Content uploaded by Giorgio Marchetti
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Giorgio Marchetti on Jun 13, 2021
Content may be subject to copyright.
Operational Linguistics (OL)Operational Linguistics (OL)
by: Giorgio Marchetti by: Giorgio Marchetti
6/13/2021 www.mind-consciousness-language.com 1
An overview of Operational
Linguistics
Operational Linguistics (also called Attentional Semantics)
is a linguistic theory based on a theory of the mind,
Operational Methodology (also called Operational
Awareness, Third Cybernetics or Logonics), which was
originally put forward in the 60’s by an Italian scholar, Silvio
Ceccato (1914-1997).
Main publications:
Theory of knowledge/Operational Methodology:
- Un tecnico tra I filosofi. Come non filosofare (1966)
Linguistics:
- Corso di linguistica operativa (ed.) (1969)
- Linguaggio consapevolezza pensiero (with B. Zonta)
(1980)
Aesthetics:
- La fabbrica del bello (1987)
6/13/2021 www.mind-consciousness-language.com 2
Operational Methodology
The main tenets of Operational Methodology are that:
- The mind is neither a copy of the external world (realism, materialism) nor a copy of the spirit
(idealism). On the contrary, the mind actively constructs its own objects (i.e., perceptions, thoughts,
ideas, the meanings of words, values, attitudes, etc.). As such, Operational Methodology can be
considered as a kind of Constructivism.
- The objects produced by the mind can be analyzed in terms of more basic mental (or cognitive)
operations, among which, attention plays a key role.
Important: the number and type of these basic operations is defined by the researcher, and can always
be modified, extended, etc. according to the most recent empirical findings and the researcher’s own
specific goals. Consequently, analyses can always be improved.
6/13/2021 3
www.mind-consciousness-language.com
Operational
Methodology
according to
Benedetti &
Marchetti
6/13/2021 www.mind-consciousness-language.com 4
Even though Ceccato has never explicitly denied the existence
of a reality independent of the mind, in his work he has
always deliberately disregarded it, dealing only with mental
activity.
Most of Ceccato’s students and collaborators have followed
this approach. A notable example is represented by Ernst von
Glasersfeld, who put forward a theory that he named Radical
Constructivism.
On the contrary, Giulio Benedetti and Giorgio Marchetti,
whose approach may be defined as a moderate kind of
Constructivism, explicitly acknowledge the importance of an
independent reality, and try to account for it within the
theoretical framework of Operational Methodology (*)
(*) The complete bibliographies of Benedetti and Marchetti are available at
http://www.mind-consciousness-language.com/curriculum.htm
The importance of language from the Operational Methodology
viewpoint
6/13/2021 www.mind-consciousness-language.com 5
Language, because of its extended usage, flexibility and usefulness,
can be considered as one of the main products of the mind. Its easy
accessibility and inter-subjectively controllable nature make it a
privileged means to study mental activity.
This explains why Ceccato and his followers have so extensively
analyzed language, developing a dedicated research discipline to this
aim: Operational Linguistics (OL).
OL and the other theories of language
Generally speaking, traditional theories of language can be grouped
into:
1) Objectivist: those for which language “mirrors” the entities of
the world (objects, properties, relations and events);
2) Cognitivist objectivist: those for which language “mirrors”
the concepts (or ideas, image, etc.) that represent the entities of
the word.
OL differs from both. For OL, language is the product of
the operations performed by the mind.
6/13/2021 www.mind-consciousness-language.com 6
word
“tree” ↔concept
of tree ↔
↔
word
“tree”
mental operations ↔word
“tree”
The main
advantages of OL
over the other
theories of
language
- OL allows for analyzing linguistic units (morphemes, words,
etc.) that do not refer to anything in the real world, such as
prepositions, conjunctions, determiners, case markers, etc.
(relators, grammatical words). This is impossible for
Objectivist theories of language.
- OL allows for positively analyzing the meaning of linguistic
units avoiding:
•circular definitions (“to begin=to start”, “not=used to
form the negative”) and
•the polysemy fallacy (the proliferation of the number of
distinct senses associated with a certain word).
This is impossible for Cognitivist objectivist theories of
language, included most versions of Cognitive Linguistics,
which, by positing that the core meaning of many (mostly
grammatical) words is spatial, tend to derive their additional
meaning via a metaphorical redescription.
6/13/2021
www.mind-consciousness-language.com
The conscious experience (CE) of
linguistic meaning:
A cognitive model.
The conscious experience (CE) of
linguistic meaning:
A cognitive model.
by: Giorgio Marchettiby: Giorgio Marchetti
6/13/2021 www.mind-consciousness-language.com 8
The cognitive architecture necessary to
produce conscious experience (CE)
•The self: The self-comprises the person’s body and
mind (excluding attention). It is primarily expressed via
the central and peripheral nervous systems, which map
the person’s body, his environment, and his interactions
with the environment. (a) The self-works on
the person’s biological (e.g., homeostasis) and
culturally acquired values. (b) The interactions between
the self and the outer world (via e.g., extero- and
proprioceptive organs), (c) the inner processes of the
self (e.g., routines automatically triggered by
unconscious perception or by CE) and the memory
system (long term memory, working memory,
procedural memory, etc.) provide the content
for attentional processing and (d) instructions that pilot
attention. (e) The self can also indirectly (dashed
arrowed line) affect attention (e.g., when variations of
the physical conditions of the body occur).
6/13/2021 9
www.mind-consciousness-language.com
CE=Conscious Experience
The cognitive architecture necessary
to produce conscious experience (CE)
A classification of CEs
Four main classes of CEs can be identified on the basis
of the joint operations of attention and the self that are
necessary and sufficient to produce them:
(1) CEs that are determined by the direct application
of attention to the contents provided by the
self (arrowed lines g and h): sensations, perceptions,
images and memories produced by applying attention
on the exteroceptive organs, proprioceptive organs or
memory. Important subsets of this class are CEs of
space and time
6/13/2021 www.mind-consciousness-language.com 11
A classification of CEs
(2) CEs determined by the indirect or direct action on
attention by the self. They can be produced by:
•By the interoceptive system and the
internal milieu (arrowed line e): pain,
pleasure, thirst, hunger, emotions, moods, etc.
These CEs have a pervasive effect on the self and the
physical substrate of the body, even when no
attention is applied to them.
•By inherited and acquired automatisms, schemas,
frames and unconscious procedures that help us
perform sequences of actions such as walking and
running or complex activities such as
driving, playing games, doing specific work
and achieving goals (memory and arrowed line d).
6/13/2021 12
www.mind-consciousness-language.com
A classification of CEs
(3) CEs resulting from the unconscious operations,
performed by the self, on earlier CEs (inner processes c),
such as when we perform mathematical operations,
evaluate an object or event according to some
criteria, compare objects along a certain dimension, find
what is common to two or more objects, combine two or
more things, relate one thing to another, imagine how a
given situation will evolve, think about a possible
solution, think of someone.
The activity performed by the self can be symbolized as
follows:
op→CE => CE1
CE1 represents the CE that arises as a consequence (=>)
of the operation (op) unconsciously performed on (→) an
earlier CE.
6/13/2021 13
www.mind-consciousness-language.com
A classification of CEs
(4) Higher-order CEs resulting from
the working of reflective self-
consciousness (arrowed lines h, f, i, c, j and
k), such as decisions, volitions,
intentions, plans, interests, necessities,
possibilities and so on.
Reflective self-consciousness emerges as
a progressive and permanent modification of
the self (arrowed line i).
A classification
of the parts of
speech based on
the classification
of CEs
Basic linguistic meanings can be distinguished according to whether they refer to:
(1) Exteroceptive sensations (e.g., colours, sounds, tastes, smells), proprioceptive sensations
(motion, demonstratives), sensations related to space and time; physical objects, beings and
events;
(2a) Interoceptive sensations (e.g., thirst, hunger, tiredness, pain, pleasure); psychological
states (emotions, feelings and moods);
(2b) Complex activities such as driving and playing games, which, in order to be performed,
require learnt schemas, frames, and automatisms; culturally acquired psychological and
mental states, such as motivations, expectations, interests and aspirations;
6/13/2021 www.mind-consciousness-language.com
A classification
of the parts of
speech based on
the classification
of CEs
(3) Activities involving thought, which are expressed by relators: conjunctions, prepositions,
pronouns, articles, auxiliary verbs, comparatives, quantifiers, adverbs of negation and
affirmation, logical and mathematical operators, affixes, the noun-adjective construction,
the subject-predicate and verb-direct object constructions, word-order, copulas; and by
verbs expressing mental activity.
(4) Meta-mental activities, usually identified by modal verbs
(e.g., may,can,must,need,shall,will) and verbs expressing intention, interest, etc.
(e.g., to want,to choose,to plan,to intend).
6/13/2021 www.mind-consciousness-language.com
The peculiarity
of the CE of
linguistic
meaning
The conscious experience (CE) of linguistic meaning differs
from other kinds of conscious experiences (perception,
images, emotions, dream, etc.) in that:
•The former are qualitatively empty compared to the
qualitative richness and complexity of the latter (colour,
taste, size, etc.): in order to understand the meaning of a
linguistic unit, it is not necessary to experience it by means
of some concrete sensory modality;
•Linguistic meanings do not refer or apply to just one thing,
occurrence or event, but to a whole set of things,
occurrences or events.
6/13/2021
www.mind-consciousness-language.com
A new view of linguistic meaning
6/13/2021 www.mind-consciousness-language.com
Where does the peculiarity of the CE of linguistic meaning come from?
Linguistic meanings isolate, condense, immobilize and reduce the manifold, multiple and ever-flowing CEs of our life
in a stable, decontextualized and shared form: they codify the set of cognitive operations that must be performed in
order to produce a given CE.
When users use language, either to produce or to understand sentences, speech, and written texts, they perform the
cognitive operations conveyed by the meanings of words and sentences.
By performing these cognitive operations, users consciously experience the linguistic meanings expressed by words and
sentences.
In this light, linguistic meanings are to be considered as a specific kind of instruction: an instruction for the construction
of the relevant CEs.
Prepositions
by: Giorgio Marchetti
6/13/2021 www.mind-consciousness-language.com 19
Prepositions according to objectivist linguistics:
6/13/2021 www.mind-consciousness-language.com
Some prepositions (typically the more abstract
ones such as of, with and for) have no meaning
at all. They acquire a meaning from the context
where they are used.
Problem: If prepositions really had a “non-
independent” meaning and acquired a full
meaning only from the other words with which
they occur, the following sentences would be
indistinguishable as to their meanings, given
that the co-occurring words remain unchanged:
• A glass for water.
• A glass of water.
• A glass under water.
• A glass with water
Prepositions according to cognitivist objectivist linguistics:
polysemy fallacy
Tyler and Evans identify 27 (!) distinct senses of the preposition in. The preposition in can refer to:
•(Primary sense, proto-scene) a spatial relation - in which a Trajector (TR) is located within a
Landmark (LM) which has three salient structural elements, an interior, a boundary and an
exterior - and the functional element of containment;
•(In situ sense) a TR that remains in a particular location for an extended period (He stayed in
for the evening);
•(The state sense) the emotional state experienced by the TR in a specific LM (She is in love);
•(The activity sense) the activity performed in a bounded LM (He works in stocks and shares);
•and so on….
Reference: Tyler A. and Evans V. (2003) The Semantics of English Prepositions. Cambridge: CUP
Problem: Why should one of the most frequently used words in English (ranked between the 5th
and the 7th) have so many meanings? Is it not much more likely that a word is so frequently used
just because it has one very general meaning?
6/13/2021 www.mind-consciousness-language.com
An OL definition of prepositions
Prepositions are relators. Relators are used to mentally assemble two or more elements (words, numbers, musical notes, etc.) in order
to produce a new element that differs from both the combined elements and the relator: the meaning of “black hole” differs from
both the individual meanings of “black”, “hole” and what keeps them together; the meaning of “speak in English” differs from both
the individual meanings of “speak”, “English” and “in”.
Prepositions produce the Prepositional Assembling (PA) by assembling two elements: X and Z (variously termed: initial and final
semanteme, first and second correlatum, trajectory and landmark, locatum and locator, etc.).
PA=XprepZ
Prepositions differs from other relators in the way they assemble elements. Prepositions make the second element of the PA, Z,
determine (to be understood in a very general sense: delimit, define, specify, identify, modify, characterize, constrain) the first
element of the PA, X, according to the specific instructions each preposition provides.
6/13/2021 www.mind-consciousness-language.com
Comparison with
coordinating
conjunctions
Examples: in “Wine of Italy”, “Italy” determines “wine”,
as instructed by the preposition “of”, by assigning an
Italian origin to the wine as opposed to another origin
(which allows one to identify the wine as a specific
instance or kind of wine). Likewise, in “to hit with a
hammer”, “a hammer” determines “to hit”, as instructed by
the preposition “with”, by characterizing the act of hitting
according to the property of the tool used to perform it.
On the contrary, the elements assembled by coordinating
conjunctions remain independent of each other. Let’s
consider the conjunction “and”. In “I eat apples and pears”,
neither the first element (apples) determines the second one
(pears) nor vice versa: the kind of apples that I eat does not
depend on the pears (and vice versa).
6/13/2021 www.mind-consciousness-language.com
Preposition of
The preposition of instructs one to identify X, on the
basis of Z, as a member of a certain domain, by
differentiating it from other (different or similar)
members of the same domain(*)
(*) A domain is a representational field, organized
around one or more quality dimensions, that differs
from other representational fields, and allows one to
order entities and distinguish them based on the
position that they occupy in the field. Typical
examples of domains are space and time, but
equally important are “typological” domains, which
contains objects, events and qualities that can be
ordered, classified, etc., such as animals,cars and
colors.
6/13/2021 www.mind-consciousness-language.com
Preposition of
6/13/2021 www.mind-consciousness-language.com
Sean doesn't like the smell of garlic
Two possible interpretations:
• Sean does not like the smell of garlic, even
though he likes its taste (or color, or form,
etc.);
• Sean prefers the smell of other vegetables
(or food) to that of garlic.
The identification of “smell” occurs thanks to
the fact that “smell” is associated with
“garlic” and garlic occupies a position in the
domain that differs from the positions
occupied by the others representatives of the
domain.
The first interpretation is made possible by
considering garlic as a domain of its own,
made up of as different members (or
parts/elements) as “smell”, “color”, “form”,
etc. In this domain, “smell” is identified
thanks to the fact that it occupies a position
which differs from the positions occupied by
“color”, “form”, etc. (in the sense that smell is
not the same characteristic as color or form).
The second interpretation is made possible by
considering garlic as a representative of the
domain “vegetables” (or “food”), which is
made up of as different representatives as
“garlic”, “onion”, “tomato”, etc. In this
domain, “garlic” occupies a position which
differs from the positions occupied by
“onion”, “tomato”, etc. (in the sense that
garlic is not the same vegetable as onion or
tomato).
Preposition of
6/13/2021 www.mind-consciousness-language.com
The OL analysis of the preposition of holds for the various kinds of relations that the preposition
contributes to build
Relation/usage as
defined by OALD (Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary)
sb=somebody, sth=something
Example from
OALD
Z allows for identifying X by specifying the domain that makes it possible to
differentiate X from other:
Belonging to sth The handle of the umbrella objects (e.g., shovel)/parts of the umbrella (e.g., ribs)
Belonging to sb That house of theirs in the country owners (e.g., yours)/properties of the owners (e.g., land)
Relating to sb's role, status or position The responsibilities of a nurse employees (e.g., doctor)/characteristics of the nurse (e.g., availability)
Originating from a background or living in a place The miners of Wales place (e.g., Northumberland)/workers of Wales (e.g., farmers)
Created by sb The paintings of Monet painters (e.g., Picasso)/artworks of Monet (e.g., sculptures)
Concerning or showing sb/sth A picture of the Pope portrayed people (e.g., a king)/objects belonging or referring to the Pope (e.g., ring)
About sb/sth He told us of his travels things he did (e.g., his work)/receivers of the message (e.g., Anna)
Indicating the material used to make sth A dress of blue silk material or color (e.g., red)/products made with blue silk (e.g., bag)
Indicating what is measured, counted or contained 2 kilos of potatoes vegetables (e.g., onions)/quantity or measure (e.g., 5 kilos)
Indicating the size, level, or extent of sth A diameter of 5 cms sizes (e.g., 3 cms)/dimensions measuring 5 cms (e.g., length)
Showing the relationship between part and the whole of sth A member of the football team teams (e.g., baseball)/people related to the team (e.g., fan)
After some, many, a few and between a numeral or superlative adjective and a pronoun or
determiner
Some of his friends people (e.g., parents)/amounts of friends (e.g., few)
Showing distance in space or time A town 5 miles north of Derby towns (e.g., York)/distances from Derby (e.g., 2 miles)
When saying a date The first of May months (e.g., June)/days of the month (e.g., last day)
Frequently happening at a specified time They used to visit me of a Sunday days (e.g., Monday)/people who were visited (e.g., her)
Introducing the object of the action expressed by the preceding noun The forging of a banknote objects (e.g., blade)/kinds of actions that can be performed on a banknote (e.g.,
surface treatment)
Introducing the subject of the action expressed by the preceding noun Have the support of the voters people (e.g., fans)/kinds of actions that voters can perform (e.g., attention)
So that sb no longer has or suffers from sth Relieved of responsibility functions (e.g., command)/kinds of actions implied by responsibility (e.g., lightened)
Indicating a cause Proud of being captain causes (e.g., rich)/effects (e.g., ashamed)
In relation to/concerning sth The result of the debate activities (e.g., meeting)/features or phases of the debate (e.g., beginning)
Used before a noun/phrase that specifies what the preceding noun refers to The city of Dublin towns (e.g., York)/characteristics of Dublin (e.g., river)
Introducing a phrase that describes a preceding noun A coat of many colours features (e.g., layers)/objects that colors can help describe (e.g., umbrella)
Used between two nouns, the first of which describes the second Where's that fool of a receptionist? people (e.g., pianist)/qualities of the receptionist (e.g., genius)
Used to show whose behavior is being described by it is/was + adjective It was kind of you to offer people (e.g., her)/kinds of behaviors that the subject could perform (e.g., silly)
Preposition in
6/13/2021 www.mind-consciousness-language.com
The preposition in instructs one to mentally assign X some part of the space delimited and occupied by
Z.
The space can be of various kinds (spatial, temporal or typological) and dimensions. The kind and the
dimension of the space are determined by Z, not by in (contrary to what some polysemantic analyses
hold).
Relation/usage as
defined by OALD
sb=somebody, sth=something
Example from
OALD
X is assigned some part of the space
delimited and occupied by (Z):
At a point within the area or space of sth The highest mountain in the world a geographical space
Within the shape of sth; enclosed by Lying in bed a place
Indicating movement into sth He dipped his pen in the ink a type of substance
During a period of time In March a period
After a special length of time Return in a few minutes a period
For a period of time It's the first letter I've had in 10 days a period
Wearing sth Be in uniform a type of dress
Indicating physical surroundings/circumstances Go out in the rain a certain atmospheric circumstance
Indicating the state or condition of sth/sb I'm in love! a psychological state
Indicating sb's occupation He's in the army a certain occupation
Indicating what sb is doing or what is happening at a particular time In attempting to save the child from drowning, she nearly lost her own
life
a certain event
Involved in sth; taking part in sth Be in a play a type of activity
Forming the whole or part of sth; contained within sth There are 31 days in May a period
Indicating form, shape, arrangement or quantities A novel in three parts; roll it up in a ball a type of arrangement, form
Indicating the medium, means, material used Speak in English; pay in cash a type of medium, means
With reference to sth; with regard to sth A country rich in minerals a certain state/condition
Used to introduce the name of a person who has a particular
characteristic
We have lost a first-rate teacher in Jim Parker a certain person
Indicating a rate or proportion One in ten said they prefer their old brand of margarine a quantity
Preposition to
6/13/2021 www.mind-consciousness-language.com
The preposition to instructs one to mentally develop the construction of X by using Z as the end point of the
construction developmental process of X.
Develop means that X can be further operated on as specified by, or with reference to, Z. Z shows both the
direction that the development of the construction of X must take, the final limit of such a development,
and the extent of the development.
Relation/usage as
defined by OALD
sb=somebody, sth=something
Example from
OALD
Z indicates the extent/final limit of the construction developmental process of X
by specifying:
In the direction of sth Walk to the office the place where the walking activity ends
Situated in a specified direction from sth Pisa lies to the west of Florence a reference point that helps delimit/define the position of Pisa
Towards a condition, state or quality; reaching a particular state He tore the letter to pieces the final state that the letter reaches
As far as sth; reaching sth The garden extends to the river bank where the garden ends
Indicating the end of a range Count from 1 to 10 when counting ends
Until and including a moment in time From Monday to Friday the end of the period
Before the start of sth Only 8 more days to my birthday the end of a waiting time
Before an exact hour on the clock Ten to two when a given time will be finally reached
Used to introduce the indirect object of certain verbs or phrases He gave it to her sister the final recipient of the process of giving
Of or belonging to sth/sb; for sth/sb The solution to a problem the final beneficiary of the solution
Directed towards or concerning sth/sb His claim to the throne the ultimate goal of the claim
Indicating a relationship with sb She is married to an Italian the person representing the final connection point implied by the process of marriage
Used to introduce the second element of a comparison or ratio I prefer walking to climbing a term of reference that helps delimit a person’s preferences
Making a certain value or quantity There are 2,54 cms to the inch the reference point to be reached
Indicating a rate This car does 30 miles to the gallon a reference point that helps delimit/define the speed of the car
Indicating a possible range or an appropriate value 20 to 30 years of age the end of the range of years
In honour of sth/sb Drink to sb's health the final beneficiary of the act of drinking
Close enough to be touching sth/sb Dance cheek to cheek the final connection point that has been reached
While sth else is happening or being done She left the stage to prolonged applause the event used as a reference point to delimit the final course of the action of leaving
Used after verbs of motion (come, go) with the intention of giving sth Come to our aid the final beneficiary of the action of coming
Used after words describing feelings towards sb/sth She is devoted to her family the final beneficiary of her feeling of devotion
Indicating sb's reaction to sth causing sth To my surprise the Labour Party won the election what the result of the election finally implies for a person
Used after verbs of perception (eg. seem, appear), in the opinion of sb; from sb's
point of view
It feels like velvet to me the term of reference used to define the colour
Satisfying sb/sth Her new hairstyle isn't really to my liking how far a certain hairstyle is from somebody’s standard
Preposition for
6/13/2021 www.mind-consciousness-language.com
The preposition for instructs one to mentally assign the final (spatial, temporal or typological) destination defined by Z to X.
Final indicates that the cognitive process underlying the production of the preposition for is a two stages-process by means of which X, the
destination of which is not specified initially, is finally assigned the destination defined by Z. Compared to the preposition to, which makes one
experience the development process of X in a continuous way to the point defined by Z, the preposition for leaves unspecified the process leading
to the final destination, in the sense that one is not required to explicitly trace the process. Because of this, for is neutral about whether X ever in
fact moves to, reaches and comes in contact with Z
Relation/usage as
defined by OALD
sb=somebody, sth=something
Example from
OALD
The initial stage (defined by X) of the process
entailed by for
indicates:
The final stage (defined by Z) of the process
entailed by for indicates:
Indicating the person intended to receive or benefit from sth There’s a letter for you That a letter was received The final recipient of the letter is the interlocutor
In order to help or benefit sb/sth Take some aspirin for your headache That aspirins are available Which disease an aspirin can alleviate
As an employee of sb She works for a publisher That she works Who finally benefits from her work
Indicating purpose or function It's a machine for slicing bread That there is a machine The function of the machine
Indicating destination or target Leave for home That she/he is not at home Her/his final destination
Indicating reason or cause; because of sth; on account of sth He didn't answer for fear of hurting her That he did not answer (usually he answers) The reason why he didn’t answer
With regard to/concerning sb/sth Anxious for sb's safety That someone is anxious The reason why one is anxious
In defense or support of sb/sth We are campaigning for a bypass round the town That they are campaigning The reason why they are campaigning
As a representative of sb/sth I am speaking for everyone in the department That she/he speaks The people who benefits from what she/he does
Meaning sth What's the "S" for in A. S. Hornby? That “S” can stands for many things The specific name for which “S” stands
In order to obtain sth Go to a friend for advice That one goes to a friend The reason why one goes to a friend
As the price, reward or penalty that sth carries Buy a book for £3 That one has bought a book The amount of money that has been finally replaced
by a book
As the replacement of sth else Exchange one's car for a new one That one has an old car By what the old car can be finally replaced
In return of sth; in the specified ratio There is one bad apple for every 3 good ones That there are bad apples in a bunch of apples The dimension of the bunch of apples to which the
statistic applies
Considering what can be expected from sb/sth It's quite warm for January That there is an unexpected temperature The reason why the temperature is unexpected
(After a comparative adjective) following sth You'll feel all the better for a good night's sleep That one can feel better The condition in which this applies
Indicating a length of time I'm going away for a few days The speaker is leaving How long the speaker is leaving
Indicating that sth is intended to happen at the specified time A reservation for the first week of June A reservation To which period the reservation applies
Indicating the occasion when sth happens I’m warning you for the last time - stop talking! That the speaker uses to warn the interlocutor That this applies no longer after this time
Indicating a distance The road went on for miles and miles That the road continues How much the roads goes on
Used after an adjective and before a noun or pronoun + infinitive It's impossible for me to leave my family That there is an option to leave the family That this option does not apply to the speaker
Used after a noun and before a noun or pronoun + infinitive There’s no need for you to go What a situation usually requires one to do That this does not apply to the interlocutor
Used after too + adjective or adjective + enough The box is too heavy for me to lift An heavy box Who cannot lift the box
Used before a noun or pronoun + infinitive to show purpose or design Letters for the manager to sign That letters are on the desk Who has to finally sign the letters
Used after more with than Nothing could be more pleasant than for them both to get
married
That in a life, one can have very pleasant feelings That this applies to them when they marry
Preposition with
6/13/2021 www.mind-consciousness-language.com
The preposition with instructs one to mentally link the construction of X to the construction of Z, so that the construction of the former
cannot occur without the construction of the latter.
The use of with specifically requires that the construction of X is made dependent on the concurrent construction of Z. However, the
constructions of X and Z do not merge into one sole construction: rather, the two constructions proceed in parallel in a coordinate way,
which ensures their partial independence.
Relation/usage as
defined by OALD
sb=somebody, sth=something
Example from
OALD
Z characterizes / qualifies X by defining:
In the company or presence of sb/sth I went on holiday with a friend the person who accompanied the speaker
In the care, charge or possession of sth I left a message for you with your secretary who takes care of the message
Having or carrying sth A girl with red hairs the girl’s distinctive feature
Indicating the tool or instrument used Feed the baby with a spoon the instrument used to perform the activity
Indicating the material or item used Fill the bowl with water the material used to perform the activity
Agreeing with or supporting sb/sth Are you with us on this issue? who supports (or does not support) the speaker
In opposition to sth; against sth Fight with sb the opponent in the fight
Because of sth; on account of sth Tremble with fear the reason motivating the feeling
Indicating the manner, circumstances or conditions in which sth is done
or takes place
She sleeps with the window open the conditions in which the activity takes place
In the same direction as sth Sail with the wind the conditions in which the activity takes place
Because of and at the same rate as sth Skill comes with practice the manner in which the skill is acquired
In regard to, towards or concerning sb/sth Angry with the children who the object of the feeling is
In the case of sb/sth; as regards sb/sth It's a very busy time with us at the moment the conditions for which the busy state holds
And also sth; including sth The meal with wine came to £15 each the additional component of the meal
Being an employee or a client of an organization He is with ICI now the society for which he works
Indicating separation from sb/sth I could never part with this ring The object from which the speaker will never separate
Considering one fact in relation to another She won't be able to help us with all her family commitments the reason hindering the possibility of helping
In spite of sth; despite sth With all her faults I still love her the conditions in which the feeling still holds
Used in exclamations Down with the Tories! what the speaker is against