viscous module (G”) can be obtained from dy-
namic oscillation tests, a useful method to study the effect of water content, proteins,
different amount of gluten in the dough or mixing time. G’ represents a good determi-
nation of dough strength, decreasing with the increase in water content, and also
changing depending on the protein/starch ratio [4].
Spent grain has significant protein content, and proteins addition influences the
growth of the elastic module by cross-linking.The sample with the highest content of
spent grain (20%) has the highest values, as showed in Figure 1. The larger G’ shows that
the dough structure is more rigid and less elastic. Same results were obtained by Iuga &
Mironeasa, 2021 in their study using grape peels by-product for pasta manufacturing
[13].
Figure 1. Effect on rheological properties on the frequency sweep test.
3.1.2. Dough Texture Profile Analysis
The addition of spent grain led to an increase of dough firmness with the level in-
crease. The dough can be negatively influenced by the addition of high fiber products
[12]. No significant changes among samples were obtained for springiness and cohe-
siveness, the most elastic dough sample being the dough with 5% spent grain. Compared
to the control sample, the highest firmness was obtained for the highest level of spent
grain addition and the lowest adhesiveness. All samples were firmer than the control
sample and had less adhesiveness [7]. Pasta dough texture parameters are presented in
Table 2.
Table 2. Pasta dough textural parameters.
Dough Pasta Sample Firmness
(g)
Adhesiveness
(g·s)
Springiness
(%)
Cohesiveness
(adim.)
Control sample 5105 ± 20.05 b −109.42 c 99.72 ± 0.00 a 0.35 ± 0.008 a
P1 5% 5359 ± 14.19 c −103.42 ± 0.95 b 99.68 ± 0.00 a 0.31 ± 0.009 a
P2 10% 5442 ± 42.02 b −61.06 ± 0.50 b 99.64 ± 0.00 a 0.29 ± 0.007 a
P3 15% 6105 ± 47.13 b −34.69 ± 0.50 a 99.52 ± 0.00 b 0.29 ± 0.007 a
P4 20% 6390 ± 36.72 a −33.01 ±0.51 a 99.57 ± 0.00 a 0.27 ± 0.01 a
Control sample P1 P2 P3 P4
Agronomy 2021, 11, 1824 8 of 18
One-way ANOVA p value <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 n.s.
Mean values with different letters in the same column are significantly different (p < 0.05), n.s.—not significant.
3.2. Pasta Quality Parameters
3.2.1. Dry Pasta/Cooked Pasta Color
In terms of color, both dried and cooked pasta samples were analyzed (Table 3). The
color became darker (L* value decreases) with the addition of spent grain. The addition
of spent grain increased the redness-higher a* value and decreased the yellowness-lower
b*. The presence of phenolic compounds may affect the modification of these color pa-
rameters. Those changes of pasta color parameters (decrease in L* and b*values and in-
crease in a* value) has been observed before by Khan et al., 2014 [15] in pasta enriched
with sorghum flour, by Wood, 2009 [36] in pasta enriched with chickpeas flour, and by
Tazrart et al. 2016 [37] in pasta with broad bean flour. ∆E was determined to evaluate the
differences between the spent grain formulation and the control sample. With the in-
crease of spent grain addition increases the ∆E values in uncooked form.
Table 3. Color characteristics of control and spent grain-containing pasta samples.
Sample L* A* B* ∆E
Dry pasta samples
Control sample 59.81 ± 0.28 a 7.20 ± 0.11 a 18.08 ± 0.12 a
P1 5% 55.02 ± 0.48 b 5.99 ± 0.41 b 17.34 ± 0.75 b 5.00
P2 10% 48.42 ± 1.09 b 6.08 ± 0.12 a 16.96 ± 0.26 a 11.50
P3 15% 44.09 ± 0.33 a 6.92 ± 0.16 a 16.64 ± 0.33 a 15.79
P4 20% 43.59 ± 0.69 b 7.02 ± 0.43 b 16.43 ± 0.75 b 16.30
Cooked pasta samples
Control sample 73.61 ± 1.02 b 1.20 ± 0.48 b 6.67 ± 1.00 b
P1 5% 54.21 ± 0.14 a 6.64 ± 0.04 a 18.68 ± 0.05 a 23.46
P2 10% 56.23 ± 2.91 b 4.26 ± 0.54 b 13.19 ± 1.50 b 18.81
P3 15% 57.99 ± 0.01 a 3.35 ± 0.03 a 11.15 ± 0.02 a 16.39
P4 20% 58.52 ± 0.41 b 3.94 ± 0.04 a 12.79 ± 0.06 a 16.51
Mean values with different letters in the same column are significantly different (p< 0.05).
Although nowadays there are more and more pastas of all colors on supermarket
shelves, the color of dry pasta is an important parameter of quality. The appearance of
pasta is most often associated with color, being illustrated in Figure 2.
A. Control sample B. P1 5% spent grain C. P2 10% spent grain D. P3 15% spent grain E. P420% spent grain
Figure 2. Appearance of dry pasta color.A) Control sample, (B) Pasta made with 5% spent grain addition, (C) Pasta made
with 10% spent grain addition, (D) Pasta made with 15% spent grain addition, (E) Pasta made with 20% spent grain ad-
dition.
Sobota et al., 2020 [38] used vegetables concentrates and powders into pasta pro-
duction to change pasta color. The addition of beet powder into pasta causes a decrease
in L* value and an increase in a* value. Consumers who adopt a healthy lifestyle do not
feel bothered by the brownish color of pasta and lack of yellowness. Nowadays, con-
Agronomy 2021, 11, 1824 9 of 18
sumers are more open to healthy foods at the expense of foods that look pleasant and are
no longer so sensitive to changing the color of pasta.
3.2.2. Dry Pasta Fracturability/Cooked Pasta Texture
A material is fragile if it can be fractured when under stress. That is, it has little
tendency to deform (or tension) before the fracture and usually makes a quick sound.
Fracturability means the force recorded at breakage/destruction of the sample, is the
force measured at the first significant change in the first curve, the first maximum point.
The fracturability of dried pasta decreases with the increase of the addition of spent
grain, as shown in Table 4. Iuga, in 2020,[12] obtained in her study a decrease in pasta
fracturability with the increase in the content of whey powder and corn starch.
Table 4. Dry pasta fracturability.
Pasta Sample Fracturability (g)
Control sample 3205
P1 5% 8120
P2 10% 4094
P3 15% 3602
P4 20% 2949
Cooked pasta textural parameters are highlighted in Table 5. Firmness or hardness is
the force required to penetrate the pasta samples with teeth and represents the degree of
resistance to the first bite [11], pasta firmness is associated with the ‘al-dente’ mouthfeel
[7]. Firmness decreased in barley spent grain pasta due to the high addition of fibers
components which weaken the gluten matrices [11]. This decrease in firmness may be
due to the increase in starch gelatinization in pasta, but also with a reduced amount of
added starch in the pasta [11].
Table 5. Cooked pasta textural parameters.
Pasta Sample Firmness
(g)
Adhesiveness
(g·s)
Stringiness
(mm)
Stickiness
(g · s)
Control sample 7445 ± 28.28 a −31.72 ± 0.21 a 0 ± 0.00 a −51.43 ± 0.16 a
P1 5% 7181 ± 32.53 a −26.47 ± 0.36 a −0.01 ± 0.00 a −32.01 ± 0.39 b
P2 10% 7673 ± 17.68 a −113.54 ± 0.91 b 0 ± 0.00 a −113.99 ± 0.38 b
P3 15% 9177 ± 30.41 a −104.95 ± 0.28 a −0.01 ± 0.00 a −207.49 ± 0.06 a
P4 20% 9337 ± 76.37 b −142.30 ± 0.89 b 0± 0.00
a −301.33 ± 0.05 a
a–b means in the same row followed by different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).
The chewing action can be imitated by contracting the cooked samples at the opti-
mal cooking time, compressing them, returning to the original point and repeating the
entire cycle [11]. Compared to control sample, increased protein content was associated
with decreased pasta stickiness [33,36], same like in our study. Hence, the reduced
stickiness of the spent grain -fortified pasta is probably a result of both higher protein and
higher amylose contents.
3.2.3. Total Polyphenolics Content and DPPH
Spent grain can be considered a potential available source of phenolic compounds.
The analysis of the total phenolic compound was carried out on dry pasta.
Total polyphenolics content grew with the increase of spent grain addition on pasta
samples, as shown in the Table 6. Schettino et al., 2021 made a comparison between the
total polyphenol content and the antioxidant activity for pasta with the addition of spent
grain both in raw, cooked form, but also during gastric digestion. The differences be-
Agronomy 2021, 11, 1824 10 of 18
tween raw and cooked pasta were insignificant [31]. Iuga & Mironeasa, 2021 used in their
study grape peels addition to pasta and the addition of grapepeels also increased the
content of phenols [13].
Table 6. Antioxidant activity of spent grain pasta.
Sample TP
(µg GAE/g)
DPPH
(%)
Control sample 14.50 ± 0.16 a 19.47 ± 0.08 a
P1 5% 17.21 ± 0.19 b 17.46 ± 0.28 b
P2 10% 21.26 ± 0.23 b 15.60 ± 0.21 a
P3 15% 22.37 ± 0.09 a 27.02 ± 0.14 a
P4 20% 23.06 ± 0.11 a 35.35 ± 0.16 a
TP-total polyphenolics content, DPPH-antioxidant activity, a–b means in the same row followed by different letters are
significantly different (p < 0.05).
3.2.4. Pasta Cooking Quality
The swelling index, optimum cooking times, cooking loss, and water absorption for
examined spent grain enriched pasta were reported in Table 7. According to this table, it
follows that the optimal cooking time for the control sample is less than for the samples
in which spent grain was added. The cooking time for spent grain pasta ranged between
9′10” ± 3” and 9′40” ± 2”, which is in according with Schettino et al., 2021 [31]. With the
increase in the content of spent grain, the optimal cooking time reduced, which also im-
plies increased water absorption, facilitating swelling of starch granules [33,37].
Cooking loss is considered a useful indicator of overall pasta cooking performance
and a value less than 10% indicated good cooking quality products in all formulations[5],
which could be represented by soluble compounds like soluble carbohydrates and/or fi-
ber [37]. Cooking loss ranged between 5.010± 0.04 and 6.895± 0.06, those results were in
according with pasta enriched with buckwheat flour obtained by Marti et al., 2011 [14]
and by Mahmoud et al., 2012 [39]. The smaller the cooking loss, the more developed the
protein network [32]. A similar trend for OCT and WA were reported by Iuga, 2020 [12]
for corn-based pasta. A low cooking loss as possible is desired because the amount of dry
substance is an important parameter for the quality of pasta.
The increase in the weight of the pasta after cooking and the swelling index is due to
the broken gluten network that will allow the granules to absorb more water and gelati-
nize [5].
Table 7. Cooking properties of pasta with different blends of spent grain.
Sample SI OCT CL WA
g/g min′sec″ % grams
Control sample 1.603 ± 0.02 a 9′ ± 2″ a 4.412± 0.04
a 165.11 ± 0.02 a
P1 5% 1.539 ± 0.01 a 9′10″ ± 3″ a 5.010± 0.04
a 130.05 ± 0.01 a
P2 10% 1.365 ± 0.01 a 9′12″ ± 2″ a 5.613± 0.03
a 136.45 ± 0.03 b
P3 15% 1.836 ± 0.03 b 9′20″ ± 3″ a 6.56± 0.01
a 141.00 ± 0.02 a
P4 20% 1.764 ± 0.02 a 9′40″ ± 2″ a 6.895± 0.06
b 148.23 ± 0.01 a
Results are reported as dry weight and expressed as mean value ± standard deviation for 3 replications. M: control sam-
ple; P1 5%: pasta sample with 5% spent grain addition; P2 10%: pasta sample with 10% spent grain addition; P3 15%:
pasta sample with 15% spent grain addition; P4 20%: pasta sample with 20% spent grain addition SI: swelling index; OCT:
optimal cooking time; CL: cooking loss; WA: water absorption. a–b means in the same row followed by different letters are
significantly different (p < 0.05).
The kinetics of water uptake at 25°C are shown in Figure 3. The sample of pasta
containing 5% spent grain has the slowest water uptake compared to the pasta sample
with 15% spent grain, which is characterized by the fastest water uptake.
Agronomy 2021, 11, 1824 11 of 18
Figure 3. Kinetics of water absorption of pasta at 25°C.
3.3. Proximate Analysis
Table 8 shows the proximate analysis of spent grain pasta. In order to store the pasta
safely, it must have a humidity of less than 12% [3]. The fiber and protein content in-
creases with the addition of spent grain, while the amount of lipids remains approxi-
mately constant.
Table 8. Proximate analysis of pasta samples.
Sample Moisture
%
Ash
%
Crude Protein
%
Crude Fat
%
Total Dietary
Fiber
%
Carbohydrates
%
Control sample 11.21 ± 0.01
a
2.64 ± 0.01
a
5.20 ± 0.04
a
5.32 ± 0.04
b
33.22 ± 0.14
a
86.72 ± 0.23
a
P1 5% 11.25 ± 0.03
a
2.74 ± 0.03
b
5.68 ± 0.07
b
5.69 ± 0.02
a
34.64 ± 0.18
a
85.78 ± 0.29
a
P2 10% 10.95 ± 0.02
a
2.73 ± 0.01
a
6.21 ± 0.02
a
5.85 ± 0.05
b
35.46 ± 0.21
a
85.15 ± 0.19
a
P3 15% 11.05 ± 0.04
b
2.83 ± 0.02
a
7.15 ± 0.03
a
6.02 ± 0.05
b
36.64 ± 0.25
b
83.96 ± 0.47
b
P4 20% 11.65 ± 0.02
a
2.89 ± 0.02
a
7.91 ± 0.06
b
6.32 ± 0.03
a
37.67 ± 0.29
b
82.76 ± 0.71
b
a–b
means in the same row followed by different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).
Drying uses hot air as a vector to extract water from the dough and is a very im-
portant step in the process of obtaining pasta because it must obtain a value corre-
sponding to the balance with the ambient air. Under these conditions, it is not necessary
to use a particular package to prevent drying or watering of the final product [4].
3.4. Water Activity
The stability of food is a feature related to the variation in the water content in them.
The multiplication of microorganisms involves the presence of water in an accessible
form in the food. A
w
for pasta samples ranged between 0.5123 ± 0.11 and 0.5394 ± 0.15, the
lowest a
w
at the pasta sample with the highest spent grain content, which was 20 percent.
3.5. Sensory Analysis of Cooked Pasta
The sensory properties of cooked pasta are reported in Figure 4. Overall acceptabil-
ity presented acceptable values with scores greater than 7 in all the range analyzed. The
highest scores for all the sensory characteristics studied were registered for the sample
with 10% spent grain addition. The appearance of the control sample had values close to
the sample with the highest score, the P2 sample with 10% spent grain, while the sample
with the highest addition of spent grain recorded the lowest score for appearance. The
Agronomy 2021, 11, 1824 12 of 18
texture scores decreased with the increase in the content of spent grain, the panelists
negatively appreciated the texture of the resulting pasta. Spinelli et al. [2] shows a de-
crease of cooked dried pasta sensory overall quality plotted as a function of brewers’
spent grain concentration. With the addition of spent grain, the taste and the smell of
pasta has changed, intensifying the taste of malt, but also the color of the pasta has
changed, becoming darker, in according to Schettino et al. [31]. Polyphenols in spent
grain can negatively affect the taste and smell of pasta, according to Iuga [12].
Figure 4. Sensory scores for spent grain pasta.
3.6. Microstructure and Roughness
The microstructure of pasta with the addition of 5–20% spent grain and the control
sample is presented in Figure 5, where the axis x, y and z represent the length, height and
width.
Agronomy 2021, 11, 1824 13 of 18
A. Control sample
B. P1 5% spent grain
Agronomy 2021, 11, 1824 14 of 18
C. P2 10% spent grain
D. P3 15% spent grain
Agronomy 2021, 11, 1824 15 of 18
E. P4 20% spent grain
Figure 5. Dry pasta microstructure: (A) Control sample, (B) P1 with 5% spent grain addition, (C) P2
with 10% spent grain addition, (D) P3 with 15% spent grain addition, (E) P4 with 20% spent grain
addition.
As can be observed from Figure 5, the incorporation of spent grain in spelt flour
pasta led a smooth surface without holes and cracks. Samples P1 and P2 show the most
holes, without a significant difference between them (Figure 5), while the P3 sample is
the finest and with the lowest roughness (Table 9). The roughness of the pasta is im-
portant because they make the pasta more suitable to retain the sauce. Roughness is
correlated with the type of die insert material used and can be improved by drying at
high temperatures. [40]. The addition of grape-pears to the production of pasta caused a
slight increase in roughness in the study carried out by Iuga and Mironeasa, 2021 [13].
Schettino et al. obtained a lower roughness in pasta made with whole wheat compared
with pasta made in addition with brewers spent grain [31].
Table 9. Dry pasta roughness.
Sample Roughness (µm)
Control sample 247.09 ± 3.82
a
P1 5% 229.89 ± 6.47
a
P2 10% 191.14 ± 5.63
a
P3 15% 161.88 ± 3.63
a
P4 20% 284.44 ± 8.59
b
a–b
means in the same row followed by different letters are significantly different (p < 0.05).
The rougher the surface of the dried pasta, the greater the solid content of cooking
water. This explains the cooking behavior of high rough pasta by exposing a larger sur-
face to the action of water during cooking, resulting in a greater amount of material re-
leased into the cooking water [14].
Bousla et al. relieved a compact and homogenous starch–protein matrix in rice pasta
enriched with vegetable flour which stabilized the uniform (integral) structure and
minimized cooking loss obtained during hydration in hot water [41].
Nocente et al. [9] used 5–20 g spent grain/100 g to make pasta, and the finished
product showed an increase in fiber up to 135%, in β-glucans up to 85% and total anti-
Agronomy 2021, 11, 1824 16 of 18
oxidant capacity up to 19%. Enrichment with spent grain involved minimal effects on the
sensory and physicochemical properties of cooked pasta [9]. Cappa and Alampese used
brewers spent grain in the production of fresh pasta to increase fiber intake and improve
nutritional value by 6.2 g/100 g[10]. Maqhuzu et al. have pointed out that the essential
amino acid, lysine, is found in relatively large quantities in spent grain compared to other
cereal products. They also concluded that, by adding 10% spent grain to a bread formu-
lation (recipe), it can lead to an increase in protein content of up to 50%, an increase in
fiber content of 10% and an essential increase in the amino acid content of 10% compared
to conventional bread without spent grain [42].
4. Conclusions
This study showed that pasta with a content of 10% spent grain had the best results,
being the most appreciated pasta formulation. The results obtained by different and
complementary approaches provided a general characterization of spent grain-enriched
pasta:
⎯ The use of spelt flour in the production of pasta, a type of flour less frequently used
in pasta processing that yieldsquality products.
⎯ The addition of spent grain coming from the whiskey industry.Most of the studies
are based on the use of spent grain from the beer industry, this being a novelty ele-
ment.
⎯ Obtaining products with good sensory and physico-chemical properties, which
denotes that spelt flour mixed with spent grain have brought an added value to the
production of pasta; the product can be reproduced with these characteristics at the
industrial level.
The products obtained showed differences in physical properties, which may be due
not only to the characteristics of the raw material, but also to the processing conditions
and technology used. More studies are needed to better understand the influence of the
addition of spent grain in the pasta forms obtained with spelt flour as there are not many
studies in this direction.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.C. and A.D.; Methodology, A.C.; Formal Analysis,
A.C. and A.D.; Investigation, A.C.; Resources, A.D.; Writing—Original Draft Preparation, A.C.;
Writing—Review and Editing, A.D. and A.D. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The data presented in this study are available in this article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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