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2021, Vol. 7, No. 2 10.15678/IER.2021.0702.01
The evolution of the Uppsala model: Towards non-linearity
of internationalization of firms1
Krzysztof Wach
A B S T R A C T
Objective: The objective of the article is to synthesize the process of transforming the Uppsala model of inter-
nationalization of the firm from the original one of 1977 to the most up-to-date model of globalization of 2017.
Research Design & Methods: This article is based on a literature review – primary sources presenting the con-
cepts of Johanson and Vahlne as the authors of the Uppsala models.
Findings: This article discusses a total of seven models proposed by Johansson and Vahlne (in the years 1977,
2009, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2017) with their various smooth extensions (1990, 2003, 2006, 2012) showing
the way they were transformed and evolved.
Implications & Recommendations: Although stages models are often criticized in the literature, they are
still widely used in empirical research. Their successive modifications may attest to their universal charac-
ter and timelessness.
Contribution & Value Added: The article compiles all the major models from Johanson and Vahlne, and
sometimes also of their co-authors (Ivarsson and Schweizer), in one place, showing their common base
and differentiating issues that differ in these models.
Article type: research article
Keywords: Uppsala model; U-model; stages model; process theory of internationalization; incre-
mental internationalization; network approach; international entrepreneurship
JEL codes: F23, M16
Received: 19 February 2021 Revised: 22 May 2021 Accepted: 25 May 2021
Suggested citation:
Wach, K. (2021). The evolution of the Uppsala model: Towards non-linearity of internationalization of firms.
International Entrepreneurship Review, 7(2), 7-19. https://doi.org/10.15678/ IER.2021.0702.01
INTRODUCTION
The roots of stages models date back to the 1970s when, almost simultaneously, Swedish and Finnish
researchers used the behavioural theory of the firm to explain the internalization behaviour. This group
of theories is also referred to as Nordic models (Ruzzier, Hisrich & Antoncic, 2006, p. 482), or learning
models (Ibidem), but also process models (Mejri & Umemoto, 2010, p. 157), incremental models (Covi-
ello & McAuley, 1996; Rundh, 2001, p. 319), sequential models (Wickramasekera & Oczkowski, 2006,
p. 52), establishment chain models (Crick, Chaudhry, & Batstone, 2001, p. 79), gradual theories (Mor-
gan & Katsikeas, 1997, p. 72), evolutionary theories (Ibidem), or process theories of internationalization
(PTI) (Schwens, Steinmetz, & Kabst, 2010, p. 114) or just the Swedish school. They are based on the
phase (process) convention of corporate growth and development. Their common feature is the se-
quential passage in the internationalization process through individual stages or phases, which to-
gether create a specific established order, and each subsequent stage is associated with greater in-
volvement of the firm in international activities. Ruzzier, Hirsrich and Antoncic (2006, p. 482) distin-
guished two basic stages models, which are most often referred to in the literature, namely the Upp-
sala model (U-model) and the innovation-related model (I-model) (Wach, 2016a).
1
This is an extended version of the previous article published in the Polish language: (Wach, 2017).
International Entrepreneurship Review
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The origins of the stages models of firm-level internationalization date back to the mid-1970s and
are associated with Swedish researchers working in Uppsala; hence the models, they proposed, are
referred to as the Uppsala models or U-models. “Internationalization – according to the process view
– is a process of increasing commitments to foreign operations” (Johanson & Vahlne, 2003, p. 90).
The original Uppsala model was subsequently developed by numerous authors; hence there are
many hybrid models in the literature, especially in the extant literature from the 1980s and 1990s.
Recently, Johanson and Vahlne, as the original authors of this model, have proposed several modifica-
tions of their theoretical concept, and there are at least six such revised models of their authorship in
the literature (not to mention a couple more minor extensions of the U-model). Subsequent models
were a response to emerging criticism and thus took into account newer theoretical approaches and
frameworks developed later in the literature.
This article aims to synthetically discuss the transformation process of the Uppsala model of the
firm-level internalization from the original 1977 model to the most recent the Uppsala model of 2017.
The article consists of four parts. The first part of this article describes the research methodology, in-
cluding selecting reference sources. The second, main part, of this article undertakes a conceptual re-
view of the literature. The third part elaborates on the critics of stages models. The fourth, final part
of this study, summarises the whole article.
MATERIAL AND METHODS
This article is based on a literature review – primary sources presenting the concepts of Jan Johanson
and Jan-Erik Vahlne as the authors of the Uppsala models. This article discusses a total of seven models
proposed by Johansson and Vahlne (in the years 1977, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2017), some-
times also with their co-authors (Ivarsson and Schweizer), with their various smooth extensions (1990,
2003, 2006, 2012) showing the way they were transformed and evolved. The article elaborates on the
available extant literature and desk research. This article uses a qualitative design of research based
on a cause-effect analysis, along with predictive synthesis, modelling, induction, and description of the
synthetic and the critic literature review. This study is descriptive, making use of a comparative analysis
technique.
LITERATURE REVIEW
The Primary Uppsala Model of 1977
Johanson and Vahlne (1974; 1977) are the authors of the Uppsala model, although Wiedersheim-Paul
also contributed to the development of this model (Johanson & Wiedersheim-Paul, 1975). The inter-
nationalization of firms, in particular small and medium-sized enterprises is treated as an incremental
process of international engagement as a result of the learning process, while incrementality is under-
stood as a consequence of a series of decisions. This model assumes a stepwise expansion in four
stages (Johanson & Wiedersheim-Paul, 1975, p. 307):
1. No regular export activity;
2. Exports via independent representatives (agents);
3. Foreign sales subsidiaries;
4. Foreign production/manufacturing subsidiaries.
These four steps are related to the greater involvement of resources leading to different market ex-
perience and market knowledge. The first stage is manifested by the fact that the firm does not commit
its resources to export activities, which means that it is not possible to obtain the required knowledge
about foreign markets. The second stage, on the contrary, allows the firm to obtain regular information
about foreign sales markets, which of course, is related to market involvement. The third stage is related
to a controlled information channel that allows the firm to obtain information from the market. This
stage also allows gaining direct experience about the resource factors determining the further interna-
tionalization process. Finally, the fourth stage means even more resource involvement. Johanson and
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Vahlne refer to this sequence or the order of the development operations of the firms in individual coun-
tries as an establishment chain.
Johanson and Vahlne, expanding the model, made it more detailed by dividing the factors into
state and change aspects (static/constant and dynamic variables). The essence of the model (Figure 1)
is therefore the state of internationalization, mathematically defined as ∆I = f (l ...). Input constant
variables (market knowledge and market commitment) influence dynamic variables (commitment de-
cisions and current activity). The level of internationalization depends on the accompanying risk (Jo-
hanson & Vahlne, 1977, p. 30), written mathematically as:
=
+
(1)
where:
-
existing market risk situation on
market;
-
existing market commitment;
-
existing market uncertainty.
As a result of the dynamic step-by-step process, there is an increase in risk ∆
. The scale of
further internationalization will therefore be limited by the market commitment ∆
=
∙ ∆
>
0, while decisions themselves will be limited by uncertainty according to the formula ∆
= ∆
∙
+ ∆
+ ∆
∙
< 0.
Forsgren (2015) underlines that that lack of knowledge about foreign markets is a significant
obstacle to international operations. Still, such knowledge can be acquired by a firm, which is a cen-
tre point and assumption of the Uppsala model.
Figure 1. Original Uppsala model of 1977
Source: (Johanson & Vahlne, 1977, p. 26; 1990, p. 12).
The Network Uppsala Model of 2009
Meanwhile, Johanson and Vahlne (1990; 2003, 2006) proposed three extensions of their original
model. Johanson and Vahlne (2003) underscored that institutional, economics and cultural barriers
(literally fences as they called them), which are usually discussed in terms of psychic distance and cul-
tural distance, are based on the country-market specifics. Therefore, a business network model of in-
ternationalization might be helpful especially while explaining international new ventures. Instead of
country markets, it is necessary to focus on relationship building with customers or supplier firms in
the widely understood international business environment (Wach, 2016b; Głodowska, Pera & Wach,
2016).
Johanson and Vahlne (2009) proposed a modified version of their stages model from 1977 (a major
revision), adapting it to the network approach (Figure 2). This model assumes that the firm is embedded
in an active network of interdependent actors. As in the original model, it contains four interrelated var-
iables, two constants aspects related to knowledge storage and two dynamic variables related to
knowledge flow. These variables condition a dynamic cumulative learning process, but also the firm’s
commitment to trust (Johanson & Vahlne, 2009, p. 1423). An increasing level of knowledge has a positive
Market
konowledge Commitment
decisions
Market
commitment Current
activities
Change aspectsState aspects
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Krzysztof Wach
or negative impact on trust building. In relation to the original model, an important change is the intro-
duction of the entrepreneurial theory primer manifested in recognition of opportunities to the
knowledge. These opportunities constitute knowledge, constituting its subset, alongside needs, compe-
tences, strategies and network relations (Johanson & Vahlne, 2009, p. 1424). As the internationalization
process occurs within a network, the variable ‘market commitment’ from the original model was re-
placed by the variable ‘network position’, as network relations condition the internationalization process.
As one of the two dynamic variables, learning by building trust expresses the outcome of current activi-
ties. Therefore, it contributes to an increase in knowledge. The last variable of the model was only sup-
plemented in relation to the original concept with the attribute ‘relational’ to emphasize the key role of
networks in the decision-making process (relationship commitment decisions).
The Network Uppsala Model of 2009 was announced the article of the decade and received the
JIBS Decade Award (Verbeke, 2020).
Figure 2. Network Uppsala Model of 2009
Source: (Johanson & Vahlne, 2009, p. 1424).
The Entrepreneurial Uppsala Model of 2010
International entrepreneurship (IE), initiated and developed in the 1990s, has been blooming in
the international business literature since the 2000s (Wach, 2015a, 2015b, 2015c; Głodowska, 2019;
Głodowska, Maciejewski & Wach, 2019a, 2019b; Maciejewski & Wach, 2019).
One of the proofs of the growing popularity of international entrepreneurship models is the third,
in chronological terms, modification of the Uppsala model (1977, 2009, 2010), which is an attempt to
operationalize the model of 2009 (Figure 3). The modification consists of implementing entrepreneur-
ship theory, at a relatively detailed level, which places this model undoubtedly in the international
entrepreneurship approach in the international business research.
The modified model is worth focusing only on the latest changes. The overall concept is based on
the 2009 model. These elements are not discussed again as they have already been discussed above.
The dynamic variables have been extended by a new one – the use of contingencies
2
– which are not
necessarily related to each other as they result from the nonlinear dynamics of the environment.
Schweizer, Vahlne and Johanson (2010, p. 365), as the authors of this revision, underscore that the
model’s dynamics is two-sided, the static and dynamic variables interact. Strategic decisions lead the
firm into unknown markets, which are characterized by Knightian uncertainty. High uncertainty forces
firms to engage incrementally in new markets, with beneficial engagement as uncertainty levels are
expected to decrease. Entrepreneurial sensitivity causes firms to observe their environment, as radical
changes in the environment can increase the level of uncertainty. Experiential learning occurs between
2
The theory of entrepreneurship very often refers to contingencies, which is a reference to the philosophical theory of con-
tingentism. These are the entrepreneur, the market opportunity, the organisation of the enterprise and the resources. Be-
tween these variables there are interactions, but not based on necessity, but on the human subjectivity that characterises
the entrepreneur. These interactions are the essence of the entrepreneurial process (Wickham, 2006, p. 223).
Knowledge
opportunities
Relationship
commitment
decisions
Network
position Learning, Creating,
and Trust Building
Change aspectsState aspects
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networked firms, and as trust and relationships increase, they engage together in the internationaliza-
tion process. However, this can result in a two-part relationship in which partner firms lose their inde-
pendence due to mutual adjustment, leading to mutual control. Two-partner relationships intensify
cooperation in the network, as the establishment of cooperation by one partner entails the other part-
ner.
Figure 3. Entrepreneurial Uppsala Model of 2010
Source: (Schweizer, Vahlne & Johanson, 2010, p. 365).
The static variables have also been modified. Both tangible and intangible resources are included
in the analysis, and knowledge is understood here as the entrepreneurial knowledge and organiza-
tional knowledge. Knowledge and the ability to discover market opportunities is the engine that drives
the entrepreneurial process, which is the key element of the model from the entrepreneurial perspec-
tive. Schweizer, Vahlne and Johanson (2010, p. 346) emphasize the crucial role of identifying market
opportunities as the quintessence of entrepreneurship. In the model, this factor is treated as recogni-
tion of the value of new information and ideas, which often occurs accidentally (accidental discovery)
in the sense of Kirzner. The mechanism of the other two variables is analogous to the previous model,
although they are explained in the stream of entrepreneurship theory.
The decision-making process underlying relational decision-making commitment is expressed in
the dynamic variable ‘relationship commitment decision’ (Schweizer, Vahlne, & Johanson, 2010, p.
347). This is considered through the concept of effectuation as opposed to causation (Pawęta, 2016).
The concept of effectuation process was introduced into entrepreneurship theory by Sarasvathy
(2001)
3
and further developed together with Drew (Drew & Sarvasvathy, 2002). The entrepreneur is
identified in this concept with the effectuator. The perspective of the effectuation process, originally
developed to explain the mechanism of new venture formation, has been used by the authors of the
Uppsala entrepreneurial model to analyze the decision-making process regarding the internationaliza-
tion of a networked firm (Schweizer, Vahlne, & Johanson, 2010, p. 347). The modified model also uses
3
According to Sarasvathy (2001, p. 245) effectuation processes use a set of given means and focus on the choice between possible
effects that can be created from that set of means. In other words, it is therefore a set of entrepreneurial decision rules that can
be applied in situations of uncertainty. In contrast, causation processes use a given partisan effect and focus on choosing between
the means of creating that effect, which, in simple terms, describes decision-making using heuristic methods rooted in forecasting.
Knowledge
Opportunities
Entrepreneurial
capabilities
Relationship
commitment
decisions
Network
position
Learning
Creating
Trust building
Exploiting
contingencies
Change aspectsState aspects
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Krzysztof Wach
the entrepreneurial concept of dynamic capabilities as a strategic and organizational process that cre-
ates value in dynamic markets by appropriately transforming resources into new value-creating strat-
egies (Schweizer, Vahlne, & Johanson, 2010, p. 349).
Vahlne, Schweizer and Johanson (2012) developed also the extension of this model focusing on the
network position and eliminating entrepreneurial contingencies.
The First Globalization Uppsala Model of 2011: Network Coordination
Due to the growing popularity of globalization processes in the economy, and especially the global
dimension of business in the 1980s and 1990s, Vahlne, Ivarsson and Johanson (2011) decided to de-
velop the Uppsala variant of the firm globalization process, in which the globalization is understood as
an attempt to optimize business operations in terms of configuration and coordination of systems,
where configuration refers to the design of the value chain and coordination relates to the interde-
pendencies between the different units of a given firm operating in the global market. The process of
globalization of the firm is understood here as an intricate path to a global firm, while the process of
internationalization is understood here as the transition from a national to an international firm, and
then to a multinational enterprise (Vahlne, Ivarsson & Johanson, 2011, p. 2).
This revised Uppsala model is built on the assumptions of previous models (1977, 2009, 2010 and
their extensions), especially the network approach and the entrepreneurial process of identifying and
exploiting market opportunities. Three variables (two static and one dynamic ones) are unchanged and
carried over from the previous version of the model. In addition, a new dynamic variable is introduced
– reconfiguration and coordination, which is a typical feature of the firm globalization process (Vahlne,
Schweizer, & Johanson, 2012). The degree of globalization of the firm increases due to the implemen-
tation of reconfiguration decisions and actions and the change of coordination within the firm and its
subordinate units (Figure 4).
Figure 4. First Globalisation Uppsala Model of 2011
Source: (Vahlne, Ivarsson, & Johanson, 2011, p. 3).
The First Multinational Uppsala Model of 2013
In response to the criticism that the Uppsala model does not incorporate the assumptions of Dunning’s
OLI theory, which is the dominant paradigm in the business theory focusing on explaining the internal-
ization processes of transnational corporations, Johanson and Vahlne (2013) proposed a revised Upp-
sala model to explain the evolution of multinational enterprises (multinational business enterprise,
MBE). The model is dynamic in nature as it is based on the knowledge that is either acquired as a result
of the learning process or is created. In this model, the two dynamic variables (Figure 5) basically re-
main as in the previous model. In addition, the static variables are modified. The model is based on the
concept of dynamic capabilities, of which three key dynamic capabilities for the internationalization
Knowledge
opportunities
Network position
– internally
– externally
Change aspects
State aspects
Decisions
to reconfigure and redesign
coordination systems
Learning,
Creating,
Trust building
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process have been identified and selected. The first is identifying entrepreneurial opportunities and
the mobilization of appropriate resources both in own firm and in other firms involved in these oppor-
tunities (Johanson & Vahlne, 2013, p. 202). The second key capability is the development of different
markets and locations in different considerations, which is called internationalization capability. The
second variable, network position, is slightly modified. The position can also be described in terms of
the degree of multinationality or globalness. In effect, the network position depends on the strength
of the relationships between network partners.
Figure 5. First Multinational Uppsala Model of 2013
Source: (Johanson & Vahlne 2013, p. 200).
The Second Globalization Uppsala Model of 2014: Full Globalization and Performance
A further update of the Uppsala model of 2014 attempts to engage all previous approaches, including
the network approach, international entrepreneurship perspective, high-tech and innovation perspec-
tives, which are combined as a developed view of the role of resources
sensu largo
, placed in the model
as variables called operational capabilities and dynamic capabilities (Figure 6). The learning process
and knowledge-based models are expressed in the variable ‘organizational processes’. Vahlne and
Ivarsson (2014, pp. 227-247) built their model on the original model from the 1970s. The revised model
is based on the original model from the 1970s (Johanson & Vahlne, 1977) and four subsequent modi-
fications taking into account the network approach (Johanson & Vahlne, 2009), international entre-
preneurship theory (Schweizer, Vahlne & Johanson, 2010; Vahlne, Schweizer & Johanson, 2012) as well
as international network coordination (Vahlne, Ivarsson, & Johanson, 2011; Vahlne & Johanson, 2013)
and the concept of multinational enterprises (Johanson & Vahlne, 2013). This is the second globaliza-
tion Uppsala model, referred to by the authors as The Uppsala Globalization Process Model of the Firm.
For the first time, the model includes the outcomes of the internationalization-globalization process,
referred to as the degree of globalization.
The Second Multinational Uppsala Model of 2017
Johanson and Vahlne (2017) extended the model once more, however, the structure and general con-
tent remained as in the original model developed in 1977 with two state and two change variables and
the relationships between them (Figure 7). The business context is rooted in the network view; the
focal point of the model is the multinational business enterprise (MBE).
The static variables include capabilities and commitments / performance. Capabilities, understood
as firm-specific advantages (FSAs), include operational and dynamic capabilities as in previous models.
Commitments describe resources distribution among the multi-business enterprise, such as product
lines, scope of countries, and/or relationships between various unities of the enterprise. Performance
Dynamic capabilities
– Opportunity development
capability
– Internationalization capability
– Network capability
Operational capabilities
Network position
– Inter-organizational network position
– Intra-organizational network position
– Network power
Change aspects
State aspects
Commitment decisions
– Reconfiguration
– Change of coordination
Inter-organiyational procesees
– Learning
– Creating
– Trust building
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Krzysztof Wach
is understood as multi-folded, for example, as the position in the network, degree of globalization or
any other performance outcomes.
Figure 6. Second Globalisation Uppsala Model of 2014
Source: (Vahlne & Ivarsson, 2014, p. 242).
Figure 7. Second Multinational Uppsala Model of 2017
Source: developed, extended and adapted from (Vahlne & Ivarsson, 2017, p. 1092).
The dynamic variables include commitment processes and knowledge development processes.
The commitment process is based on reconfiguring and coordinating or resources (their allocation
or withdrawal). Knowledge development processes include mainly learning, creating and trust
building, but are met in both dimensions – inter- or intra-organizational ones. This variable contains
also three entrepreneurial knowledge processes such as (i) relationship building, (ii) flexibility in
strategy implementation, and (iii) adaptation to the competitive task environment. “The essence
of the model is that resources commitment and the knowledge development processes are inter-
twined” (Vahlne & Johanson, 2017, p. 1092).
Operational capabilities
Dynamic capabilities
– Opportunity development-capability
– Networking-capability
– Technology development-capability
– Globalization-capability
Performence
– Degree of globalization
a) geographical configuration
b) geographical coordination
Change aspects
State aspects
Commitment decisions
– Reconfiguration
– Change of coordination
Organizational processes
– Learning
– Creating
– Trust building
Capabilities
– Operational capabilities
– Dynamic capabilities
Commitments /
Performence
(e.g. scope and content, resources
distribution, relationsships,
outcomes)
Change aspects
State aspects
Commitment processes
(resources allocation)
– reconfiguring
– coordinating
Knowledge
development
processes
– Learining
– Creating
– Trust building
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DISCUSSION
Stages models belong to the mainstream of internationalization theory and are most often used in
empirical studies. However, they are not perfect concepts, which is almost as often taken up in the
literature. The main criticism levelled at them concerns sequentiality. Not every firm has to go through
all the stages, starting with the initial one and finishing with the last stage. There are also extreme
opinions in the literature, such as Cavusgil’s (1994, p. 18) the death of stages models, which was pro-
claimed in the context of the observed phenomenon of born globals in Australia. Nonetheless, the
criticism of stages models includes the following controversy:
−
not every firm goes through all the stages of the establishment chain, in practice there is leapfrogging
of some stages (Cannon & Willis, 1981),
−
some firms use either the accelerated internationalization path (rapid internationalization), as is the
case of hidden champions, some firms follow either an accelerated internationalization path or some
firms are international or even global from the very beginning (born globals) (Oviatt & McDougall 1994),
−
stage models do not take into account either the strategic approach of the management or the
entrepreneurial processes, which seem to be crucial for the international development of the firm
– entrepreneurial internationalization (Turnbull, 1987; Andersson, 2000],
−
due to the specific nature of services, stages models do not apply to the internationalization analysis
of service firms (Grőnroos, 1999, p. 292).
Table 1. Summary of various modified Uppsala models
1977 2009 2010 2011 2013 2014 2017
Authors
Johanson &
Vahlne
Johanson &
Vahlne
Schweizer,
Vahlne & Jo-
hanson
Vahlne,
Ivarsson & Jo-
hanson
Johanson &
Vahlne
Vahlne &
Ivarsson
Johanson &
Vahlne
Theoretical base
Stages model Network ap-
proach
International
entrepreneur-
ship perspec-
tive
International
entrepreneur-
ship and net-
work approach
Dynamic ca-
pabilities and
network ap-
proach
Dynamic capa-
bilities and
strategic ap-
proach
Integrated ap-
proach
Empirical base
4 cases 1 case 3 cases 1 case none 17 cases 1 case
State aspects
Market
knowledge
Knowledge op-
portunities
Knowledge,
Opportunities,
Entrepreneur-
ial capabilities
Knowledge op-
portunities
Dynamic ca-
pabilities and
Operational
capabilities
Operational
capability and
Dynamic capa-
bilities
Capabilities
Market com-
mitment
Network posi-
tion
Network posi-
tion
Network posi-
tion (internally
and externally)
Network posi-
tion (intra and
inter)
Performance Commitment /
Performance
Change aspects
Commitment
decisions
Relationship
commitment
decisions
Relationship
commitment
decisions
Decisions to
reconfigure
and redesign
coordination
systems
Commitment
decisions (re-
configuration
and coordina-
tion)
Commitment
decisions (re-
configuration
and coordina-
tion)
Commitment
processes
Current activi-
ties
Learning, Cre-
ating, and
Trust building
Learning, Cre-
ating, Trust
building, and
Exploiting con-
tingencies
Learning, Cre-
ating, and
Trust building
Learning, Cre-
ating, and
Trust building
(as inter-or-
ganizational
processes)
Learning, Cre-
ating, and
Trust building
(as organiza-
tional pro-
cesses)
Knowledge de-
velopment
processes
(Learning, Cre-
ating, and
Trust building)
Source: own compilation.
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CONCLUSIONS
The original version of the Uppsala model of 1977 has been revised at least six times (not counting
some additional minor modifications). The first major modification occurred under the influence of
the development of the network approach to the internationalization processes of firms, as a result
of which the network Uppsala model was proposed in 2009. This model received the JIBS Decade
Award for 2009-2019. With the emergence of international entrepreneurship (the late-1980s and
mid-1990s) and the dynamic development of this concept (in the first decade of the 21st century),
the entrepreneurial Uppsala model was proposed in 2010 as the second major revision of the original
model. The third modification, which occurred in 2011, is the introduction of international network
coordination into the model, i.e. the creation of the first, preliminary Uppsala model discussing the
globalization processes. The year 2013 brought another revision of the model, this time, dynamic
capabilities appeared, and the model explains the phenomenon of multinational enterprises and
transnational corporations. Another revision of the model was published in 2014. It introduces the
second globalization Uppsala model, built on all previous concepts and introduces the degree of
globalization into the model as a result of the process of the firm-level internationalization. The most
recent revision of the model was published in 2017, it organizes and integrates the previous outputs
of the Uppsala models (Table 1).
Although stages models (mainly the Uppsala model) are often criticized in the literature, they are
nevertheless still widely used in empirical research, and their successive modifications may attest to
their universal character and timelessness. Hult, Gonzalez-Perez and Lagerström underscore that the
Uppsala model „has served as a theoretical underpinning” (2020, p. 38). They see a lot of potential
uses of these revised models, especially the one of 2017 in future international business research in
such contexts as technological entrepreneurship or digitalization of global business. Last year, Vahlne
and Johanson (2020, p. 4) concluded as follows:
“We suggest that our model can still be improved further by recognizing the general psycho-
logical characteristics of managers, for instance, what makes them tend to shy away from
radical change and to prefer instead an incremental approach? What does this mean for
internationalization?”
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Author
Krzysztof Wach
Full Professor at Cracow University of Economics (Poland). Professor of social sciences (2020), Habilitation (dr
hab.) in economics (2013), PhD in management (2006), MSc in international economics (2001). His research in-
terests include international business, international entrepreneurship, EU studies, entrepreneurship and innova-
tion, family firms. Member of AIB (Academy of International Business) and EIBA (European International Business
Academy). Editor-in-Chief of ‘Entrepreneurial Business and Economics Review’ (Scopus, ESCI WoS). Associate Ed-
itor of various journals incl. ‘European Journal of International Management’ (SCI WoS), ‘Central European Man-
agement Journal’ (Scopus, ESCI WoS), ‘Agris on-line Papers in Economics and Informatics’ (Scopus) or ‘European
Integration Studies’ (ESCI WoS). Member of the Committee for Economic Sciences of Polish Academy of Sciences
(since 2020). Served as expert on entrepreneurship for the European Commission and OECD (2012-2019).
Correspondence to: Prof. Krzysztof Wach, PhD, Cracow University of Economics, ul. Rakowicka 27, 31-510
Kraków, Poland, e-mail: wachk@uek.krakow.pl
ORCID http://orcid.org/0000-0001-7542-2863
Acknowledgements
and Financial Disclosure
This publication was co-financed from the subsidy granted to Cracow University of Economics from the Min-
istry of Education and Science.
Conflict of Interest
The author declares that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relation-
ships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
Copyright and License
This article is published under the terms of the Creative Commons
Attribution – NoDerivs (CC BY-ND 4.0) License
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nd/4.0/
Published by Cracow University of Economics – Krakow, Poland
