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Features of parking in megacities
Mikhail Stepanov* and V.S. Skrininkova
National Research Moscow State University of Civil Engineering, 129337, Moscow, Russia
Abstract. The article deals with the issues of transport parking in
megacities. Car parking has a huge impact on people and environment. The
lack of parking spaces constrains economy and forces people to park
incorrectly, which leads to traffic jams, undermines security and aesthetic
appearance of urban spaces. The article discusses various parking options
in megacities. The advantages and disadvantages of various parking
options are shown. The main factors influencing the construction of
parking lots in cities are considered, such as: construction and operating
costs; type, location and use of the parking lot; availability and public
transport possibilities; local vehicle ownership; a general need to reduce
the use of high-emission vehicles. Foreign and domestic parking
experience has been analyzed. The issues of the relation between the cost
of parking, housing and the average net salary of residents are considered.
Recommendations for the convenient design of parking lots are given.
Dependences of the required number of parking lots for permanent and
temporary parking of cars have been obtained.
1 Introduction
Any transport system has three components: the vehicles themselves (cars), communication
routes (roads) and terminals (parking lots) [1]
Car parking has a huge impact on people and the environment. The lack of parking
spaces constrains the economy and forces people to park incorrectly, which leads to traffic
jams, undermines security and aesthetic appearance of urban spaces. When there are too
many parking lots, they start to take up space, that could be used more efficiently and
impede traffic.
The number of parking lots should correspond to the motorization level and
follow modern trends.
If the current trend of high motorization growth continues, ignoring the problem
of storage and parking of vehicles will soon lead to a significant deterioration in the
transport situation.
The most efficient use of the construction site with the least capital investment,
the determination of ways to reduce construction costs using modern materials and
technologies, as well as the methods for optimizing space-planning solutions is of
paramount importance.
A sharp increase in the constructionvolume, the development zones’’compaction
can intensify the problem of parking lots and parking spaces for individual vehicles,
* Corresponding author: masmias@mail.ru
© The Authors, published by EDP Sciences. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution License 4.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
E3S Web of Conferences 281, 02019 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202128102019
CATPID-2021 Part 1
and the years-long practice of organizing long-term storage of vehicles in one-story
surface garages and open parking does not contribute to the efficient use of land
resources [1].
Providing clear guidelines for the design of parking spaces is also a key to
stimulating an increase in the level of comfort, while taking into account the
specificity of the inhabited locality. This should speed up scheduling by providing
the right amount and variety of parking lots, allowing the respective developers to
get started with minimal latency. This will make a difference in promoting
sustainable development by attracting business and economic activity, which will
allow the localities to usethe attractive locations and improve the quality of life and
tourism.
Therefore, the development of methodological principles for determining the
need for parking and the search for the most rational option for placement in the
structure of urban development remains an urgent problem.
Foreign and domestic scientists are engaged in the issue of designing parking
lots. The following works are devoted to this topic: [2–7].
2 Methods
2.1 The research methods are based on theoretical and methodological
analysis of scientific and regulatory literature, Internet resources, analysis of
modern domestic and foreign practice, collection and processing of
statistical data, comparison of the best planning methods in the construction
of parking lots and calculations.
When planning parking lots, the following main factors should be considered:
Cost of construction and maintenance;
Type, location and use of the car park;
Presence and possibilities of public transport;
Local level of car ownership;
General need to reduce the use of high-emission vehicles.
In all areas of the city, residents have different opportunities for walking, cycling and
public transport. Therefore, car ownership in urban areas tends to be different. This is
especially important when planning parking lots considering the limited availability of land
in urban areas and the importance of ensuring land development in the most efficient way.
The provision of sufficient parking spaces in certain areas should be justified by real data.
The problem of lack of parking lots in the worldis solved by applying the restrictive
measures: introducing fees for personal vehicles for entering the city center, taxes, car
ownership certificates, and so on. The attempts to reduce car ownership by introducing
maximum allowed parking spaces have had little impact [8]on car ownership – people
continue to buy cars and park inappropriately. The optimal conditions for the use of parking
space is defined as creating the most favorable conditions for sustainable urban
development, without causing negative consequences due to insufficient or the parking
spaces’ excessive provision.
Let us consider the situation with parking lots in the largest modern megacities. All
prices were calculated as the respective parking rates average for all public off-street
parking in the city center based on the Parkopedia global parking dataset. Parkopedia is a
leader among parking information providers [9]. This is due to the fact that parking in the
US and Australia is most expensive in the first few hours of stay, while drivers in other
countries pay the same cost for each hour they spend in the parking lot.
2
E3S Web of Conferences 281, 02019 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202128102019
CATPID-2021 Part 1
and the years-long practice of organizing long-term storage of vehicles in one-story
surface garages and open parking does not contribute to the efficient use of land
resources [1].
Providing clear guidelines for the design of parking spaces is also a key to
stimulating an increase in the level of comfort, while taking into account the
specificity of the inhabited locality. This should speed up scheduling by providing
the right amount and variety of parking lots, allowing the respective developers to
get started with minimal latency. This will make a difference in promoting
sustainable development by attracting business and economic activity, which will
allow the localities to usethe attractive locations and improve the quality of life and
tourism.
Therefore, the development of methodological principles for determining the
need for parking and the search for the most rational option for placement in the
structure of urban development remains an urgent problem.
Foreign and domestic scientists are engaged in the issue of designing parking
lots. The following works are devoted to this topic: [2–7].
2 Methods
2.1 The research methods are based on theoretical and methodological
analysis of scientific and regulatory literature, Internet resources, analysis of
modern domestic and foreign practice, collection and processing of
statistical data, comparison of the best planning methods in the construction
of parking lots and calculations.
When planning parking lots, the following main factors should be considered:
Cost of construction and maintenance;
Type, location and use of the car park;
Presence and possibilities of public transport;
Local level of car ownership;
General need to reduce the use of high-emission vehicles.
In all areas of the city, residents have different opportunities for walking, cycling and
public transport. Therefore, car ownership in urban areas tends to be different. This is
especially important when planning parking lots considering the limited availability of land
in urban areas and the importance of ensuring land development in the most efficient way.
The provision of sufficient parking spaces in certain areas should be justified by real data.
The problem of lack of parking lots in the worldis solved by applying the restrictive
measures: introducing fees for personal vehicles for entering the city center, taxes, car
ownership certificates, and so on. The attempts to reduce car ownership by introducing
maximum allowed parking spaces have had little impact [8]on car ownership – people
continue to buy cars and park inappropriately. The optimal conditions for the use of parking
space is defined as creating the most favorable conditions for sustainable urban
development, without causing negative consequences due to insufficient or the parking
spaces’ excessive provision.
Let us consider the situation with parking lots in the largest modern megacities. All
prices were calculated as the respective parking rates average for all public off-street
parking in the city center based on the Parkopedia global parking dataset. Parkopedia is a
leader among parking information providers [9]. This is due to the fact that parking in the
US and Australia is most expensive in the first few hours of stay, while drivers in other
countries pay the same cost for each hour they spend in the parking lot.
The design of parking lots is carried out taking into account the requirements of
regulatory documents, as well as in accordance with the specifics of the object and
its inherent style features. A dedicated parking area is needed for construction. A
decision on the placement of parking spaces and organizational and technical
functioning is required for all types of parking
Regulatory documents have a significant impact on the formation of parking
area. Figure 1 shows a diagram of the cost of parking, rent of parking spaces, and the
average salary.
Fig. 1. Comparative analysis of parking cost in different cities around the world
Below are the cost ratios of parking, housing and salary in various cities around the
world.
Cost of parking,
housing and
salary,Сity
Parking prices,
USD $
Housing
prices, USD
$
Average monthly net
salary, after taxes, USD $
Daily (8 hours)
Long-term
(month)
Purchase
(m²)
Rent (month)
Hong Kong
11.43
22.84
232
22.044
1.753
2.729.84
London
20.25
43.86
588.46
12.195
1.756
2.827.67
New York
32.12
40.52
590
783.130
4.344
5.115.68
Boston
20
33
315
7.125
2.163
4.073.47
San Francisco
14.47
26.72
380
10.138
2.973
5.374.68
Paris
12
38
227
9.195
1.046
1.637.48
Dubai
1
6
62
3.276
1.601
3.613.88
Tokyo
4
9
270
10.015
1.804
2.962.89
Sydney
28
46
380
7.158
1.517
3.349.53
For the population living in residential buildings, permanent storage of individual
vehicles is required. Parking spaces should be located within walking distance from
residential buildings at a distance not exceeding 1,500m [10]. Parking spaces for permanent
storage are locatedon the territories of multi-storey residential buildings:
within quarters;
outside the residential area (for seasonal storage);
on the street-road network (off-street in the form of parking bays receding from the
carriageway; in the street in the form of parking lots on the carriageway, open areas and
in garages), as well as in underground garages under the carriageway.
3
E3S Web of Conferences 281, 02019 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202128102019
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When traveling for different purposes, workers and visitors to the target sites need
parking lots for temporary storage of individual vehicles. For the residential buildings’
visitors, guest parking is provided. It is advisable to place them in open areas within
neighborhoods or on the street and road network.
Parking lots give a possibility to passengers for heading to the city center to leave their
vehicles and change to public transport.
3 Results
Parking lots can be placed on a specially equipped open flat area, below and/or at the
ground level, on an exploited flat roof, attached to buildings for other purposes or built into
a building for other functional purposes in accordance with established norms and rules.
Underground space of undeveloped territories (squares, streets, lawns, etc.) can be used for
parking [11].
Parking lots should be accessible for mobility impaired people; therefore, measures to
organize them should be taken. It is recommended to provide parking spaces on the ground
floor at ground parking, and in underground parking lots for mobility impaired people– not
lower than the first (upper) underground floor.
The formation of parking space is significantly influenced by the regulatory restrictions
on the placement and operation of parking lots. It is forbidden to place them in the
protected zones of rivers and reservoirs. It is not allowed to build them into buildings of
other purposes and attach to them, as well as to place parking lots of a closed type below
the ground level for cars with engines running on compressed natural gas and liquefied
petroleum gas. So that parking does not create discomfort for pedestrians and does not
worsen the environment ecology, especially for the megalopolis residents.
The calculation of parking lots for the cars permanent storage is carried out according to
the formula:
Np= S∙K1∙K2 /S1 (1)
where NP is the number of parking spaces for permanent vehicles storage;
S is the total floor area of the facility;
K1 is an indicator of the total floor area of the facility per one parking space for
permanent storage of vehicles;
K1is the clarifying index of the ratio of the daytime population and the population living
in the district;
K2 is a clarifying index of the estimated number of parking lots depending on the urban
public passenger transport accessible in the territory.
The calculation of parking lots for temporary storage of cars is carried out according to
the formula:
t =S K3∙K2, /S2 (2)
where Nt is the number of parking spaces for temporary storage of vehicles;
S is the total facilityfloor area;
S2 – index of the object total floor area per one parking space for temporary storage of
vehicles;
K3 – the clarifying index of urbanization, depends on the areadevelopment;
Let us define the reduced area of parking spaces Sred
Sred = Stotal /N
4
E3S Web of Conferences 281, 02019 (2021) https://doi.org/10.1051/e3sconf/202128102019
CATPID-2021 Part 1
When traveling for different purposes, workers and visitors to the target sites need
parking lots for temporary storage of individual vehicles. For the residential buildings’
visitors, guest parking is provided. It is advisable to place them in open areas within
neighborhoods or on the street and road network.
Parking lots give a possibility to passengers for heading to the city center to leave their
vehicles and change to public transport.
3 Results
Parking lots can be placed on a specially equipped open flat area, below and/or at the
ground level, on an exploited flat roof, attached to buildings for other purposes or built into
a building for other functional purposes in accordance with established norms and rules.
Underground space of undeveloped territories (squares, streets, lawns, etc.) can be used for
parking [11].
Parking lots should be accessible for mobility impaired people; therefore, measures to
organize them should be taken. It is recommended to provide parking spaces on the ground
floor at ground parking, and in underground parking lots for mobility impaired people– not
lower than the first (upper) underground floor.
The formation of parking space is significantly influenced by the regulatory restrictions
on the placement and operation of parking lots. It is forbidden to place them in the
protected zones of rivers and reservoirs. It is not allowed to build them into buildings of
other purposes and attach to them, as well as to place parking lots of a closed type below
the ground level for cars with engines running on compressed natural gas and liquefied
petroleum gas. So that parking does not create discomfort for pedestrians and does not
worsen the environment ecology, especially for the megalopolis residents.
The calculation of parking lots for the cars permanent storage is carried out according to
the formula:
Np= S∙K1∙K2 /S1 (1)
where NP is the number of parking spaces for permanent vehicles storage;
S is the total floor area of the facility;
K1 is an indicator of the total floor area of the facility per one parking space for
permanent storage of vehicles;
K1is the clarifying index of the ratio of the daytime population and the population living
in the district;
K2 is a clarifying index of the estimated number of parking lots depending on the urban
public passenger transport accessible in the territory.
The calculation of parking lots for temporary storage of cars is carried out according to
the formula:
t =S K3∙K2, /S2 (2)
where Nt is the number of parking spaces for temporary storage of vehicles;
S is the total facilityfloor area;
S2 – index of the object total floor area per one parking space for temporary storage of
vehicles;
K3 – the clarifying index of urbanization, depends on the areadevelopment;
Let us define the reduced area of parking spaces Sred
Sred = Stotal /N
Where Stotal is a number of parking spaces;
N is a parking area
Efficiency index Kef of parking garage is used:
Kef = NS/Stotal,
Where S is the area of one parking space.
Smaller Sef value and greater Kef value reduce the cost of the parking garage.
Index Kef depends on the length of the parking, the number of floors and the floor area.
The most effective economic solution is an open-type multi-storey parking lot with
inclined ceilings or with a split-level planning up to 6 floors with a floor area of up to 2,000
m2 (35 m wide and 35 to 55 m long, with up to 440 parking spaces) [12,13].
In mechanized parking lots, cars are moved to the storage places bythe special
mechanized devices (without the drivers’ participation).
Multilevel automatic parking systems are becoming a necessity, significantly saving
built-up area, which is a very important factor in an ever-growing megacity. Compact
automatic multi-level parking allows you to save 35 to 50% of the area, compared to
conventional parking, this is a simple and modern way to solve this problem. These parking
systems can be a built-in parking, as well as a stand-alone facility.
In the urban environment, there is a need to provide public facilities (airports, train
stations, sports facilities, cultural facilities, shopping and business centers, etc.), as well as
residential areas with places for storing cars.
4 Conclusion
The analysis of parking lots in megacities showed that the most versatile and economically
feasible type of parking lot, taking into account the cost of land, construction, built-up
density, operation, intensity of use, are the area of multi-level parking lots.
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