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Occurrence, patterns, and sources of hazardous organic chemicals in edible insects and insect-based food from the Japanese market
Abstract
Due to the growth of the world’s population, edible insects have been considered a valuable alternative food source for humans. Japan has a long-lasting traditional culture of eating wild insects, a practice that has recently evolved towards farming and selling reared edible insects. In this study, we investigated the contamination loads, profiles, and possible sources of organophosphorus flame retardants (PFRs), plasticizers, and selected persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in insect foods available on the Japanese market. Medians of selected POPs in the dataset were up to 1.3 ng/g lw, while medians of PFRs and plasticizers were 12 and 486 ng/g ww, respectively. CB-153, p,p’-DDE, BDE-47, tris(1-chloro-2-propyl)-phosphate (TCIPP), and bis(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate (DEHP) were the dominant compounds in the analyzed samples, a pattern comparable to previous investigations on organic chemicals in edible insects. Our overall results suggest that POPs were likely accumulated by the insects during rearing or from the wild environment, while PFRs and plasticizers derived from post-harvesting industrial handling and seasoning. Differences in pollution patterns and the absence of correlations between PFR and plasticizer loads in insects and in food packaging suggest that the transfer of contaminants from food contact materials is not a main source of contamination.
... Foodstuffs and food packaging contaminated with OPAs and OPEs are potential sources of these substances in the human diet. Some studies have reported OPAs and OPEs in foodstuffs from China (Bi and Su 2023;Hou et al. 2021;Wang et al. 2022), Japan (Poma et al. 2021;Tanaka et al. 2003), the United States (Wang and Kannan 2018), the United Kingdom (Gbadamosi et al. 2022), Belgium (Poma et al. 2018), Spain (Castro et al. 2023), Sweden (Poma et al. 2017), Australia (He et al. 2018), and Africa (Gbadamosi et al. 2023). Among these reports, OPAs and OPEs in packaged food were higher than those of in fresh food. ...
... However, it was only found at low concentrations in takeaway food, possibly because of its low accumulation and high solubility in water (1.12×10 4 mg/L, 25 °C) (United States National Library of Medicine 2004). Other studies have also found that TEP concentrations were lower than other OPEs in food (Poma et al. 2021;Wang and Kannan 2018). ...
Takeaway food has become a prominent component of the diet in urban areas of China, especially for young people. Although dietary intake is a major pathway to contaminants for human exposure, studies on emerging organophosphite antioxidants (OPAs) and organophosphate esters (OPEs) in food are scarce. Here, we investigated four OPAs and 19 OPEs in takeaway foods (n = 99) and paired takeaway food packaging (n = 50) in China. AO168=O (mean: 14.9 ng/g ww), TPPO (mean: 1.05 ng/g ww), and TCIPP (mean: 0.579 ng/g ww) were dominant in the takeaway food. Some OPEs had significant correlations in takeaway food. Emerging OPAs and OPEs in takeaway food varied significantly depending on the packaging materials and food types. AO168 and AO168=O were widespread in the paired takeaway food packaging. The migration efficiencies of emerging OPAs and OPEs were low in takeaway food packaged in aluminum foil. Although the actual contamination of emerging OPAs and OPEs in takeaway food significantly differed from those of in food simulants migrated from paired takeaway food packaging, the results imply that food itself and takeaway food packaging are potential contamination sources of emerging OPAs and OPEs in takeaway food. The average estimated dietary intakes of emerging OPAs and OPEs were 465 ng/kg body weight (bw)/day and 91.9 ng/kg bw/day, respectively. The exposure risk of emerging OPAs and OPEs through takeaway food intake is low in China.
Graphical Abstract
... The potential carcinogenic risk (CR) was calculated by multiplying the EDI by the relative oral cancer slope factor (SFO). A public screening criterion sets a threshold of CR < 1.0 × 10 -6 as acceptable [20] . ...
... However, due to the challenges encountered when conducting this study, we suggest that the monitoring of the chemical safety of edible insects in SSA should be further investigated and insects should be integrated into more extensive dietary studies. [42] b RfD and SFO from [20] c RfD and SFO from [27] d RfD and SFO from [43] e RfD and SFO from [44] MRLs: Maximum residue levels (in ng/g ww); RfD: reference dose; SFO; HQ: hazard quotient; CR: carcinogenic risk. ...
Pesticide use is a common practice worldwide, especially in Sub-Saharan African (SSA) countries, where ongoing agriculture intensification and the need for disease vector control make it essential. The population can thus be exposed to variable amounts of pesticides through the diet. Edible insects are a highly regarded food source in SSA. However, they are still mostly harvested from the wild, where chemical applications are not necessarily controlled, representing a major cause of concern for consumers. We investigated residues of legacy (OCPs) and current-use pesticides (CUPs) in selected edible insects commonly consumed in Uganda and Nigeria, and evaluated the eventual health risk for the adult population associated with their consumption. Targeted OCPs were < LOQ in all analysed edible insects, except for hexachlorobenzene (up to 0.87 ng/g dw), while several CUPs were present at notable levels. Cypermethrin showed the highest median concentration (17 ng/g dw), while the Nigerian cricket Brachytrupes membranaceus was the most contaminated sample, with concentrations of aldicarb, propoxur, chlorpyrifos, dichlorvos and paclobutrazol reaching 118 ng/g dw, 327 ng/g dw, 156 ng/g dw, 26 ng/dw, and 14 ng/g dw, respectively. The concentrations of pesticides were generally well below the available maximum residue levels (MRLs), and the dietary risk assessment did not indicate health threats for the adult population. However, we suggest that the monitoring of the chemical safety of edible insects in SSA should be further investigated and insects should be integrated into more extensive dietary studies.
... While edible insects have historically been harvested from the wild, insect farming is a more recent production method that allows the rearing of insects in controlled settings, where conditions can be constantly monitored. 5,6 As with other foodstuffs, however, insects may accumulate potentially harmful contaminants, such as persistent organic pollutants, veterinary drugs, mycotoxins, flame retardants, plasticizers, and toxic metals during the rearing and processing phases. 6−8 Chlorinated paraffins (CPs) have recently attracted increasing attention as a class of organic contaminants which can accumulate in foodstuffs. ...
... ■ EXPERIMENTAL SECTION Sample Collection. Edible insects from Asia (South Korea, SK; Japan, JPN) and Europe (Austria, AT; Belgium, BE; The Netherlands, NL; United Kingdom, UK) were collected between September 2017 and January 2020 in the frame of previous investigations, 6,8 while insects from Thailand, TH, were collected in February 2021 (Table 1). All samples (n = 36) were purchased from supermarkets and online shops and were authorized and ready for human consumption. ...
This study reports on the occurrence and distribution of short- and medium-chain chlorinated paraffins (SCCPs and MCCPs, respectively) in edible insects purchased from Asia and Europe. A total of 36 edible insect samples (n = 24 from Asia, n = 12 from Europe) authorized and prepared for human consumption were purchased and analyzed for SCCPs and MCCPs via gas chromatography and mass spectrometry. SCCPs were detected in 83% of all edible insect samples with an overall median ∑SCCP concentration of 8.7 ng/g dry weight (dw) and a range of <2.0 to 410 ng/g dw, while MCCPs were present in 92% of samples with a median ∑MCCP concentration of 51 ng/g dw and a range of <6.0 to 380 ng/g dw. Median ∑SCCP and ∑MCCP levels in edible insects purchased in Asia were approximately two- and four-times higher, respectively, than those from Europe, while the difference was statistically significant for ∑MCCPs (p < 0.001). Differences in homologue patterns were also observed between Asian and European samples to suggest diverse sources of CP contamination to insects which may include environmental accumulation, industrial processing equipment and food additives. Estimated daily intake of SCCPs and MCCPs via consumption of edible insects suggested that adverse health outcomes were very unlikely, but that continued monitoring of insect farming and processing practices are warranted.
... TCIPP was the most detected (detection frequency: 81%) OPE compound in both edible insects and insect-based food, accounting for 56% and 37% of the total load, respectively, which was followed by EHDPHP (12%) and TPHP (9%) in edible insects, and TDCIPP (30%) and TPHP (8%) in insect-based food (Poma et al., 2021). Similar levels of OPEs in edible insects were also reported from Europe and Asia, ranged from 2.3 to 185 ng/g wm (Poma et al., 2019). ...
... This was clearly the case for alkyl-OPEs, where the divergent load from their biotransformation products suggested that contamination occurred during insect seasoning and industrial processing after harvesting (Poma et al., 2019). Besides seasoning, OPEs contamination of edible insects may have also occurred as a result of crosscontamination during manufacturing of insect products, storage conditions, or migration from food packaging materials (Poma et al., 2019;Poma et al., 2021). In addition, OPEs contamination might also occur during distribution and storage process (Watanabe et al., 2019). ...
Safety and sustainable agro-food production is important for food and nutrition security. Agro-foods safety is challenged by various emerging environmental contaminants. Organophosphate esters (OPEs) have been reported to occur in various agro-food items worldwide, which has resulted in increasing concerns for effects on health of humans and wildlife, including through agriculture. However, information on presence, sources and transfer routes of OPEs in agro-foods, and consequent health risks remains scant. This review critically evaluates available information on concentrations of OPEs in various agro-foods, and discusses potential sources of OPEs in agro-foods, which are closely related to the ambient agri-environment, agricultural inputs, and agro-foods processing. Some directions for future research are suggested. First, since food is an important exposure pathway to OPEs, systematic monitoring of concentrations of OPEs in various categories of agro-foods is recommended. Second, surveillance of concentrations and characteristics of OPEs in agro-foods and ambient agri-environments, agricultural inputs or processing in the agro-food chain is needed to obtain a more complete description of exposure and transmission behavior of OPEs in agro-foods. Third, future comprehensive studies of transmission, metabolism and accumulation of OPEs in animals or plants, are required. Finally, measures to control emissions of OPEs as sources to agriculture should be taken.
... Furthermore, it should be noted that based on the results obtained, safety conclusions are difficult to draw, since the current EU feed legislation does not contain maximum limits for these compounds. The only limits present in the EU legislation are migration limits of DINP from packaging materials into food (9 mg/kg or 9,000 ng/g) [55] , which are higher than the concentrations observed in the BSF larvae. Thus, although some statically significant results were found, they appeared to be generally small and rather meaningless. ...
Food waste is currently used for the production of biogas. However, a reusage of waste is preferred to follow the principles of the circular economy and consider the waste management hierarchy, which can be achieved by rearing black soldier fly (BSF) larvae on such organic waste. Nonetheless, the presence of (micro)plastics and related additive plasticisers might induce chemical safety hazards to the larval applications as feed. Therefore, the bioaccumulation and biotransformation of two plasticisers (diisononyl phthalate (DINP) and di(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHT)) in BSF larvae reared on food waste streams contaminated with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (micro)plastics were investigated. Results showed that BSF larvae appeared to have a moderate intake of DINP during its rearing phase of 10 days (82 - 273 ng/g), while being able to biotransform it into the primary biotransformation product monoisononyl phthalate (MINP) within 24 h. For DEHT, an uptake of 67 - 137 ng/g was measured in the BSF larvae; however, no clear biotransformation pattern was observed. In addition, while no secondary oxidative biotransformation products were found in the larvae, these were measured in the frass, leading to the hypothesis that microorganism-mediated biotransformation of plasticisers occurred. In conclusion, based on the results of this study, BSF larvae could potentially be used safely in the frame of circular economy, when reared on organic substrates contaminated with the same PVC microplastic content and sizes used.
... Even though no significant effect occurred on the growth or survival of black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens) when substrates are made with food and food packaging materials, contaminants such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), mineral oil, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) were accumulated in different extents where BAF was ranging from 1 to 10; dioxins and PCBs (BAF > 1), mineral oil (BAF about 5), and PAHs (mostly BAF around 1) (Fels-KlerX et al., 2020). Even some edible insects and some cricket-based products in the Japanese market exhibited bioaccumulation of these chemical compounds and it was found that bioaccumulation of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) including PCBs, dechlorane plus, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers mainly occurred in the growing stage while for plasticizers and PFRs, it was mainly common during the post-harvesting stages (Poma et al., 2021). ...
Food safety is a crucial aspect when implementing novel foods (cultivated meat, microalgae, edible insects, and precision fermentation-based food) to supply the future food demand in the world sustainably and securely. However, there is a lack of studies collating the safety concerns of these four novel foods and determining the gaps in their safety assessments. This review provides insights with a forward-looking perspective into their hazards, related safety laws, and risk assessments from major food safety authorities. Their safety considerations require further studies especially, risk profiles (chemical and biological contaminants), maximum residue levels, allergen identification, toxicological assessments, dietary reference values, metabolism, and toxicokinetic studies. Major food safety legislative bodies in the world have initiated several plans and actions to implement safety guidelines and assessment criteria for these four novel foods. Their specific guidelines should be comprehensive and accommodate all the hazards, risk levels, and alterations depending on the production variables.
... Despite the usage restrictions imposed on POPs, such as polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides, and polybrominated diphenyl ethers, due to their persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic properties, these contaminants are still ubiquitously detected in the environment and in humans [131]. Studies have found that insects may accumulate POPs during feeding or from the wild environment, while organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticizers come from post-harvest industrial treatment and seasoning [132]. Contaminant levels (i.e., flame retardants, PCBs, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), dioxin compounds, and pesticides) and metals (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sn, and Zn) were reported to be lower or similar in four edible insects (Galleria mellonella, L. migratoria, T. molitor, and A. diaperinus) marketed for human consumption when compared to other animal products (i.e., fish, meat, and eggs) [133]. ...
Due to the recent increase in the human population and the associated shortage of protein resources, it is necessary to find new, sustainable, and natural protein resources from invertebrates (such as insects) and underutilized plants. In most cases, compared to plants (e.g., grains and legumes) and animals (e.g., fish, beef, chicken, lamb, and pork), insect proteins are high in quality in terms of their nutritional value, total protein content, and essential amino acid composition. This review evaluates the recent state of insects as an alternative protein source from production to application; more specifically, it introduces in detail the latest advances in the protein extraction process. As an alternative source of protein in food formulations, the functional characteristics of edible insect protein are comprehensively presented, and the risk of allergy associated with insect protein is also discussed. The biological activity of protein hydrolyzates from different species of insects (Bombyx mori, Hermetia illucens, Acheta domesticus, Tenebrio molitor) are also reviewed, and the hydrolysates (bioactive peptides) are found to have either antihypertensive, antioxidant, antidiabetic, and antimicrobial activity. Finally, the use of edible insect protein in various food applications is presented.
... Chemical contaminants, which may be in the environment and/or in insect feed, have also been studied. Chemicals include heavy metals, veterinary drug residues, organohalogen compounds and pesticides [93,106,107]. Heavy metals are of greatest concern due to their potential for accumulation in insects, including cadmium in black soldier fly larvae and arsenic in yellow mealworm larvae [93]. Published data on the accumulation of chemical contaminants in insects are very limited [97]. ...
The objective of this review was to carry out a comprehensive investigation of the benefits of incorporating insects as a pet food ingredient and the implications this can have in determining a market demand for insect-based pet foods. Black soldier fly larvae (Hermetia illucens), mealworm larvae (Tenebrio molitor) and adult house crickets (Acheta domesticus) are currently used in pet food. These insects are widely fed to exotic pets, mainly in whole, live or dehydrated formats. They are also incorporated as meal or fat and are offered to cats and dogs as dry or wet food and treats. Scientific studies about the use of insects for dog and cat feed are scarce. Most studies are in dogs. Research shows that insect nutrients, mainly amino acids, have high digestibility, are beneficial to health, do not have any detrimental effect on the gut microbiota and are accepted by dogs. In several countries, insects are approved for use in pet food and commercialization has spread throughout the world. Pet owners are willing to try foods made with insect meal for their pets. In conclusion, the use of insects in pet food is a reality that is taking on more and more prominence.
... Chemical contaminants, which may be in the environment and/or in insect feed, have also been studied. Chemicals include heavy metals, veterinary drug residues, organohalogen compounds and pesticides [93,106,107]. Heavy metals are of greatest concern due to their potential for accumulation in insects, including cadmium in black soldier fly larvae and arsenic in yellow mealworm larvae [93]. Published data on the accumulation of chemical contaminants in insects are very limited [97]. ...
The objective of this study was to develop and encapsulate house fly larvae meal (FLM) by ionic gelation to obtain a novel nutritive food ingredient with improved aroma and appearance. Calcium-alginate beads were prepared by ionic gelation with different concentrations of FLM (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4 and 8% w/v). FLM-beads presented spheroidal shape with sizes ranged 1700–2250 μm. Ionic gelation technique demonstrated be a good strategy to entrap FLM as observed by electronic microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry studies. The inclusion of FLM in calcium-alginate beads allows to conserve a high content of protein (24% with high content of essential amino acids), lipids (13% with a 68% of unsaturated fatty acids) and high antioxidant capacity (1235–6903 μmoles TE/100 g). In addition, the use of alginate as encapsulating material improves aroma of FLM-beads, reducing unpleasant volatiles (only 4 of the 14 volatiles present in FLM were found in the FLM-beads). Finally, microbiological assays indicate that FLM-beads could be considered as ready-to-eat food ingredients. Based on these results, FLM-beads could become a potential food ingredient with high nutritional quality. In addition, the encapsulation of FLM allowed to improve aroma and appearance of FLM, which would be better accepted by the population.
New food sources and production systems (NFPS) are garnering much attention, driven by international trade, changing consumer preferences, potential sustainability benefits, and innovations in climate‐resilient food production systems. However, NFPS can introduce new challenges for food safety agencies and food manufacturers. Most food safety hazards linked to new foods have been identified in traditional foods. However, there can be some food safety challenges that are unique to new foods. New food ingredients, inputs, and processes can introduce unexpected contaminants. To realize the full potential of NFPS, there is a need for stakeholders from governments, the food industry, and the research community to collectively work to address and communicate the safety of NFPS products. This review outlines known food safety hazards associated with select NFPS products on the market, namely, plant‐derived proteins, seaweeds, jellyfish, insects, microbial proteins, as well as foods derived from cell‐based food production, precision fermentation, vertical farming, and 3D food printing. We identify common elements in emerging NFPS regulatory frameworks in various countries/regions. Furthermore, we highlight current efforts in harmonization of terminologies, use of recent scientific tools to fill in food safety knowledge gaps, and international multi‐stakeholder collaborations to tackle safety challenges. Although there cannot be a one‐size‐fits‐all approach when it comes to the regulatory oversight for ensuring the safety of NFPS, there is a need to develop consensus‐based structured protocols or workflows among stakeholders to facilitate comprehensive, robust, and internationally harmonized approaches. These efforts increase consumers’ confidence in the safety of new foods and contribute toward fair practices in the international trade of such foods.
Traditional and emerging contaminants pose significant human and environmental health risks. Conventional physical, chemical, and bioremediation techniques have been extensively studied for contaminant remediation. However, entomo- or insect-driven remediation has received limited research and public attention. Entomo-remediation refers to the use of insects, their associated gut microbiota, and enzymes to remove or mitigate organic contaminants. This novel approach shows potential as an eco-friendly method for mitigating contaminated media. However, a comprehensive review of the status, applications, and challenges of entomo-remediation is lacking. This paper addresses this research gap by examining and discussing the evidence on entomo-remediation of various legacy and emerging organic contaminants. The results demonstrate the successful application of entomo-remediation to remove legacy organic contaminants such as persistent organic pollutants. Moreover, entomo-remediation shows promise in removing various groups of emerging contaminants, including microplastics, persistent and emerging organic micropollutants (e.g., antibiotics, pesticides), and nanomaterials. Entomo-remediation involves several insect-mediated processes, including bio-uptake, biotransfer, bioaccumulation, and biotransformation of contaminants. The mechanisms underlying the biotransformation of contaminants are complex and rely on the insect gut microbiota and associated enzymes. Notably, while insects facilitate the remediation of contaminants, they may also be exposed to the ecotoxicological effects of these substances, which is often overlooked in research. As an emerging field of research, entomo-remediation has several knowledge gaps. Therefore, this review proposes ten key research questions to guide future perspectives and advance the field. These questions address areas such as process optimization, assessment of ecotoxicological effects on insects, and evaluation of potential human exposure and health risks.
Insect consumption is a traditional practice in many countries. Currently, the urgent need for ensuring food sustainability and the high pressure from degrading environment are urging food scientists to rethink the possibility of introducing edible insects as a promising food type. However, due to the lack of the standardized legislative rules and the adequate scientific data that demonstrate the safety of edible insects, many countries still consider it a grey area to introduce edible insects into food supply chains. In this review, we comprehensively reviewed the legal situation, consumer willingness, acceptance, and the knowledge on edible insect harvesting, processing as well as their safety concerns. We found that, despite the great advantage of introducing edible insects in food supply chains, the legal situation and consumer acceptance for edible insects are still unsatisfactory and vary considerably in different countries, which mostly depend on geographical locations and cultural backgrounds involving psychological, social, religious, and anthropological factors. Besides, the safety concern of edible insect consumption is still a major issue hurdling the promotion of edible insects, which is particularly concerning for countries with no practice in consuming insects. Fortunately, the situation is improving. So far, some commercial insect products like energy bars, burgers, and snack foods have emerged in the market. Furthermore, the European Union has also recently issued a specific item for regulating new foods, which is believed to establish an authorized procedure to promote insect‐based foods and should be an important step for marketizing edible insects in the near future.
Organophosphite antioxidants (OPAs) and organophosphate esters (OPEs) are used as additives in food packaging. Because these chemicals have been found in various foods, they have caused increasing concern about potential health risks through food intake. Little information is available about the migration behaviors of OPAs and OPEs from single-use food packaging into food. In the present study, four OPAs and 23 OPEs were analyzed in paper and plastic single-use food packaging (n = 312), which are widely used for take-out food in China. The total concentrations of OPAs and OPEs in the packaging samples were 1966 and 189 ng/g, respectively. Tris (2,4-di-tert-butylphenyl) phosphite (AO168) was the dominant compound. OPAs and OPEs were present at higher concentrations in the plastic packaging than in the paper packaging. In a migration test, four OPAs and 15 OPEs were found in food simulants (4% acetic acid, 10% ethanol, and hexane). Higher levels of individual and total OPAs were found in hexane than the other food simulants, especially for AO168 migration from plastic packaging. The amounts of OPEs in the food simulants increased from the aqueous simulants (4% acetic acid and 10% ethanol) to the fatty food simulant (hexane). The migration efficiencies of the OPAs were higher than those of the OPEs. Preliminary calculations suggest that dietary exposure to OPAs and OPEs because of migration will be low for the population in China.
A waste-to-protein system that integrates a range of waste-to-protein upgrading technologies has the potential to converge innovations on zero-waste and protein security to ensure a sustainable protein future. We present...
The sensing of food contaminants is essential to prevent their adverse health effects on the consumers. Electrochemical sensors are promising in the determination of electroactive analytes including food pollutants, biomolecules etc. Graphene nanomaterials offer many benefits as electrode material in a sensing device. To further improve the analytical performance, doped graphene or derivatives of graphene such as reduced graphene oxide and their nanocomposites were explored as electrode materials. Herein, the advancements in graphene and its derivatives-based electrochemical sensors for analysis of food pollutants were summarized. Determinations of both organic (food colourants, pesticides, drugs, etc.) and inorganic pollutants (metal cations and anions) were considered. The influencing factors including nature of electrode materials and food pollutants, pH, electroactive surface area etc., on the sensing performances of modified electrodes were highlighted. The results of pollutant detection in food samples by the graphene-based electrode have also been outlined. Lastly, conclusions and current challenges in effective real sample detection were presented.
The concentrations and distributions of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the whole blood and meat of eight typical edible animals (chicken, donkey, horse, cattle, rabbit, sheep, duck, and pig) were illustrated. Total concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) and PCBs (on a basis of liquid volume) in animal bloods were 142-484 pg/L and 46-62 ng/L, respectively. Total concentrations of PCDD/Fs and PCBs (on a basis of dry weight (dw) and lipid weight (lw)) in animal meat samples were 0.47-1090 pg/g dw (0.47-4513 pg/g lw) and 7.2-23 ng/g dw (10-776 ng/g lw), respectively. TEQs for both PCDD/Fs and PCBs in animal blood and meat samples were (67 ± 27) pg/L and (5.3 ± 14) pg/g dw (24 ± 56 pg/g lw), respectively. Besides, the dietary intakes of PCDD/Fs and PCBs were also estimated. Chicken and pig contributed more TEQs than other animals. Chicken contributed the most (95%) with high toxicity, followed by pig (3.4%) with high consumption. The dietary intake of chicken might pose risks to consumers who prefer to eat chicken products, who should comprehensively consider the essential nutrients and contaminants in food during dietary intake.
Insects are a promising future source of sustainable proteins within a circular economy. Proving the safety of insects for food and feed is necessary prior to supplying them to the market. This literature review provides a state-of-the-art overview of the chemical food safety hazards for insects reared for food and feed, focusing mainly on transfer of contaminants from the substrate. Contaminants covered are: heavy metals, dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls, polyaromatic hydrocarbons, pesticides, veterinary drugs, mycotoxins, and plant toxins. The twelve insect species reported as having the largest potential as feed and food in the EU are included. Transfer and bioaccumulation of contaminants depend on the chemical, insect species, life stage, and source of contaminant (spiked vs natural), as well as the particular substrate and rearing conditions. The heavy metals lead, arsenic, mercury, and cadmium can accumulate, whereas mycotoxins and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) seem not to accumulate. Mycotoxins and veterinary drugs could be degraded by insects; their metabolic routes need to be further investigated. Data are generally limited, but in particular for PAHs, plant toxins, and dioxins and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls. Further research on chemical safety of different edible insects is therefore warranted.
Background
Exposure to organophosphate flame retardants and plasticizers (PFRs) is commonly estimated by measuring biomarker concentrations in spot urine samples. However, their concentrations in urine can vary greatly over time due to short biological half-lives and variable exposure, potentially leading to exposure misclassification. In this study, we examined the within- and between-individual and within- and between-day variability of PFR metabolites in spot and 24-hour pooled urine samples during five consecutive days.
Methods
We collected all spot urine samples from 10 healthy adults for 5 days. On one additional day, we collected 24-hour pooled urine samples. Samples were analyzed by solid-phase extraction coupled to high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. We calculated intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) to assess the reproducibility of metabolite concentrations in morning void and spot samples.
Results
Fair-to-good reproducibility was observed for serial measurements of bis(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (BDCIPP), 1-hydroxy-2-propyl bis(1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (BCIPHIPP), 2-hydroxyethyl bis(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (BBOEHEP) and 2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl diphenyl phosphate (5-HO-EHDPHP) (ICC: 0.396 – 0.599), whereas concentrations of diphenyl phosphate (DPHP) and 2-ethylhexyl phenyl phosphate (EHPHP) were more variable in time (ICC: 0.303 and 0.234). Reproducibility improved significantly when only morning void samples were considered and when concentrations were adjusted for urinary dilution. Collecting 24-hour pooled urine could be a reliable alternative for PFR biomarkers with poor short-term temporal variability.
Conclusions
The between-day variability was minor compared to variability observed within the same day, which suggests that collecting multiple samples could reduce exposure missclassification. Differences in the observed between- and within-individual variance were compound specific and related to both the nature of the exposure (e.g., diet vs other exposure routes, multiple sources) and the individual toxicokinetic properties of the investigated PFRs.
Many types of edible insects in raw and processed forms have been consumed by many cultures globally since time immemorial, particularly in developing countries where they are mostly traditionally viewed as a delicacy besides provision of nutrition. As a food type, they are consumed in two main forms; whole insects or incorporated in various food products as an ingredient, the choice of which is consumer preference driven.Recently, there has been a lot of research interest in edible insects farming, processing and consumption mainly in an effort to eradicate food insecurities prevalent in many developing countries and boost nutrition. Inclusion of edible insects in human diets has been shown to improve the nutritional quality of foods due to their high micro- and macro-nutrient levels comparable and sometimes higher than those of animal-derived foods. It is in this regard that they can actually be used in directly addressing the first three UN’s Sustainable Development Goals (no poverty, zero hunger, and good health and well-being). Edible insects production also helps in mitigating the negative effects of climate change and improve biodiversity both of which positively contributes to food security. Even with all these benefits, several challenges are encountered in the promotion of edible insects farming and consumption in developing and developed countries. Top in the list of these obstacles is the issue of food safety where, especially western consumers willing to consume edible insects and/or edible insects-derived foods are wary of the microbiological and chemical health risk they could pose. Based on the current literature,there is clearly a need to balance the food safety concerns and the nutritional benefits of edible insects. There is a necessity to promote food safety and hygiene practices in the entire edible insect value chain including during wild harvesting in order to ensure that this highly nutritious food that requires little resources to produce is availed to the consumers in a state that does not pose any health risks. Lack of regulations on edible insects value chain which lacks in many countries, especially developing countries is also another problem that requires urgent attention as addressing this issue is likely to boost consumer confidence and ease trade of this commodity between countries.
Background
Bio-accumulation of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the environment and in the food chain can lead to high pollutant concentrations in human fat-containing tissues and breast milk.
Objectives
We aimed to identify the maternal characteristics that determined POP concentrations in breast milk of primiparous mothers in Belgium.
Methods
Breast milk samples were obtained from a cross-sectional sample of 206 primiparous mothers in 2014. POP concentrations in breast milk samples were determined by GC-ECNI-MS and GC-EI-MS/MS depending on the analytes' sensitivity. Associations between POP concentrations in breast milk and potential determinants were investigated using two-way contingency tables and multivariable generalized linear models.
Results
Fifteen of the 23 screened POPs were detected in the breast milk samples. Four organochlorine compounds (p,p′-DDT, p,p′-DDE, HCB and β-HCH) and two brominated flame retardant congeners (BDE-47, BDE-153) were detected at concentrations above the limit of quantification in >50% of the breast milk samples. Maternal age and BMI were usually associated with higher POP concentrations. Rural residency and consumption of home-produced eggs, fatty fish and fish oil supplements were associated with higher concentrations of DDT and DDE. Consumption of fatty fish and being breastfed during childhood were associated with higher concentrations of HCB and β-HCH. Fish oil supplements and home-produced eggs were associated with higher concentrations of BDEs, but for BDE congeners exposure routes other than diet require further investigation.
Conclusions
Dietary and non-dietary determinants predict individual POP concentrations in breast milk.
Over the last 60 years plastics production has increased manifold, owing to their inexpensive, multipurpose, durable and lightweight nature. These characteristics have raised their demand that will continue to grow over the coming years. However, with increased plastic materials production, comes increased plastic material wastage creating a number of challenges, as well as opportunities to the waste management industry. The present overview highlights the waste management and pollution challenges, emphasising on the various chemical substances (known as "additives") contained in all plastic products for enhancing polymer properties and prolonging their life. Despite how useful these additives are in determining the functionality of polymer products, their potential to contaminate soil, air, water and food is widely documented in the literature and described herein. These additives can potentially migrate and undesirably lead to human exposure via, e.g. food contact materials, such as packaging. They can, also, be released from plastics during the various recycling and recovery processes and from the products produced from recyclate. Thus, sound recycling has to be performed in such a way as to ensure that emission of substances of high concern and contamination of recycled products is avoided, ensuring environmental and human health protection, at all times.
Because of growing demand for meat and declining availability of agricultural land, there is an urgent need to find alternative protein sources. Edible insects can be produced with less environmental impact than livestock. Insect meal can replace scarce fishmeal as feed ingredient, in particular in the fast growing aquaculture industry. Edible insects can alleviate waste disposal problems by growing them on organic by-products. About 2000 insect species are eaten worldwide, mostly in tropical countries. They have adequate protein quantity and quality and high content of unsaturated fatty acids and minerals like iron and zinc. Promotion of insects as food and feed will require the insects to be farmed. In tropical countries this is done small-scale, but in particular for use of insects as feed, production is needed in large automated industrial facilities. Food safety problems relate to contamination with pathogens, requiring hygienic farming. Proper labelling may be required for people allergic to seafood and house dust mites as cross reactivity may occur. Western consumers are hard to convince to eat insects, even when aware of environmental, nutritional and food safety benefits and their excellent taste. Emotional and psychological impediments to acceptance have to be addressed. The way forward of edible insects to become a new sector in agriculture and the food and feed industry is discussed. In particular, legislation lags behind developments and needs to be addressed urgently.
Due to the restricted use and ban of brominated flame retardants, organophosphorus compounds (OPs), extensively used as flame retardants and plasticizers, are ubiquitous in various environmental compartments worldwide. The present study shows that the release of OPs from a wide variety of commercial products and wastewater discharge might be considered as primary emission sources and that high potential of long-range atmospheric transport and persistence of OPs would be responsible for their presence in various matrices on a global scale. The occurrence and environmental behaviors of OPs in diverse matrices (e.g., dust, air, water, sediment, soil and biota) are reviewed. Human exposures to OPs via dermal contact, dust ingestion, inhalation and dietary intake are comprehensively evaluated. Finally, this study identifies gaps in the existing issues and generates a future agenda for the emerging contaminants OPs.
Polypropylene (PP) nanofibres have been electrospun from molten PP using a needleless melt-electrospinning setup containing a rotary metal disc spinneret. The influence of the disc spinneret (e.g., disc material and diameter), operating parameters (e.g., applied voltage, spinning distance), and a cationic surfactant on the fibre formation and average fibre diameter were examined. It was shown that the metal material used for making the disc spinneret had a significant effect on the fibre formation. Although the applied voltage had little effect on the fibre diameter, the spinning distance affected the fibre diameter considerably, with shorter spinning distance resulting in finer fibres. When a small amount of cationic surfactant (dodecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide) was added to the PP melt for melt-electrospinning, the fibre diameter was reduced considerably. The finest fibres produced from this system were
400
±
290
nm. This novel melt-electrospinning setup may provide a continuous and efficient method to produce PP nanofibres.
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have been widely used to flame-retard products common in homes and the workplace, and subsequently, they have become widely dispersed in the environment. Detailed compositional knowledge of these complex PBDE mixtures is crucial to a fuller understanding of their toxicological potencies and environmental fate due to selective congener biomagnification, degradation, and transport. Utilizing recenttechnical enhancements and newly available commercial standards, we developed a method capable of analyzing a larger suite of mono- through deca-BDEs. We then characterized the congener composition of six common technical flame-retardant mixtures: two penta-BDE products (DE-71 and Bromkal 70-5DE) two octa-BDE products (DE-79 and Bromkal 79-8DE) and two deca-BDE products (Saytex 102E and Bromkal 82-0DE). PBDEs were analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Structural conformations based on fragmentation patterns and molecular ions were established by electron-capture negative ionization (ECNI) and electron ionization (El). Sixty-four commercially available PBDE standards were chromato-graphed on two GC columns (DB-1HT and DB-5HT) and relative retention indexes (RRI) calculated. Thirty-nine PBDEs were identified in these products, 29 at concentrations >0.02% by weight. Of these, 12 previously unreported congeners have been confirmed as commercial mixture components. Four of these congeners were detected >0.02% w/w (BDE-144, -171, -180, and -201) and three (BDE-75, -184, and -194) at <0.02%. Five other congeners (four <0.02% by weight) were tentatively identified based on their molecular ion and ECNI fragmentation in the absence of corresponding analytical standards.
Background:
Feeding the continuously growing world population is challenging, and edible insects offer a sustainable alternative to conventional sources of animal proteins. As with any food source, the potential presence of hazardous organic chemicals, such as persistent organic pollutants (POPs), plasticizers and flame retardants (FRs), must be investigated to guarantee consumer chemical safety.
Objectives:
Here, we have investigated the contamination levels of several classes of organic compounds in edible insects. To evaluate their chemical safety, a dietary exposure risk assessment was then performed by combining the measured chemical contamination with the most recent food consumption data from local surveys.
Methods:
Insect samples, belonging to six orders (Orthoptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hemiptera, Odonata, Hymenoptera) were purchased from five European and three Asian countries. POPs and halogenated FRs were analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and organophosphorus FRs and plasticizers were quantified by liquid chromatography-MS/MS, according to validated protocols.
Results:
The overall levels of chemical contamination varied greatly among the insect orders and country of purchase, but they were generally low and comparable with other commonly consumed animal products.
Discussion:
Here we show that, besides the activities during rearing, the industrial post-harvesting handling and addition of ingredients are supplementary factors influencing the chemical load of the final insect food-product. The total estimated dietary intakes of the considered classes of compounds through insect consumption are comparable with those generally assessed in common food of animal origin worldwide and, when compared with existing reference dose values, suggest that the risk of adverse health effects from exposure to the targeted organic compounds via insect consumption is unlikely. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP5782.
In the present study, an analytical method has been developed and validated for the simultaneous detection and quantification of 19 PFRs (14 legacy organophosphorus flame retardants (PFRs) and 5 emerging PFRs (ePFRs)) and 20 plasticizers (7 legacy plasticizers (LPs) and 13 alternative plasticizers (APs)). Sample preparation was based on the combination of previously validated analytical protocols including ultrasonic extraction and Florisil fractionation/cleanup. The analysis was performed by using liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) for all targeted compounds, except for bis (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and bis (2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHT), for which the separation of the isomers resulted in more favorable gas chromatography–electron ionization–mass spectrometry (GC-EI-MS). The new method was in-house validated by applying two levels of fortification in dust. The achieved linearity (R2) ranged between 0.993 and 0.999. Limits of detection and quantification (LODs and LOQs) ranged between 1 and 265 ng/g and between 1 and 870 ng/g for all analytes, respectively, except for DEHP and DEHT, for which relatively higher LODs (665 and 1100 ng/g, respectively) and LOQs (2100 and 3500 ng/g, respectively) were observed. Accuracy ranged between 75 and 125% for most of the targeted analytes, and repeatability was good with relative standard deviation (RSD) < 15% for most compounds. Finally, the method was applied for the determination and quantification of the targeted chemicals in house dust samples (n = 10) from the megacity of Guangzhou (China). Median values ranged from 3 to 210 ng/g for PFRs, from 4 to 165 ng/g for ePFRs, from 30 to 100,000 ng/g for LPs, and from 6 to 34,000 ng/g for APs. Main contributors to the total contamination were LPs 63% and APs 37% in total plasticizers, whereas PFRs and ePFRs contributed 90% and 10% in total flame retardants.
Graphical abstract
Several regulatory offices called for the phase-out of di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) in medical devices if safer alternatives are available. In medical devices, the occurrence of alternative plasticizers (APs) is widely variable among types of devices. However, plasticizer use is constantly evolving, as there is no reference to guide manufacturers in the choice and amount to be integrated into their products. As intensive care unit (ICU) patients need numerous indwelling plastic devices during their treatment, we hypothesized that these patients are exposed to APs and phosphate flame retardants and plasticizers (PFRs). Urinary metabolites of APs and PFRs were analyzed in the urine of adult ICU patients (n = 24) over a time period of four days. Our results show that adult ICU patients are exposed to PFRs as well as to APs concentrations were much lower compared to the levels of DEHP metabolites in the same samples. However, significantly higher than in controls (n = 15) this exposure resulted in detectable urinary levels in almost every patient and at every studied time point. Increasing temporal trends were observed for several metabolites from admission until day 3 at ICU. The use of specific medical devices, such as continuous venovenous hemofiltration (CVVH) and extracorporeal membrane oxygenation (ECMO), was associated with an increase in urinary concentrations for several PFR metabolites, despite the lack of information on the presence of these plasticizer chemicals in such medical devices. Further research into the possibly toxic effects of these chemicals released from medical devices is urgently needed.
Food packaging may be a potential source of contamination, through the migration of chemicals from the packaging into the food, thus food consumption is an important route of human exposure to packaging contaminants.
In the present study an approach to estimate the exposure to different chemicals transferred from food packaging was designed. As a first step a GC-MS screening was conducted to identify potential contaminants in the materials. Secondly, different chemicals previously identified in the packaging materials were selected for exposure assessment. The proposed methodology was applied to cereal based foods packed with plastic packaging. A variety of chemicals including e.g. acetyl tributyl citrate (ATBC), bis (2-ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA) and diethyl phthalate (DEP) among others were identified and analyzed in the foodstuffs. For this purpose a LC-MS/MS method was developed.
The selected foodstuffs were pooled into three groups according to the population age (12–35 months, 3–9 years and 10–17 years) and based on the Spanish consumption data (Enalia).
In general, ATBC mean exposure was higher than that of phthalates and DEHA for the three groups considered, with mean dietary exposure values ranging from 1.01 μg/kg bw/day (pool 12–35 months) to 2.01 μg/kg bw/day (pool 3–9 years).
Understanding the bioaccumulation and biotransformation of xenobiotic compounds is critical for evaluating their fate and potential toxicity in vivo. In the present study, the tissue specific accumulation and depuration of seven organophosphorus flame retardants (PFRs) in common carp (Cyprinus carpio) were investigated after exposing the fish to an environmental relevant level of PFRs. The log Kow of PFRs was significantly negatively correlated to the percentages of individual PFRs to the total PFRs in serum (p < 0.04), whereas significantly positive correlations were observed in all other tissues (p < 0.02). Significant correlations (p < 0.01) between the log Kow of PFRs and their log bioconcentration factor (BCFww) were also found in all investigated tissues except for serum. This suggests that the hydrophobicity of PFRs played a significant role in the distribution and body compartment accumulation of PFRs in common carp. The bioaccumulation potential of PFRs in serum was different from the other tissues, probably due to its specific properties. Dialkyl and/or diaryl phosphate esters (DAP) and hydroxylated PFRs (HO-PFRs) were quantified as the major metabolites. Their levels in liver and intestine were significantly higher than in other tissues. Biotransformation processes also played a crucial role in the accumulation of PFRs in fish. Our results provide critical information for further understanding the bioconcentration, tissue distribution and metabolism of PFRs in fish.
Transport and transformation processes are key for determining how humans and other organisms are exposed to chemicals. These processes are largely controlled by the chemicals’ physical-chemical properties. This new edition of the Handbook of Physical-Chemical Properties and Environmental Fate for Organic Chemicals is a comprehensive series in four volumes that serves as a reference source for environmentally relevant physical-chemical property data of numerous groups of chemical substances. The handbook contains physical-chemical property data from peer-reviewed journals and other valuable sources on over 1200 chemicals of environmental concern. The handbook contains new data on the temperature dependence of selected physical-chemical properties, which allows scientists and engineers to perform better chemical assessments for climatic conditions outside the 20-25-degree range for which property values are generally reported. This second edition of the Handbook of Physical-Chemical Properties and Environmental Fate for Organic Chemicals is an essential reference for university libraries, regulatory agencies, consultants, and industry professionals, particularly those concerned with chemical synthesis, emissions, fate, persistence, long-range transport, bioaccumulation, exposure, and biological effects of chemicals in the environment.
The present study aimed to identify plasticizers present in indwelling plastic medical devices commonly used in the pediatric intensive care unit (PICU). We have analyzed a wide range of medical devices (n = 97) daily used in the PICUs of two academic hospitals in Belgium and the Netherlands. Identified compounds varied between the samples. Most of the indwelling medical devices and essential accessories were found to actively leach phthalates and alternative plasticizers. Results indicated that DEHP was predominantly present as plasticizer (60 of 97 samples), followed by bis(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA, 32 of 97), bis(2-ethylhexyl) terephthalate (DEHT, 24 of 97), tris(2-ethylhexyl) trimellitate (TOTM, 20 of 97), and tributyl-O-acetyl citrate (ATBC, 10 of 97). Other plasticizers, such as di-isononyl-cyclohexane-1,2-dicarboxylate (DINCH, 2 of 97), di-isononyl phthalate (DiNP, 4 of 97), di(2-propylheptyl) phthalate (DPHP, 4 of 97) and di-isodecyl phthalate (DiDP, 2 of 97) were detected in < 5% of the investigated samples. Several devices contained multiple plasticizers, e.g. devices containing TOTM contained also DEHP and DEHT. Our data indicate that PICU patients are exposed to a wide range of plasticizers, including the controversial DEHP. Future studies should investigate the exposure to APs in children staying in the PICU and the possible health effects thereof.
Edible insects are expected to become an important nutrient source for animals and humans in the Western world in the near future. However, before insects can be put on the market, the safety of their use for feed and food is warranted. This literature study was prepared to provide an overview of the actual knowledge of possible food safety hazards, including chemical, microbiological, and allergenic agents and prions, to human and animal health upon the use of insects for food and feed, and to highlight data gaps and suggest the way forward. From the data available, heavy metals of concern are cadmium in black soldier fly and arsenic in yellow mealworm larvae. Investigated mycotoxins do not seem to accumulate. Residues of pesticides, veterinary drugs, and hormones, as well as dioxins and PCBs, are sometimes found in insects. Contamination of insects with pathogens to human health is a consequence of a combination of the substrates used and the farming and processing steps applied. Insects harbor a wide variety of microorganisms, and some human pathogenic bacteria may be present. In addition, insects may harbor and transmit parasites. There is no evidence so far insects may harbor pathogenic viruses or prions, but they may act as vectors. Insects and insect‐derived products may have allergenic potential. In this review, evidence on some safety aspects is displayed, and data gaps are identified. Recommendations are given for future research to fill the most relevant data gaps.
The occurrence of 14 organophosphorus flame retardants and plasticizers (PFRs) was investigated in 165 composite food samples purchased from the Belgian market and divided in 14 food categories, including fish, crustaceans, mussels, meat, milk, cheese, dessert, food for infants, fats and oils, grains, eggs, potatoes and derived products, other food (stocks) and vegetables. Seven PFRs [namely, tri-n-butyl phosphate (TnBP), tris (2-chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), tris (1-chloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TCIPP), tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl) phosphate (TDCIPP), triphenyl phosphate (TPHP), 2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate (EHDPHP) and tris (2-ethylhexyl) phosphate (TEHP)] were detected at concentrations above quantification limits. Fats and oils were the most contaminated category, with a total PFR concentration of 84.4 ng/g ww, followed by grains (36.9 ng/g ww) and cheese (20.1 ng/g ww). Our results support the hypothesis that PFR contamination may occur during industrial processing and manipulation of food products (e.g. packaging, canning, drying, etc.). Considering the daily average intake of food for the modal adult Belgian (15-64 y), the dietary exposure to sum PFRs was estimated up to 7,500 ± 1,550 ng/day (103 ± 21 ng/kg bw/day). For individual PFRs, TPHP contributed on average with 3,400 ng/day (46.6 ng/kg bw/day), TCIPP with 1,350 ng/day (18.5 ng/kg bw/day), and EHDPHP with 1,090 ng/day (15 ng/kg bw/day), lower than their corresponding health-based reference doses. The mean dietary exposure mainly originated from grains (39 %), followed by fats and oils (21 %) and dairy products (20 %). No significant differences between the intakes of adult men and women were observed.
Phthalate esters are substances mainly used as plasticizers in various applications. Some have been restricted and phased out due to their adverse health effects and ubiquitous presence, leading to the introduction of alternative plasticizers, such as DINCH. Using a comprehensive dataset from a Norwegian study population, human exposure to DMP, DEP, DnBP, DiBP, BBzP, DEHP, DINP, DIDP, DPHP and DINCH was assessed by measuring their presence in external exposure media, allowing an estimation of the total intake, as well as the relative importance of different uptake pathways. Intake via different uptake routes, in particular inhalation, dermal absorption , and oral uptake was estimated and total intake based on all uptake pathways was compared to the calculated intake from biomonitoring data. Hand wipe results were used to determine dermal uptake and compared to other exposure sources such as air, dust and personal care products. Results showed that the calculated total intakes were similar, but slightly higher than those based on biomonitoring methods by 1.1 to 3 times (median), indicating a good understanding of important uptake pathways. The relative importance of different uptake pathways was comparable to other studies, where inhalation was important for lower molecular weight phthalates, and negligible for the higher molecular weight phthalates and DINCH. Dietary intake was the predominant exposure route for all analyzed substances. Dermal uptake based on hand wipes was much lower (median up to 2000 times) than the total dermal uptake via air, dust and personal care products. Still, dermal uptake is not a well-studied exposure pathway and several research gaps (e.g. absorption fractions) remain. Based on calculated intakes, the exposure for the Norwegian participants to the phthalates and DINCH was lower than health based limit values. Nevertheless, exposure to alternative plasticizers, such as DPHP and DINCH, is expected to increase in the future and continuous monitoring is required.
Screening and quantification of phthalate metabolites in biological matrices provides information on the phthalate exposure. The preferred tool for the determination of phthalate metabolites is liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, typically preceded by a sample extraction step. Method development for the determination of phthalate metabolites by hyphenated techniques faces challenges due to the widespread occurrence of phthalates in the laboratory and sample collection materials which impairs their accurate quantification. Here the analytical methods that have been developed for the determination of biomarkers of phthalates in various matrices are presented, and limitations and challenges in these applications are discussed.
Due to the rapid increase in world population, the waste of food and resources, and non-sustainable food production practices, the use of alternative food sources is currently strongly promoted. In this perspective, insects may represent a valuable alternative to main animal food sources due to their nutritional value and sustainable production. However, edible insects may be perceived as an unappealing food source and are indeed rarely consumed in developed countries. The food safety of edible insects can thus contribute to the process of acceptance of insects as an alternative food source, changing the perception of developed countries regarding entomophagy. In the present study, the levels of organic contaminants (i.e. flame retardants, PCBs, DDT, dioxin compounds, pesticides) and metals (As, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni, Pb, Sn, Zn) were investigated in composite samples of several species of edible insects (greater wax moth, migratory locust, mealworm beetle, buffalo worm) and four insect-based food items currently commercialized in Belgium. The organic chemical mass fractions were relatively low (PCBs: 27-2065 pg/g ww; OCPs: 46-368 pg/g ww; BFRs: up to 36 pg/g ww; PFRs 783-23800 pg/g ww; dioxin compounds: up to 0.25 pg WHO-TEQ/g ww) and were generally lower than those measured in common animal products. The untargeted screening analysis revealed the presence of vinyltoluene, tributylphosphate (present in 75% of the samples), and pirimiphos-methyl (identified in 50% of the samples). The levels of Cu and Zn in insects were similar to those measured in meat and fish in other studies, whereas As, Co, Cr, Pb, Sn levels were relatively low in all samples (<0.03 mg/kg ww). Our results support the possibility to consume these insect species with no additional hazards in comparison to the more commonly consumed animal products.
The Yellow River Delta (YRD) is a large region of China with complex pollution sources and a long history of environmental deterioration. Despite this, relatively little data exists on the status of important contaminants of concern in this region. Here, we review the literature on the status of key persistent organic pollutants (POPs) of concern including organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in the YRD. Sources, source identification methods, and spatial distribution patterns are presented. Additionally, POPs contamination levels reported in the literature were evaluated against popular regulatory limits worldwide to form a basis for overall environmental health. Our review determined that OCPs in the YRD originated mainly from current pesticide use and past agricultural pesticide application. Sources of PAHs included petrochemical inputs, coal fired plants, and wood combustion. PCB levels were impacted by the petrochemical industry as well as waste disposal of PCB containing equipment. OCPs exhibited a spatial distribution pattern that increased along the urban-rural gradient, while the opposite was seen for PAHs and PCBs. Comparisons of POPs contamination levels in the YRD with popular regulatory limits suggest that the extent of PCB contamination all mediums (sediment, soil, water, and biota) exceeded that of PAHs and OCPs. Overall pollution levels in the YRD seem to be in control; however, levels from heavily polluted point sources raise numerous concerns about the ecological health of the region and require more attention from regulatory authorities.
Novel protein sources (like insects, algae, duckweed, and rapeseed) are expected to enter the European feed and food market as replacers for animal-derived proteins. However, food safety aspects of these novel protein sources are not well-known. The aim of this article is to review the state of the art on the safety of major novel protein sources for feed and food production, in particular insects, algae (microalgae and seaweed), duckweed, and rapeseed. Potential hazards for these protein sources are described and EU legislative requirements as regard to food and feed safety are explained. Potential hazards may include a range of contaminants, like heavy metals, mycotoxins, pesticide residues, as well as pathogens. Some safety aspects of novel protein sources are intrinsic to the product, but many potential hazards can also be due to production methods and processing conditions. These aspects should be considered in advance during product development. European law is unclear on several issues regarding the use of novel protein sources in food and feed products. For food product applications, the most important question for food producers is whether or not the product is considered a novel food. One of the major unclarities for feed applications is whether or not products with insects are considered animal-derived products or not. Due to the unclarities in European law, it is not always clear which Regulation and maximum levels for contaminants apply. For market introduction, European legislation should be adjusted and clarified.
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) have been used in a wide range of agricultural and industrial commodities, resulting in vigorous deterioration of environment and human health. A number of studies on the occurrence of POPs confirm their presence in various environmental compartments and human body. In order to deal with this global concern, India has recently prepared the National Implementation Plan (NIP) of the Stockholm Convention. Common beliefs point at India as a hot spot of POP contamination and human exposure; however no systematic analysis was ever performed so far considering all available past data on POP occurrence. This review aims to examine the distribution pattern of POPs in multicompartment environment and human samples, meta-analysis of time trends in exposure levels to environment and humans, and cross country comparison of POP contamination with China. Based on this review, it can be concluded that the Indian environment and human population are highly contaminated by DDTs and HCHs; however scarcity of data on other POPs makes it challenging to assess their nationwide human and environmental exposure. No evidence of a general decline in DDT and HCH residues in the environment and human body come out from the meta-analysis of time trend. While comparing contamination levels between India and China, tendency towards decline in POP contamination is visible in China, unlike India.
This study estimated daily exposure to Dechlorane Plus (DP) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) via inhalation and diet. Samples of atmospheric particles and food (obtained by market basket method) from Osaka, Japan were analyzed for DP (syn-, anti-) and PBDE using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. DP was detected in both atmospheric particles and food samples. Among the atmospheric particles, DP was detected in all samples. ΣDP concentration was 7.1-15.4pgm(-3) and anti-DP was the dominant residue among DP isomers. PBDE was also detected in all the atmospheric particles. ΣPBDE concentration was 9.9-23.3pgm(-3). In the market basket study, DP was detected in Groups Ш (sugar and confectionary), V (legumes and their products), X (fish, shellfish, and their products), and XI (meat and eggs) at concentrations of 3.3, 2.8, 1.9, and 1.5pgg(-1) wet wt, respectively. PBDE was detected in Groups Ш, IV (oils and fats), V, X, XI, and XШ (seasonings and other processed foods) at concentrations of 153, 79.1, 74.6, 308, 94.8, and 186pgg(-1) wet wt, respectively. The daily intake of ΣDP (750pgday(-1)) via inhalation and diet was approximately one percent of that for ΣPBDE (62ngday(-1)).
Lake trout and walleye composites were collected between 2004 and 2009 as part of the Great Lakes Fish Monitoring and Surveillance Program (GLFMSP) and analyzed for polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). Yearly mean total PBDE concentrations (sum of congeners BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-100, BDE-153, BDE-154) ranged from 44-192, 28-113, 50-107, 37-111, and 11-22 ng/g wet wt. for Lakes Michigan, Huron, Ontario, and Superior lake trout, and Lake Erie walleye, respectively. A 1980-2009 temporal record of PBDE concentrations in the Great Lakes' top predator fish (lake trout and walleye) was assembled by integrating previous GLFMSP data (1980-2003) with current results (2004-2009). Temporal profiles show obvious breakpoints between periods of PBDE accumulation and decline in trout for Lakes Huron, Michigan and Ontario with a significant (p < 0.0001 and r = 0.55, 0.72, and 0.51, respectively) decrease in concentration after 2000-2001. A similar transition was observed in Lake Superior for the nearshore site accompanied by a less significant decreasing trend (p = 0.016, r = 0.33), suggesting concentrations are declining very slowly or have leveled off. In contrast, Lake Erie walleye concentrations began leveling off in the late 1990s and no statistically significant trend (increasing or decreasing) has been observed in recent years. A decrease in the BDE-47/BDE-153 ratio was also recently observed, suggesting a transition to more highly brominated PBDEs is occurring in Great Lakes trout. This study provides region-wide evidence that PBDE concentrations are generally declining in Great Lakes trout, although there are clear exceptions to this trend. Results from this study reflect the positive impact of the 2004 PentaBDE ban on macro-scale aquatic freshwater ecosystems.
Phthalate esters are used in a wide variety of consumer products, and human exposure to this class of compounds is widespread. Nevertheless, studies on dietary exposure of humans to phthalates are limited. In this study, nine phthalate esters were analyzed in eight categories of foodstuffs (n = 78) collected from Harbin and Shanghai, China, in 2011. Dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), diisobutyl phthalate (DIBP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BzBP), and diethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) were frequently detected in food samples. DEHP was the major compound found in most of the food samples, with concentrations that ranged from below the limit of quantification (LOQ) to 762 ng/g wet weight (wt). The concentrations of phthalates in food samples from China were comparable to concentrations reported for several other countries, but the profiles were different; DMP was found more frequently in Chinese foods than in foods from other countries. The estimated daily dietary intake of phthalates (EDI(diet)) was calculated based on the concentrations measured and the daily ingestion rates of food items. The EDI(diet) values for DMP, DEP, DIBP, DBP, BzBP, and DEHP (based on mean concentrations) were 0.092, 0.051, 0.505, 0.703, 0.022, and 1.60 μg/kg-bw/d, respectively, for Chinese adults. The EDI(diet) values calculated for phthalates were below the reference doses suggested by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Comparison of total daily intakes, reported previously based on a biomonitoring study, with the current dietary intake estimates suggests that diet is the main source of DEHP exposure in China. Nevertheless, diet accounted for only <10% of the total exposure to DMP, DEP, DBP, and DIBP, which suggested the existence of other sources of exposure to these phthalates.
Since the ban on some brominated flame retardants (BFRs), phosphorus flame retardants (PFRs), which were responsible for 20% of the flame retardant (FR) consumption in 2006 in Europe, are often proposed as alternatives for BFRs. PFRs can be divided in three main groups, inorganic, organic and halogen containing PFRs. Most of the PFRs have a mechanism of action in the solid phase of burning materials (char formation), but some may also be active in the gas phase. Some PFRs are reactive FRs, which means they are chemically bound to a polymer, whereas others are additive and mixed into the polymer. The focus of this report is limited to the PFRs mentioned in the literature as potential substitutes for BFRs. The physico-chemical properties, applications and production volumes of PFRs are given. Non-halogenated PFRs are often used as plasticisers as well. Limited information is available on the occurrence of PFRs in the environment. For triphenyl phosphate (TPhP), tricresylphosphate (TCP), tris(2-chloroethyl)phosphate (TCEP), tris(chloropropyl)phosphate (TCPP), tris(1,3-dichloro-2-propyl)phosphate (TDCPP), and tetrekis(2-chlorethyl)dichloroisopentyldiphosphate (V6) a number of studies have been performed on their occurrence in air, water and sediment, but limited data were found on their occurrence in biota. Concentrations found for these PFRs in air were up to 47 μg m−3, in sediment levels up to 24 mg kg−1 were found, and in surface water concentrations up to 379 ng L−1. In all these matrices TCPP was dominant. Concentrations found in dust were up to 67 mg kg−1, with TDCPP being the dominant PFR. PFR concentrations reported were often higher than polybrominated diphenylether (PBDE) concentrations, and the human exposure due to PFR concentrations in indoor air appears to be higher than exposure due to PBDE concentrations in indoor air.
Phthalate esters are ubiquitous environmental pollutants and are recognized as environmental endocrine disruptors because of their potential to elicit reproductive and developmental toxicity. Several phthalate esters have been listed by the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as chemicals of concern. Determination of concentrations of phthalate esters in foodstuffs, typically present at sub to low nanogram-per-gram concentrations (between 0.1 and 100 ng g(-1)), is essential for assessment of human dietary exposure. However, phthalate esters are commonly present as contaminants in several laboratory products, including organic solvents, that are used in sample preparation and analysis. Therefore, accurate analysis of phthalates in food samples is a challenging task. In this review, we summarize the methods available for the determination of phthalate esters in foodstuffs and report on concentrations of phthalates in foodstuffs and potential sources of contamination by phthalates in the analysis of foodstuffs. We offer suggestions to eliminate and/or reduce background levels of contamination by phthalates in the analysis of food and other biological samples. We also introduce methods that are suitable for trace analysis of phthalates in a variety of liquid and solid food samples, in particular, a liquid-liquid extraction method for removal of lipids from food samples, because these can substantially reduce background levels of phthalates in the analytical procedure.
Residential soils from Cedar Rapids, Iowa, USA were collected and analyzed for chlordanes and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). This study is one of the very few urban soil investigations in the USA. The chlordanes concentrations ranged from 0 to 7500 ng g(-1) dry weight (d.w.), with a mean and standard deviation of 130 ± 920 ng g(-1) d.w., which is about 1000 times larger than background levels. ΣPCB concentrations ranged from 3 to 1200 ng g(-1) d.w., with a mean and standard deviation of 56 ± 160 ng g(-1) d.w. and are about 10 times higher than world-wide background levels. Both groups exhibit considerable variability in chemical patterns and site-to-site concentrations. Although no measurements of dioxins were carried out, the potential toxicity due to the 12 dioxin-like PCBs found in the soil is in the same order of magnitude of the provisional threshold recommended by USEPA to perform soil remediation.
Dechlorane Plus (DP) is a high production volume, chlorinated flame retardant. Despite its long production history, it was only recently found in the environment. The first "sightings" of DP were in the North American Great Lakes, but subsequent work has indicated that DP is a global contaminant. For example, DP has recently been detected along a pole-to-pole transect of the Atlantic Ocean. Although it was initially thought that DP was produced only in North America, another DP production plant has recently been identified in China. During the course of characterizing DP in the environment, other "DP-like" compounds were identified. These DP analogs, some created from impurities contained in the starting materials during DP's synthesis, have also been detected globally. Screening-level modeling data are in general agreement with available environmental measurements, suggesting that DP and it analogs may be persistent, bioaccumulative, and subject to long-range transport and that these chemicals may be candidates for Annex D evaluation under the United Nations Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants. However, more research is required to better quantify the emissions, exposures, and toxicological effects of DP and its analogs in the environment. In particular, there is a need to obtain more monitoring, bioaccumulation, degradation rate, and toxicity information.
We examined predictors of organochlorine concentrations in serum specimens from women who were pregnant in the 1960s and participated in the Child Health and Development Study in the San Francisco Bay Area of California. That study enrolled pregnant women at the Kaiser-Permanente Medical Facilities, conducted interviews, and drew blood specimens; these specimens were centrifuged and the resulting serum specimens were frozen and placed in long-term storage. For the current investigation, organochlorines were measured by dual-column GC-electron capture detection in specimens collected in 1963-1967 from 399 pregnant women during the second and third trimesters. Using multiple linear regression models adjusted for serum lipids, we evaluated factors predicting concentrations of 11 polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) congeners, their sum, and several pesticides and metabolites. Variables evaluated were age, race, place of birth, date of blood draw, body mass index, occupation, past residence on a farm, parity, and duration of pregnancy at blood draw. Concentrations of highly chlorinated PCBs and the sum of the PCBs increased with age. Concentrations of certain PCB congeners, as well as the sum, were significantly higher among nonwhites and increased with calendar date of blood draw. p,p′-DDT and p,p-DDE concentrations were about 50% higher for nonwhites compared with whites and for those born in California or the southeastern United States versus elsewhere in the United States. Higher body mass index was associated with lower concentrations of several PCBs and p,p′-DDE but with higher heptachlor epoxide and DDT levels. The increase in use of PCBs during the 1960s is apparently detectable as increasing concentrations in maternal sera between 1963 and 1967. Marked racial and regional differences in serum pesticide levels were likely caused by geographic variation in previous agricultural and vector-control uses. The relationship to body mass index appears to be complex.
The history and present situation of insect foods in Japan: focusing on wasp and hornet broods
- Matsuura