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AGRICULTURAL COMMERCIALIZATION AND HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY IN KENYA
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Abstract
Because of the increase in population growth in Kenya over the past two decades, agricultural production in Kenya has remained low with relative food insecurity affecting many citizens in most parts of the country. This study, specifically, examined the effect of agricultural commercialization on household food security in Kenya. Panel data from Kenya 2020 Covid-19 Rapid Response Phone Survey was utilized to determine the nexus between agricultural commercialization and household food security in Kenya. A fractional regression probit model and OLS regression model were used to analyze data and also determine the robustness of the results respectively. The study findings revealed that agricultural commercialization positively and significantly affected the household food security. Although agricultural commercialization was positively related to household food security, other factors were found to be significant in increasing household food security. Gender of the household, number of dependants in the household, marital status of the household head, years of education of the household, and non-farm income had a positive and significant effect on the household food security. Contrarily, farm income and group membership had a negative effect on the household food security. The study concludes that there is a need to support agricultural commercialization to increase household food security. This could be achieved by empowering households through adequate training and education and commercialization and various variety of food diets, improving rural infrastructures such as market centers, roads, and commercial institutions.
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Commercialisation of smallholder agriculture is important for rural economic growth. While previous studies have analysed effects of commercialisation on productivity and income, implications for farm household nutrition have received much less attention. We evaluate the effects of commercialisation on household food security and dietary quality with a special focus on calorie and micronutrient consumption. We also examine transmission channels by looking at the role of income, gender, and possible substitution effects between the consumption of own‐produced and purchased foods. The analysis uses survey data from farm households in Kenya and a control function approach. Generalised propensity scores are employed to estimate continuous treatment effects. Commercialisation significantly improves food security and dietary quality in terms of calorie, zinc and iron consumption. For vitamin A, effects are insignificant. Commercialisation contributes to higher incomes and increased nutrients from purchased foods, but it does not reduce the consumption of nutrients from own‐produced foods. Enhancing market access is important not only for rural economic growth, but also for making smallholder agriculture more nutrition‐sensitive.
This paper examines the relationship between chemical fertilizer adoption and agricultural productivity in Ethiopia. Our results suggest that average returns to fertilizer adoption are high. Further, we find substantial heterogeneity across farm households in returns to fertilizer adoption, with comparative advantage playing a significant role in the adoption decision of farmers. While the adoption decision of farmers was largely rational, fertilizer use across plots was sub‐optimal. The results of this paper underscore the importance of improving farmers awareness about proper use of fertilizer through site‐specific extension services for improving agricultural productivity. (a) Fertilizer use is profitable but adoption rate is still low. (b) Returns to fertilizer adoption are heterogenous. (c) Comparative advantage plays a key role in the adoption decision of farmers.
We use DNA‐fingerprinting to estimate the poverty reduction effect of adoption of improved cassava varieties in Nigeria. We estimate the counterfactual household income distribution of cassava producers by combining farm‐level treatment effects with a market‐level model. Our results suggest that adoption of improved cassava varieties has led to a 4.6 percentage point reduction in poverty, though this is sensitive to the measurement of adoption status. Therefore, accurate measurement of adoption is crucial for a more credible estimate of the poverty reduction effect of adoption. Our analysis also suggests that farmers who are more likely to be adopters are also likely to face higher structural costs. Addressing structural barriers that make improved technologies less profitable for the poor would therefore be important to increase the poverty reduction effect of improved cassava varieties.
Objective:
The association between farm production diversity and dietary diversity in rural smallholder households was recently analysed. Most existing studies build on household-level dietary diversity indicators calculated from 7d food consumption recalls. Herein, this association is revisited with individual-level 24 h recall data. The robustness of the results is tested by comparing household- and individual-level estimates. The role of other factors that may influence dietary diversity, such as market access and agricultural technology, is also analysed.
Design:
A survey of smallholder farm households was carried out in Malawi in 2014. Dietary diversity scores are calculated from 24 h recall data. Production diversity scores are calculated from farm production data covering a period of 12 months. Individual- and household-level regression models are developed and estimated.
Setting:
Data were collected in sixteen districts of central and southern Malawi.
Subjects:
Smallholder farm households (n 408), young children (n 519) and mothers (n 408).
Results:
Farm production diversity is positively associated with dietary diversity. However, the estimated effects are small. Access to markets for buying food and selling farm produce and use of chemical fertilizers are shown to be more important for dietary diversity than diverse farm production. Results with household- and individual-level dietary data are very similar.
Conclusions:
Further increasing production diversity may not be the most effective strategy to improve diets in smallholder farm households. Improving access to markets, productivity-enhancing inputs and technologies seems to be more promising.
This paper evaluates the potential impact of adoption of improved legume technologies on rural household welfare measured by consumption expenditure in rural Ethiopia and Tanzania. The study utilizes cross-sectional farm household level data collected in 2008 from a randomly selected sample of 1313 households (700 in Ethiopia and 613 in Tanzania). The causal impact of technology adoption is estimated by utilizing endogenous switching regression. This helps us estimate the true welfare effect of technology adoption by controlling for the role of selection problem on production and adoption decisions. Our analysis reveals that adoption of improved agricultural technologies has a significant positive impact consumption expenditure (in per adult equivalent terms) in rural Ethiopia and Tanzania. This confirms the potential role of technology adoption in improving rural household welfare as higher consumption expenditure from improved technologies translate into lower poverty, higher food security and greater ability to withstand risk. An analysis of the determinants of adoption highlighted inadequate local supply of seed, access to information and perception about the new cultivars as key constraints for technology adoption.
CAPSA Centre for Alleviation of Poverty through Sustainable Agriculture ESCAP is the regional development arm of the United Nations and serves as the main economic and social development centre for the United Nations in Asia and the Pacific. Its mandate is to faster cooperation between its 53 members and 9 associate members. ESCAP provides the strategic link between global and country-level programmes and issues. It supports Governments of countries in the region in consolidating regional positions and advocates regional approaches to meeting the region's unique socioeconomic challenges in a globalizing world. The ESCAP office is located in Bangkok, Thailand. Please visit the ESCAP website at www.unescap.org for further information. CAPSA-ESCAP The Centre for Alleviation of Poverty through Sustainable Agriculture (CAPSA) is a subsidiary body of UNESCAP. It was established as the Regional Coordination Centre for Research and Development of Coarse Grains, Pulses, Roots and Tuber Crops in the Humid Tropics of Asia and the Pacific (CGPRT Centre) in 1981 and was renamed CAPSA in 2004. Objectives Enhanced national capacity for socioeconomic and policy research on sustainable agriculture for poverty reduction and food security Enhanced regional coordination and networking to successfully scale up and scale out research findings that have implications for policy design and implementation related to sustainable agriculture and rural development Enhanced capacity of policymakers and senior government officials to design and implement policies to achieve rural development, poverty reduction and food security through sustainable agriculture in Asia and the Pacific
To assess the effectiveness of agricultural interventions in improving the nutritional status of children in developing countries.
Systematic review.
Published and unpublished reports (after 1990) in English identified by searching 10 databases (Agris, Econlit, Eldis, IBSS, IDEAS, IFPRI, Jolis, PubMed, Web of Science, and World Bank), websites, previous systematic reviews, and reference lists and by contacting experts.
Included studies assessed effects of agricultural interventions aiming at improving the nutritional status of children (bio-fortification, home gardens, small scale fisheries and aquaculture, dairy development, and animal husbandry and poultry development). Only studies that used a valid counterfactual analysis were included. Before/after studies and participants/non-participants comparisons affected by selection bias were excluded. Data analysis Results were analysed for four intermediate outcomes (programme participation, income, dietary diversity, and micronutrient intake) and one final outcome (prevalence of under-nutrition). Analysis was by summary tables of mean effects and by meta-analysis (for vitamin A absorption).
The review included 23 studies, mostly evaluating home garden interventions. The studies reviewed did not report participation rates or the characteristics of participants in programmes. The interventions had a positive effect on the production of the agricultural goods promoted, but not on households' total income. The interventions were successful in promoting the consumption of food rich in protein and micronutrients, but the effect on the overall diet of poor people remains unclear. No evidence was found of an effect on the absorption of iron, but some evidence exists of a positive effect on absorption of vitamin A. Very little evidence was found of a positive effect on the prevalence of stunting, wasting, and underweight among children aged under 5.
The question posed by the review cannot be answered with any level of confidence. The data available show a poor effect of these interventions on nutritional status, but methodological weaknesses of the studies cast serious doubts on the validity of these results. More rigorous and better designed studies are needed, as well as the establishment of agreed quality standards to guide researchers in this important area.
Homestead food production programs have the potential to improve maternal and child health and nutrition through multiple pathways.
To evaluate the impact of a homestead food production program in Cambodia on household production and consumption of micronutrient-rich foods and on maternal and child health and nutrition (intake of micronutrient-rich foods, anthropometry, hemoglobin, and anemia prevalence); and to assess pathways of impact on maternal and child health and nutrition.
Two cross-sectional surveys (baseline and endline) were used to assess differences between intervention (n = 300) and control (n = 200) households using t-tests and chi-square tests. Using endline data and multivariate analyses, we examined the pathways of impact of the program on maternal and child health and nutrition.
Intervention and control households were similar at baseline in sociodemographic characteristics, but more intervention households owned animals, earned income from homestead food production, and produced and consumed micronutrient-rich foods. At endline, some of these differences had widened; more intervention households produced and consumed more vegetables, had higher dietary diversity, and had a lower prevalence of fever among children under 5 years of age. In the intervention group, more children consumed more eggs and more mothers consumed micronutrient-rich food more frequently than in the control group. There were no other differences between the groups in maternal and child health and nutrition. Greater household production of fruits and vegetables was associated with greater household dietary diversity, which was associated with dietary diversity among mothers and children. Dietary diversity was not associated with other maternal and child health and nutrition outcomes.
Cambodia's homestead food production program increased household production and consumption of micronutrient-rich foods and maternal and child intake (or frequency of intake) of some of these foods. Weaknesses in the evaluation design (e.g., lack of comparability between groups at baseline, failure to control for self-selection of households into the intervention, and collection of baseline and endline data during different seasons) prevent drawing firm conclusions about the program impacts. Analysis of impact pathways also shows that household-level benefits from the program did not translate into significant improvements in maternal and child health and nutrition. A careful redesign and rigorous assessment of the program using a program theory framework would help unleash its true potential to improve maternal and child health and nutrition outcomes.
To review the impact of agriculture interventions on nutritional status in participating households, and to analyse the characteristics of interventions that improved nutrition outcomes.
We identified and reviewed reports describing 30 agriculture interventions that measured impact on nutritional status. The interventions reviewed included home gardening, livestock, mixed garden and livestock, cash cropping, and irrigation. We examined the reports for the scientific quality of the research design and treatment of the data. We also assessed whether the projects invested in five types of 'capital' (physical, natural, financial, human and social) as defined in the Sustainable Livelihoods Framework, a conceptual map of major factors that affect people's livelihoods.
Most agriculture interventions increased food production, but did not necessarily improve nutrition or health within participating households. Nutrition was improved in 11 of 13 home gardening interventions, and in 11 of 17 other types of intervention. Of the 19 interventions that had a positive effect on nutrition, 14 of them invested in four or five types of capital in addition to the agriculture intervention. Of the nine interventions that had a negative or no effect on nutrition, only one invested in four or five types of capital.
Those agriculture interventions that invested broadly in different types of capital were more likely to improve nutrition outcomes. Those projects which invested in human capital (especially nutrition education and consideration of gender issues), and other types of capital, had a greater likelihood of effecting positive nutritional change, but such investment is neither sufficient nor always necessary to effect change.
Global poverty rates have declined considerably, but the number of people living in extreme poverty remains high. Many of the world's poor are smallholder farmers. Agricultural commercialization - meaning a shift from subsistence to more market-oriented farming - can play a central role in improving smallholder welfare. Previous studies evaluated the impact of agricultural commercialization on income poverty, but whether income gains from commercialization are really used for satisfying basic needs was hardly analyzed up till now. Here, we evaluate the effect of commercialization on income poverty, as well as on the multidimensional poverty index that looks at deprivations in terms of education, nutrition, health, and other dimensions of living standard. Using data from 805 farm households in Kenya, we estimate average treatment effects and also analyze impact heterogeneity with quantile regressions. Results show that commercialization reduces both income poverty and multidimensional poverty. The magnitude of the income gains is positively correlated with income level, meaning that market-linkage support for marginalized farms may be needed to avoid rising inequality. However, the effect in terms of reducing basic needs deprivations is stronger for the poorest households, suggesting that agricultural commercialization contributes effectively to achieving the sustainable development goals. (Free access until 18 December 2018 under: https://authors.elsevier.com/c/1Y18s_,iVXJtp~)
How agriculture can improve human nutrition is a topic of debate. Recent reviews demonstrate little impact on nutritional status but do not critically examine the choice of appropriate outcome indicators. This paper reviews which nutrition impact indicators are currently used in agriculture-nutrition projects, and highlights priorities and gaps in measurement. Many project evaluations are statistically underpowered to observe impact on nutritional status, but appear to be powered to observe impacts on food consumption and dietary quality, which we conclude are an appropriate level of impact of agriculture-nutrition projects. To improve the evidence base, there is a need to develop indicators of outcomes that are not being fully measured, including dietary quality and food security, women's empowerment, health environments, and food environments.
This paper provides an overview of control function (CF) methods for solving the problem of endogenous explanatory variables (EEVs) in linear and nonlinear models. CF methods often can be justifi ed in situations where "plug- in" approaches are known to produce inconsistent estimators of parameters and partial effects. Usually, CF approaches require fewer assumptions than maximum likelihood, and CF methods are computationally simpler. The recent focus on estimating average partial effects, along with theoretical results on nonparametric identifi cation, suggests some simple, fl exible parametric CF strategies. The CF approach for handling discrete EEVs in nonlinear models is more controversial but approximate solutions are available. © 2015 by the Board of Regents of the University of Wisconsin System.
This article examines the effects of structural adjustment programmes (SAPs) on Kenyan society. A series of economic and political reforms initiated by the World Bank and International Monetary Fund in Kenya since 1988 and especially after 1991 have transformed many aspects of the daily life of Kenya people. These programmes have been linked to the high rate of income inequality, inflation, unemployment, retrenchment, and so on, which have lowered living standards, especially, those relating to the material resources in the family. Furthermore, the SAPs in Kenya have been linked to the increasing deviant and crime rates, ethnic hatred and discrimination and welfare problems, especially in the areas of education and health.
Research has demonstrated that commercializing smallholder agricultural production is one of the effective ways to boost farmer incomes, employ labor, and stimulate rural economies in Sub-Saharan Africa, but this differs by commodity. We use panel data covering over a decade to estimate output supply functions for smallholder farmers in Kenya, and compare these among three commodities with distinctive product attributes: maize, kale and milk. We find that despite improved market access over the decade, there is little discernible growth in market participation except in the case of milk. A minority of households consistently sell from year to year and market concentration remains high across all the commodities, indicating that production is largely subsistence. Nevertheless, there is greater market orientation and less market concentration in kale and milk than in maize. For all the commodities, market participation is strongly associated with access to land, productive assets, technology use, expected prices and rainfall amount and reliability. We argue that broad-based smallholder market participation can only be realized through interventions that raise smallholder production of marketable surpluses through raising productivity, and this cuts across even the high value sub-sectors such as horticulture and dairy. Also essential alongside such interventions are strategies to improving market access by reducing transaction costs.
Many developing countries grapple with high rates of farmland degradation and low agricultural productivity amidst increasing climate variability. Considerable efforts have been exerted to promote the diffusion of improved farmland management to address these challenges. Despite these efforts, adoption rates, especially of soil conservation and water harvesting technologies, are still low, which has been the subject of investigation in several studies in Ethiopia and elsewhere. Most studies on the adoption of these technologies, however, tend to focus on economic incentives only, paying little attention to the role of social capital. This article provides evidence of the effects of different dimensions of social capital on innovation adoption across households holding different levels of risk aversion. We address this issue by using cross section and panel data from Ethiopia. Results show that social capital plays a significant role in enhancing the adoption of improved farmland management practices. We also find evidence that the effect of social capital across households with heterogeneous risk taking behavior is different.
Farm production diversity has the potential to influence the diversity of household diets, an important nutrition outcome associated with the nutrient adequacy of diets and the nutritional status of individuals. Yet, little empirical research has assessed the relationship between farm diversity and diet diversity or the plausible causal mechanisms that may operate between these two constructs. This research examines cross-sectional data from the Malawi Third Integrated Household Survey (IHS3), a nationally representative sample of farming households in Malawi, implemented from March 2010–March 2011 as part of the World Bank Living Standards Measurement Study – Integrated Surveys on Agriculture (LSMS-ISA). These data were used to determine the relationship between farm production diversity and household dietary diversity, and to identify determinants of this relationship. Two indicators of dietary diversity, a modified Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS), and the Food Consumption Score (FCS), were calculated along with three indicators of farm production diversity including the Simpson’s Index, a metric accounting for both species richness and evenness. In multiple regression analyses, adjusting standard errors for the complex survey design of the IHS3 and controlling for the effects of several covariates on household dietary diversity, farm production diversity was consistently positively associated with dietary diversity (P < 0.0001). The association of increased farm diversity as measured by a combined crop and livestock measure on dietary diversity was significantly greater in woman-headed households compared to those headed by men (HDDS: P = 0.008; FCS: P = 0.076). The positive association of farm diversity with dietary diversity was also greater in wealthier households (P < 0.05). Consumption of legumes, vegetables and fruits was especially strongly associated with greater farm diversity. More diverse production systems may contribute to more diverse household diets. However, this relationship is complex; it may be influenced by gender, wealth, control of household decisions, the relative market-orientation of a household’s agricultural production, and the specific nature of farm diversity.
While tissue culture (TC) technology for vegetative plant propagation is gradually gaining in importance in Africa, rigorous ex post assessments of welfare effects for smallholder farm households is lacking. Using recent survey data and accounting for self-selection in technology adoption, we analyze the impacts of TC banana technology on household income and food security in Kenya. To assess food security outcomes, we employ the Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) – a tool that has not been used for impact assessment before. Estimates of treatment-effects models show that TC banana adoption increases farm and household income by 153% and 50%, respectively. The technology also reduces relative food insecurity in a significant way. These results indicate that TC technology can be welfare enhancing for adopting farm households; its use should be further promoted through upscaling appropriate technology delivery systems.
The objective of this review is to systematically examine and summarise the effects of agricultural interventions to increase household food production on the nutrition and health outcomes of women and young children and provide recommendations for future research and programming. Data from all studies meeting inclusion/exclusion criteria were abstracted into a standardised form. The quality of the evidence was assessed and graded using a modified version of the Child Health Epidemiology Reference Group adaptation of the Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation technique. Thirty-six articles, representing 27 unique projects were identified. Of these 32 and 17 reported on the health and nutrition outcomes of children and women, respectively. Although studies were too heterogeneous to conduct meta-analysis, agricultural strategies consistently reported significantly improved diet patterns and vitamin A intakes for both women and children. Although some individual studies reported significant reductions in child malnutrition, summary estimates for effects on stunting [relative risk (RR) 0.93 [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.84, 1.04]], underweight (RR 0.80 [95% CI 0.60, 1.07]) and wasting (RR 0.91 [95% CI 0.60, 1.38]) were not significant. Findings for an effect on vitamin A status, anaemia and morbidity were inconsistent. Overall the evidence base for the potential of agricultural strategies to improve the nutrition and health of women and young children is largely grounded in a limited number of highly heterogeneous, quasi-experimental studies, most of which have significant methodological limitations. While household food production strategies hold promise for improving the nutrition of women and children, the evidence base would be strengthened by additional research that is methodologically robust and adequately powered for biological and dietary indicators of nutrition.
We review evidence on the impacts of CGIAR research published since 2000 in order to provide insight into how successfully the CGIAR Centers have been in pursuing the System's core missions. Our review suggests that CGIAR research contributions in crop genetic improvement, pest management, natural resources management, and policy research have, in the aggregate, yielded strongly positive impacts relative to investment, and appear likely to continue doing so. Crop genetic improvement research stands out as having had the most profound documented positive impacts. Substantial evidence exists that other research areas within the CGIAR have had large beneficial impacts although often locally and nationally rather than internationally. However, the "right-time, right-place" nature of successful policy research and the relatively limited geographic scale of much natural resource management research often limits the overall scale of impacts of these programmatic thrusts vis-à-vis genetic improvement research. We conclude that given the evidence available, the CGIAR's portfolio of research allocations has become overly skewed toward natural resource management and policy research over time. Hence, restoring somewhat the share of resources allocated to crop genetic improvement is warranted. In addition, the CGIAR needs to prioritize impact assessment of resource management and policy research to deepen its understanding of the social and environmental impacts of its work.
This paper reviews the evidence on smallholder market participation, with a focus on staple foodgrains (i.e., cereals) in eastern and southern Africa, in an effort to help better identify what interventions are most likely to break smallholders out of the semi-subsistence poverty trap that appears to ensnare much of rural Africa. The conceptual and empirical evidence suggests that interventions aimed at facilitating smallholder organization, at reducing the costs of intermarket commerce, and, perhaps especially, at improving poorer households’ access to improved technologies and productive assets are central to stimulating smallholder market participation and escape from semi-subsistence poverty traps. Macroeconomic and trade policy tools appear less useful in inducing market participation by poor smallholders in the region.
In Côte d'Ivoire, as in much of Africa, husbands and wives farm different crops on separate plots. These different crops are differentially sensitive to particular kinds of rainfall shocks. We find that conditional on overall household expenditure, the composition of expenditure is sensitive to the gender of the recipient of a rainfall shock. For example, rainfall shocks associated with high women's income shift expenditure towards food. Social norms constrain the use of profits from yam cultivation, which is carried out by men. Correspondingly, we find that rainfall-induced fluctuations in income from yams are transmitted to expenditures on education and food, not to expenditures on private goods. We reject the hypothesis of complete insurance within households, even with respect to publicly observable weather shocks. Different sources of income are allocated to different uses depending upon both the identity of the income earner and upon the origin of the income.
In the early 1980s, a paradigm shift occurred in the field of food security, following Amartya Sens (1981) claims that food insecurity is more of a demand concern, affecting the poor's access to food, than a supply concern, affecting availability of food at the national level. Despite the wide acceptance of Sen's thinking, many controversies including the relative importance of supply-side versus demand-side variables in causing and solving food insecurity have remained in academic and policy circles. This study develops a recursive household food security model within the framework of consumer demand and production theories following Singh et al. (1986), and parses out the relative importance of supply-side versus demand-side variables in determining household food security in southern Ethiopia. Based on results of a test of full/reduced model and the magnitude of changes in conditional probabilities of food security, we conclude that the supply-side variables are more powerful determinants of food security than the demand-side variables. Copyright 2005 International Association of Agricultural Economics.
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