Land Use Change, Urban Agglomeration, and Urban Sprawl: A Sustainable Development Perspective of Makassar City, Indonesia

Abstract

Urbanization towards the expansion of the city area causes urban sprawl and changes in space use. Furthermore, urban agglomeration towards urban spatial integration causes a decrease in environmental quality. This study aims to analyze (1) land-use change and urban sprawl work as determinants of environmental quality degradation in suburban areas. (2) The effect of urban sprawl, urban agglomeration, land-use change, urban activity systems, and transportation systems on environmental quality degradation in suburban areas. A combination of quantitative and qualitative approaches is used sequentially in this study. Data obtained through observation, surveys, and documentation. The results showed that the expansion of the Makassar City area to the suburbs had an impact on spatial dynamics, spatial segregation, and environmental degradation. Furthermore, urban sprawl, land-use change, urban agglomeration, activity systems, and transportation systems have a positive correlation to environmental quality degradation with a determination coefficient of 85.9%. This study recommends the handling of urban sprawl, land-use change, and urban agglomeration to be considered in the formulation of development policies towards the sustainability of natural resources and the environment of Makassar City, Indonesia.

Full text

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Land2021,10,556.https://doi.org/10.3390/land10060556www.mdpi.com/journal/land
Article
LandUseChange,UrbanAgglomeration,andUrbanSprawl:
ASustainableDevelopmentPerspectiveofMakassarCity,
Indonesia

BataraSurya
1,
*,AgusSalim
2
,HernitaHernita
3
,SeriSuriani
4
,FirmanMenne
5
andEmilSalimRasyidi
6

1
DepartmentofUrbanandRegionalPlanning,FacultyofEngineering,UniversityBosowa,MakassarCity
90231,Indonesia
2
DepartmentofRegionalPlanning,FacultyofEngineering,UniversityBosowa,MakassarCity90231,
Indonesia;agus.salim@universitasbosowa.ac.id
3
DepartmentofEconomic,STIMLasharanJaya,MakassarCity90231,Indonesia;
hernita@stimlasharanjaya.ac.id
4
DepartmentofFinancialManagement,FacultyofEconomicandBusiness,UniversityBosowa,Makassar
City90231,Indonesia;seri.suriani@universitasbosowa.ac.id
5
DepartmentofAccounting,FacultyofEconomicandBusiness,UniversityBosowa,MakassarCity90231,
Indonesia;firman@universitasbosowa.ac.id
6
DepartmentofUrbanPlanning,FacultyofEngineering,BosowaUniversity,MakassarCity90231,
Indonesia;emil.salim@universitasbosowa.ac.id

*Correspondence:batara.surya@universitasbosowa.ac.id
Abstract:Urbanizationtowardstheexpansionofthecityareacausesurbansprawlandchangesin
spaceuse.Furthermore,urbanagglomerationtowardsurbanspatialintegrationcausesadecrease
inenvironmentalquality.Thisstudyaimstoanalyze(1)land‐usechangeandurbansprawlwork
asdeterminantsofenvironmentalqualitydegradationinsuburbanareas.(2)Theeffectofurban
sprawl,urbanagglomeration,land‐usechange,urbanactivitysystems,andtransportationsystems
onenvironmentalqualitydegradationinsuburbanareas.Acombinationofquantitativeand
qualitativeapproachesisusedsequentiallyinthisstudy.Dataobtainedthroughobservation,
surveys,anddocumentation.TheresultsshowedthattheexpansionoftheMakassarCityareato
thesuburbshadanimpactonspatialdynamics,spatialsegregation,andenvironmental
degradation.Furthermore,urbansprawl,land‐usechange,urbanagglomeration,activitysystems,
andtransportationsystemshaveapositivecorrelationtoenvironmentalqualitydegradationwith
adeterminationcoefficientof85.9%.Thisstudyrecommendsthehandlingofurbansprawl,land‐
usechange,andurbanagglomerationtobeconsideredintheformulationofdevelopmentpolicies
towardsthesustainabilityofnaturalresourcesandtheenvironmentofMakassarCity,Indonesia.

Keywords:land‐usechange;urbansprawl;urbanagglomeration;sustainabledevelopment

1.Introduction
Urbanexpansionduetourbanizationcontributestourbangrowth,changesinspatial
structure,andspatialpatternsinsuburbanareasinthecaseoflargeandmetropolitan
cities.Urbanizationinthedynamicsofmetropolitancitieshasledtochangesintraditional
ruralcharacteristicstowardsurbancharacteristics[1].Thatis,urbanizationdoesnotonly
affectthecharacteristicsofsociety,economy,andculturebutalsoecologicaland
environmentalaspects[2].Thus,urbanizationiscloselyrelatedtoanincreasein
population,changesinland‐use,andurbanspatialpatternstowardsadecreasein
environmentalquality[3,4].Furthermore,urbanurbanizationtowardsurbanexpansion
ismarkedbythedevelopmentoflarge‐scalesettlements,industry,centersofeconomic
activity,andconnectivityofthetransportationnetworksystem[5].Increasedsocio‐
Citation:Surya,B.;Salim,A.;
Hernita,H.;Suriani,S.;Menne,F.;
Rasyidi,E.S.LandUseChange,
UrbanAgglomeration,andUrban
Sprawl:ASustainableDevelopment
PerspectiveofMakassarCity,
Indonesia.Land2021,10,556.
https://doi.org/10.3390/land10060556
AcademicEditors:Ileana
Pătru‐StupariuandChristineFürst
Received:22April2021
Accepted:24May2021
Published:25May2021
Publisher’sNote:MDPIstays
neutralwithregardtojurisdictional
claimsinpublishedmapsand
institutionalaffiliations.

Copyright:©2021bytheauthors.
LicenseeMDPI,Basel,Switzerland.
Thisarticleisanopenaccessarticle
distributedunderthetermsand
conditionsoftheCreativeCommons
Attribution(CCBY)license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses
/by/4.0/).

Land2021,10,5562of33

economicactivitiesinthesuburbshaveanimpactontrafficcongestion,pollution,urban
sprawl,conversionofproductiveagriculturalland,socio‐economicproblems,anda
decreaseintheenvironmentalqualityofsuburbanareas[6].Thus,urbanizationand
suburbanizationinsuburbanareascausechangesinspatialcharacteristicsfrompreviously
monocentrictopolycentric[7–9].
TheWorldBankstatesthaturbanizationinIndonesiahasreached55%[10].This
figure,whencomparedtoseveraldevelopingcountries,isclassifiedaslaggingbehind
whencomparedtoBrazilwhichhasreachedarateof86.3%.Inthe2017period,around
144millionIndonesianslivedincitiesoutofatotalpopulationof264millionpeople[11].
Furthermore,theurbancategoryinSoutheastAsiainrelationtopopulationdistribution
placesurbanareasinIndonesiainthesecond‐highestposition,or54.7%.Malaysiaranks
firstwith75.4%.Thailandoccupiesthethirdpositionwithanurbanpopulation
distributionof49.2%.ThePhilippinesandVietnamarerespectivelyinfourthandfifth
positionswith46.7%and35.2%[12].Thus,thenumberofurbanresidentscoupledwith
theexpansionofthecitytothesuburbshasanimpactontheburdenofinfrastructure
financing,increasingdemandforhousingfacilities,changesinland‐use,andadecrease
inenvironmentalquality[13,14].
TheurbanpopulationinIndonesiawhichincreaseseveryyearhasanimpacton
increasingthefinancingofurbaninfrastructureandmeetingtheneedsforresidential
facilities.Thisconditionismarkedbytheexistenceofnewareaswhicharepredominantly
developedinthesuburbanareas.Furthermore,thelandareaforeachpersonlivinginbig
andmetropolitancitiesinIndonesiaoccupiesanaverageof40meters.Thisfigureisthe
smallestsizeofallcountriesintheEastandSoutheastAsiaregion[13].Thus,urbanization
inthecaseofurbanareasinIndonesiahasanimpactonincreasingurbanactivity,urban
sprawl,anditseffectondecreasingthequalityofthesuburbanenvironment.Urban
sprawlisacomplexphenomenonthatrequirestreatmentandstudyofthefactorsthat
causethisconditiontooccur[15].Thus,aneffectivestrategyisneededtocontrolurban
growth,developingspatialpatterns,anddrivingforcesforurbanexpansion[16].
Furthermore,urbansprawlistheeffectoftheexpansionofthebigcityareaandtheurban
processthatappearsisthepolarizingeffectofthesocio‐economicactivitiesofthecity
centermovingtothesuburbanarea[17,18].
Urbanizationhasanimportantimpactontheenvironment,changesinland‐use
intensity,spatialstructure,andurbanspatialpatterns[19,20].Theurbansprawlthat
developsinsuburbanareasoccursduetoseveralfactors,namely(i)relativelylowland
prices,and(ii)lowpopulationdensity.Thesetwofactorscausetheurbanspatial
distributiontobeefficientandeffectiveinrelationtospaceutilizationanditseffecton
environmentalqualitydegradation[21,22].Furthermore,housingandsettlement
developmentactivitiesandincreasedtransportationinfrastructuredevelopmenthavean
impactonthecomplexityofspaceutilization[23]Thisconditionischaracterizedby
environmentalimbalance,morphology,andlossofurbannaturalvegetation[24,25].Thus,
theconstructionofnewsettlementsinsuburbanareasandtheirimpactonthe
environmentareveryimportantintheprocessofurbangrowth[26].
Cityexpansionduetoexcessiveurbanizationisaphenomenonthatisquite
prominentinthecaseofbigandmetropolitancitiesinIndonesia.Thatis,urbanization
hasanimpactonenvironmentalimbalance,congestion,pollution,andurbansprawl[27].
Theexpansionofurbanareashassignificantlyalteredthecharacteristicsofthesuburban
areaanddecreasedenvironmentalquality[28].Theexpansionofurbanareascoupled
withincreasedurbanactivity,andtheconstructionofnewsettlementsinsuburbanareas
haveanimpactontheconversionofproductiveagriculturalland,transportation
movementsystems,andadecreaseinenvironmentalquality[29].Furthermore,itisvery
importanttoplanwelltheprovisionofvariousurbaninfrastructureandservices
includingtheurbantransportsystem[26].Thus,comprehensive,andintegratedhandling
towardsthesustainabilityoftheurbansystemisneeded[30].

Land2021,10,5563of33

Anurbanagglomerationistheunificationofareasintoonephysical,economic,
social,andculturalentity.Urbanagglomeration(UA)isaspecializedgeospatial
organizationofaseriesofcitiesformedwhenthecitycrossesahighlydevelopedstage
[31].Anurbanagglomerationconsistsoflargeurbangroupsinthesenseofthe
developmentcenterzoneofacitythatisconnectedtothesurroundingcitieswhichalso
develop.Thatis,thespatialstructureofurbanagglomerationnotonlyreflectsthe
interactionsandrelationshipsbetweencitiesbutalsoshowsthestagesofurban
development[32,33].Thus,urbanagglomerationisbasicallyaimedatintegratingurban
resources,adjustingindustrialstructures,narrowingthegapbetweenurbanandrural
areas,improvingurbanfunctions,strengtheningurbancompetitiveness,andpromoting
sustainableregionaldevelopmentstrategies[34].Theurbanagglomerationpolicyis
formulatedasaresponsetovariousgrowthpolesaccordingtothedevelopingindustrial
agglomerationstages[35].Thatis,urbanresiliencehasbecomearequirementforthe
sustainabledevelopmentofmoderncitiesandurbanagglomerations[36].Furthermore,
thespatialdynamicsandthetendencyofurbanagglomerationsthatdevelopinsuburban
areastowardstheintegrationofurbansystemshaveanimpactonland‐usechanges,
movementofthetransportationsystem,andadecreaseinenvironmentalquality[37,38].
UrbansprawlinthesuburbsofMakassarCityinrelationtopopulationmobility
illustratesthatsupportfortheavailabilityoftransportationfacilitiesintermsof
transportationservicesisidentifiedasinadequateintermsofsafety,comfort,and
timelinessofgettingtothedestination.Furthermore,thechoiceofpeoplelivinginthe
suburbanareabasedontheoriginanddestinationofthemovementismoredominant
usingprivatetransportation.Thisconditionhasanimpactonincreasingtrafficvolume
andcongestiononthemainroadcorridorleadingtothecity.Thus,urbantransportation
policiesaremoredominantinthedirectionofincreasingthecapacityofroadbodiesand
theconstructionofringroadstoreducetrafficcongestion,buttheyarelesseffectivein
solvinglong‐termtransportationproblems[39].Anotherfactorthatalsocontributestothe
urbansprawlinthesuburbsofMakassarCityistheweakcontroloverspaceutilization
duetotheineffectiveimplementationofurbanspatialplanning.Thus,highpopulation
growth,urbansprawl,andcontrolofspaceutilizationinsuburbanareasarechallenges
thatrequiresolutionstoaddresstheintegrationofurbansystems,effectiveuseofspace,
andsustainabledevelopment[40,41].
TheaccelerationandexpansionofMakassarCitytothesuburbsduetourbanization
haveanimpactonchangesinland‐usetypologyofsuburbanareas,spatialstructure,and
spatialpatterns.Theexpansionofurbanareastosuburbanareascauseschangesinspatial
useandincreasesinsocio‐economicactivitiestowardsurbanspatialintegration.[42,43].
Furthermore,thedivisionofMakassarCityintosuburbanareasismarkedbyanincrease
inurbanactivities,including(1)housingandsettlementscoveringanareaof1889.74
hectare;(2)tradeandservicescoveringanareaof25.67hectare;(3)industrycoveringan
areaof401.9hectare,and(4)educationandhealthfacilitiescoveringanareaof24.36
hectare.Weakcontroloverspatialuseandmismatchbetweenthestipulatedspatialplans
andthenumberofpermitsissuedbythegovernmentforhousingandsettlement
developmenthaveresultedintheconversionofproductiveagriculturalland,land
reclamation,andenvironmentaldegradation.Inaddition,urbanactivitiesthattendto
increaseandthetendencyofthecommunitytousevacantlandforhousingneedsaswell
astheconstructionofnewsettlementscarriedoutbydevelopers,arefactorsthattrigger
urbansprawl.Spatialintegrationcoupledwithurbanagglomerationtowards
industrializationhasanimpactonthecomplexityofspatialuseinsuburbanareas.
Industrialagglomerationisaneconomicphenomenonandhasasignificanteffectonland‐
useefficiency[44].Furthermore,urbansprawlandurbanagglomerationinthesuburbsof
MakassarCitycontributetoenvironmentaldegradation,spatialsegregation,and
differentiationofcommunityactivities.Thus,theexpansionoftheurbanareatowardsthe
suburbanareacausesbuildingdensity,unevenpopulationdistribution,andadecreasein
environmentalquality[45,46].

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ResearchresultsthatsupportthisstudyincluderesearchconductedbyMorollónand
Yserte[47],thisstudyfoundthaturbansprawlhasanimpactonenvironmentaldamage,
unsustainablemobility,regionalfiscalsolvency,qualityoflife,andthehealthoftheurban
population.InastudyconductedbyAlJarahetal.[48],theresultsofthisstudyfoundthat
rapidurbanizationhasanimpactondecreasingenvironmentalquality,urbanspatialpat‐
terns,andineffectiveimplementationofurbandevelopmentduetospaceallocationthat
isnotinaccordancewiththepredeterminedmasterplan.InresearchconductedbyFeng
etal.[49],itwasfoundthaturbansprawlandindustrialagglomerationhaveanimpact
onenvironmentalqualitydegradation,changesinindustrialstructure,andtechnological
innovation.Thethreeresultsofthesestudiesareatameetingpointbyemphasizingthat
theurbansprawlcontributestothedeclineinenvironmentalquality,regionalfiscalsol‐
vency,qualityoflife,populationhealth,andurbanspatialdynamics.Thus,urbanspawl
andurbanagglomerationcoupledwithchangesinland‐useandanincreaseinthetrans‐
portationmovementsysteminthesuburbsofMakassarCityareveryimportantandstra‐
tegicmatterstoberesolvedimmediatelythroughdevelopmentpoliciesfromthegovern‐
menttowardstheintegrationoftheurbansystem.Thus,thefocusofthisstudyisaimed
atansweringresearchquestions,namely:(1)Howdoland‐usechangesandurbansprawl
workasdeterminantsofenvironmentalqualitydegradationinsuburbanareas?(2)How
dourbansprawl,urbanagglomeration,land‐usechange,urbanactivitysystem,andtrans‐
portationsystemaffectthedegradationofenvironmentalqualityinsuburbanareas?
2.ConceptualFramework
Theincreaseindevelopmentactivitiesinthesuburbanareaisindicatedbythecon‐
versionofproductiveagriculturallandtoresidentialdevelopmentandsocio‐economic
activities.Knoxetal.[50]formulatesurbanizationasaprocessofspatialandeconomic
changecausedbyhumanfactorsandtheirimpactonnaturalresourceswhichresultsin
economic,social,andphysicalconditionsaswellasproblemsthatmustbefacedinthe
formulationofurbandevelopmentpolicies.Thefastertherateofeconomicgrowth,the
fasterthetrendofpopulationurbanizationanditsimpactontheprevalenceofpoverty
andurbaninequality[51].Thus,urbanizationasaprocessofformingcitiesandcommu‐
nitieswillhaveanimpactoninequalityandsocio‐economicdisparities.Increasedurban
activityandtransportationhaveadirectimpactonecosystemconditions[52].Urbanspa‐
tialdynamicscontributedirectlytochangesinland‐usepatterns,urbanecology,morphol‐
ogy,andthesustainabilityofurbandiversity[53].
2.1.UrbanSprawlandUrbanAgglomeration
Theexpansionoftheareaduetourbanizationhasanimpactontheconversionof
land‐usefunctionsandthesuburbanizationofthesuburbanareasinrelationtothedevel‐
opmentofnewareasforvariousurbanactivities.Furthermore,land‐useconversioncan‐
notbeseparatedfromthecitydevelopmentpolicysetbythegovernmentduetothede‐
mandsofdevelopmentneeds.Furthermore,urbanexpansiontowardssuburbanareas
contributestoeconomicgrowth,andpopulationgrowthaswellastheimpactonenviron‐
mentalqualitydegradation[54].Thatis,urbanexpansioniscloselyrelatedtotheprepa‐
rationofdevelopmentzonesandneweconomicactivitiesinsuburbanareas[55,56].
Thatis,thecharacteristicsofland‐usechangeduetourbanspatialexpansionarevery
differentforeachurbanareaandarehighlydependentonspatialphysicalconditionsand
landavailability[57].Theseeightfactorsleadtochangesinspatialstructureandspatial
patternsinthedirectionofchangesinpopulationmobilityandspatialuseinthesuburban
areaswhicharenotassessedonthebasis,ofagriculturallandproductivitybutareas‐
sessedbasedonthefunctionofdevelopingspace[58].Thus,spatialexpansiontowards
suburbanareascontributestochangesinspatialstructure,spatialpatterns,andurbanag‐
glomeration[29].Thedistributionflowofgoodsandservices,labormigration,andin‐
creasedeconomicproductivitycausesocialmobilityverticallyandhorizontally[59].

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2.2.TransportationSystemConnectivity
Theconnectivityofthecorecitytransportationsystemtothehinterlandareaisatrig‐
geringfactorforurbansprawlandurbanagglomeration.Urbansprawlhasasignificantly
negativeimpactonenvironmentalefficiency,butwiththecontinualimprovementofindus‐
trialagglomeration,thenegativeeffectsofurbansprawlwillbepartiallyoffset[60].The
increaseintrafficvolumeonthemaincityroadshasanimpactoncongestionandthetrav‐
elingtimetothedestinationareabecomesinefficientandtravelcostsbecomequitehigh[61].
Theeconomiccostandenvironmentalimpactoftrafficjamsinlargemetropolitanareasare
enormous[62].Transportationsystemconnectivityduetospatialexpansioniscloselyre‐
latedtourbansprawlandurbanagglomerationthatdevelopsinsuburbanareas.Over‐ag‐
glomerationinaregion,mainlytriggeredbypoorplanningandmismanagementofre‐
sourceallocation,mayalsobecomeabarrierforsustainabledevelopment[63].
2.3.SustainableDevelopmentoftheSuburbs
Theexpansionofthecorecityareatothesuburbshasanimpactontheintegrationof
theurbansystemanditseffectsonthesocio‐economicconditionsofthecommunity.Asa
result,thepeoplewhooriginallyoccupiedthelandoftenlosetheirlandasthemainsource
oflivelihoodforthecommunity[64].Indevelopingcountries,inparticular,citieshave
experiencedrapidgrowthintransport‐relatedchallenges,includingpollution,conges‐
tion,accidents,publictransportdecline,environmentaldegradation,climatechange,en‐
ergydepletion,visualintrusion,andlackofaccessibilityfortheurbanpoor[65].Urban
sustainabilityhasbecomeasignificantchallengegloballyduetorapidlygrowingurbani‐
zationandindustrialization[66].Sustainabilityisoftenconceivedofasanattempttobal‐
ancecompetingeconomic,environmental,andsocialpriorities[67].Furthermore,byinte‐
gratingfunctions,variousecologicalandsocio‐economicservicescanbeprovidedsimulta‐
neouslyandsynergiescanbedevelopedthatenablegreateroverallperformanceandmore
sustainabledevelopment[68].TheconceptualframeworkofthisstudyispresentedinFig‐
ure1below.

Figure1.Conceptualframeworkofurbanspawlandland‐usechangeinMakassarCity.Source:Authorelaborator.


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3.MaterialandMethod
3.1.ResearchDesign
Thisstudyisdirectedatunderstandingthaturbansprawl,land‐usechange,andur‐
banagglomerationandtheirimpactonenvironmentalqualitydegradationinsuburban
areas.Thisstudyusesacombinationofquantitative‐qualitativeapproachessequentially.
Thecasestudieswereselectedinthisstudywiththefollowingconsiderations:First,the
complexityofspatialuseandenvironmentaldegradationarequiteprominentproblems
inthedynamicsofsuburbandevelopment.Second,theurbansprawlcasehasanimpact
onthesustainabilityoftheurbansystemofMakassarCity.Third,thecontextofthecase
ofland‐usechangeontheoutskirtsofMakassarCityisquitecomplex.Thesethreethings
areverystrategicproblemsinthegrowthanddevelopmentofbigandmetropolitancities.
Thismeansthatthespatialexpansionofprimarycitiesinthemetropolitanurbansystem
contributestochangesinland‐use,urbansprawl,andurbanagglomerationtowardsur‐
banspatialintegrationandaffectsthesustainabilityofthecity.Inaccordancewiththe
chosenapproach,namelycasestudies,thistypeofresearchisacombinationofquantita‐
tive‐qualitativeapproaches[69].
3.2.StudyArea
MakassarCityisthecorecityintheMamminasataMetropolitanurbansystem.This
determinationisbasedonthefollowingconsiderations:(1)thegatewaytothedevelop‐
mentofEasternIndonesia,inrelationtothedistributionofgoodsandservices,aswellas
transportationservicenodes;(2)thedevelopmentofMakassarCityhasadirectimpacton
environmentalconditions,thetransportationsystemandthesocio‐economicconditions
ofthecommunity;(3)Urbanexpansioncontributestochangesinland‐use.Spatialdistri‐
butionplaysanimportantroleasaninstrumentforcontrollingtheuseofurbanspace[70].
ThecurrentpopulationofMakassarCityis1,526,677peoplewithanaveragegrowthof
2.9%peryear[71].Thisfigureishigherthanthenationalpopulationgrowthaverageof
1.4%.Urbansprawl,land‐usechange,andurbanagglomerationareformedduetothe
supportofthemainroadcorridorsandtheconnectivityoftheMetropolitanMaminasata
urbantransportationnetworksystem.Theroadcorridorsinclude(1)PerintisKe‐
merdekaanCorridorwitharoadlengthof11.93km;(2)HertasningCorridorwitharoad
lengthof3.76km,and(3)MetroTanjungBungaCorridorwitharoadlengthof4.7km.In
addition,urbansprawlisalsotriggeredbytheexistenceofcommercialactivitycenters
andlarge‐scaleresidentialareasthatarepredominantlydevelopinginthesuburbanarea.
ThegeographiclocationoftheMakassarCityareabasedonthedistrictandthepopulation
ofMakassarCityispresentedinTable1below.
Table1.TotalpopulationofMakassarCityandthelocationdistancetothecitycenter.
NumberDistrictVillageArea(Hectare)TotalPopulation
(Person)
DistancetoCityCen‐
ter(Kilometers)
1Makassar1326
,
53685,5152–5
2Mariso928,18960,4992–5
3Tamalate10241
,
359205,5412–5
4Panakukang10156
,
765149,6645–10
5Tallo1496
,
153140,3302–5
6Bontoala8173857,1972–5
7UjungTanah813,63129,0542–5
8SangkarrangIslands3968814,53110–20
9Mamajang925,08761,4522–5
10Rappocini9109
,
628170,1215–10
11UjungPandang728
,
45919,0542–5
12Wajo820,47231,4532–5

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
13Manggala62
,
291
,
46149,4872–5
14Biringkanaya73,678,17220,4565–10
15Tamalanrea63
,
857
,
08115,8435–10
Source:BPSMakassarCity[71].
Table1theareaofMakassarCitywhichconsistsof15districtsand127villages.Fur‐
thermore,thedevelopmentofMakassarCityshowsthatthedistributionofthepopulation
tendstobeunevenandispredominantlyconcentratedinthesuburbanareas,namely(i)
BiringkanayaDistrictwithasmanyas220,456people,(ii)149,664peopleinPanakkukang
District,and149,487people,andinManggalaDistrictasmanyas149,487,(iii)Rappocini
District170,121people,PanakkukangDistrict149,664people,andTalloDistrict140,330
people.Thedistrictareaiscategorizedasatransitionzoneandazoneforthesuburban
areaofMakassarCity.ThestudylocationsarepresentedinFigure2below.

Figure2.MakassarCityasastudylocation.
3.3.MethodofCollectingData
Inthisstudy,thedevelopmentofsuburbanareasisassociatedwithchangesinland‐
use,urbansprawl,andurbanagglomeration.Thedatainthisstudyusesanominalscale
toclassifyobjects,individuals,orgroupsforcategorizationneeds.Measurementsusinga
nominalscalearecarriedoutbygivingnumberstotheobjectunderstudy.Furthermore,
thedatainthisstudyaremeasuredusingindicators:(1)dataonland‐usechangeismeas‐
uredbyindicators,namelyspatialusepatterns,spatialfunctions,andtheareaofbuilt‐up
areas.(2)Urbansprawldataismeasuredbyindicators,namelypopulationdensityand
buildingdensity.(3)Dataonurbanactivitiesismeasuredusingindicators,namelythe
distancetothecenteroftheactivity,thetypeofactivity,andthecharacteristicsofthe
activity.(4)Thetransportationsystemismeasuredbyindicatorsofpopulationmobility,
roadnetwork,androadfunctions.(5)Thedecreaseinenvironmentalqualityismeasured
byindicators,namelythesourceofpollution,thetypeofactivity,andthecarryingcapac‐
ityoftheenvironment.Thus,thedatacollectionmethodsinthisstudywereobtained
throughobservation,surveys,anddocumentationdata.Thedevelopmentpatternofur‐
banactivitiesinsuburbanareasisassessedbasedonthegroupingofactivities,namely(i)

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housingandsettlement,(ii)tradeandservices,(iii)industry,and(iv)educationalactivi‐
ties.ThesefouractivitiesareurbanprimaryfunctionsthatdevelopinthesuburbsofMa‐
kassarCityandareadeterminingfactorforurbanagglomerationtowardsthespatialin‐
tegrationoftheMamminasataMetropolitanurbanarea.Agglomerationisrelatedtothe
spatialconcentrationofpopulationactivityandeconomicactivity[72].Furthermore,ag‐
glomerationisaformofpositiveexternalityinproductionwhichisoneofthefactors
causingitsurbangrowth[73].Thestagesofdatacollectionanddataanalysisinthestudy
arepresentedinFigure3below.

Figure3.Flowchartofthemethodology.Source:Authorelaborator.
Datagroupinginthisstudywascarriedoutbycomparingtheresultsoffieldobser‐
vations,surveys,documentation,andmappingresultsfromsatelliteimagerymaps.Thus,
thedatainthisstudyweredividedintotwomaincategories,namelyprimaryandsec‐
ondarydata.Land‐usechangedataisreviewedbasedonthedynamicsofthedevelop‐
mentofMakassarCityfortheperiod2006–2020whichisadjustedtotheresultsofobser‐
vationsmadeinthefield.Landusedataisthencarriedoutbyoverlappingmapsand
processedthroughageographicinformationsystem(GIS).Furthermore,theurbansprawl
inthisstudywasassessedbasedonindicatorsofpopulationdensity,buildingdensity,
accessibility,roadnetwork,distancetothecitycenter,andmixedland‐use,namelyhous‐
ing,workplaces,andsocio‐economicfacilities[74,75].Eachstudiedvariableisthenas‐
signeditsaveragevalueandstandarddeviationtodeterminethesizeofthesprawland
itsimpact.Themeasurementofurbanagglomerationinthisstudyisgroupedintothree

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categories,namely(i)agglomerationinthecitycenter,(ii)agglomerationinthetransition
zone,and(iii)agglomerationinthesuburbanzone.Urbanagglomerationhasanimpact
onincreasingthemovementofruralpopulationstowardsurbanareas[76,77].
Datacollectioninthisstudywascarriedoutthroughobservation,surveys,anddoc‐
umentation.Researchersplayaroleasthemaininstrumentincollectingdataorinfor‐
mationthroughobservationanddocumentation[78,79].Furthermore,themainsurvey
instrumentisaquestionnaireobtainedfromrespondents.Thus,thetwoinstrumentsin
thisstudyaretriangulating.Thismeansthatthedatainthisstudywereobtainedthrough
observation,questionnaires,anddocumentation.Datacollectionmethodsanddata
sourcesinthisstudyarepresentedinTable2below.
Table2.Summaryofresearchdataanddatacollectionmethods.
NumberResearchQuestionResearchVar‐
iableIndicatorDataSourceDataCollectionInstru‐
ments
1
Howdoland‐use
changesandurban
sprawlworkasdeter‐
minantsofenviron‐
mentalqualitydegra‐
dationinsuburban
areas.
Land‐Use
Change
Land‐usechangeismeas‐
uredbyindicators:spatial
function,built‐upland
area,andland‐usepat‐
terns.
Observation,sur‐
vey,anddocu‐
mentation.
Fieldnotes,basemapof
location,questionnaire,
andMapofMakassar
Cityland‐usedata
(2006–2020)
UrbanSprawl
Urbansprawlismeasured
byindicators:population
density,buildingdensity,
typology,built‐inlandarea
ratio,buildinggrouping,
andthedistanceofsettle‐
mentstothecitycenter.
Observation,sur‐
vey,anddocu‐
mentation.
Fieldnotes,question‐
naires,populationden‐
sitymap(2006–2020),
buildingdensitymap
(2006–2020),Makassar
citydevelopmentarea
map(2006–2020),new
areadevelopmentarea
mapofsuburbanareas
Environmen‐
talQualityDe‐
crease
Thedeclineinenviron‐
mentalqualityismeas‐
uredbythefollowingin‐
dicators:sourceofpollu‐
tion,levelofpollution,
andcarryingcapacityof
theenvironment.
Observation,and
survey.
Fieldnotes,question‐
naires,locationbase
maps,andcameras
2
Howdourban
sprawl,urbanag‐
glomeration,land‐use
change,urbanactivity
system,andtranspor‐
tationsystemaffect
theenvironmental
qualitydegradationi
n
suburbanareas.
UrbanSprawl
Urbansprawlismeasured
byindicators:population
density,buildingdensity,
typology,built‐inland
arearatio,buildinggroup‐
ing,andthedistanceof
settlementstothecitycen‐
ter.
Observation,sur‐
vey,anddocu‐
mentation.
Fieldnotes,question‐
naires,populationden‐
sitymap(2006–2020),
buildingdensitymap
(2006–2020),Makassar
citydevelopmentarea
map(2006–2020),new
areadevelopmentarea
mapofsuburbanareas.
UrbanAg‐
glomeration
Urbanagglomerationis
measuredbyindicators:
housingandsettlement
grouping,tradeandser‐
vicegrouping,industrial
grouping,educationalac‐
tivitygrouping,urban
Observationand
survey.
Fieldnotes,question‐
naires,basemapsofcity
activitylocations,devel‐
opmentmapsofsubur‐
banareas,andspatial
zoningmaps.

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
growth,andurbanspatial
zoning.
Land‐use
change
Land‐usechangeismeas‐
uredbyindicators:spatial
function,built‐upland
area,andland‐usepat‐
terns.
Observation,sur‐
vey,anddocu‐
mentation.
Fieldnotes,basemapof
location,questionnaire,
andMapofMakassar
Cityland‐usedata
(2006–2020).
ActivitySys‐
tem
Thecityactivitysystemis
measuredbyindicators:
spatialfunction,builtarea,
movementsystem,andfa‐
cilitiesandinfrastructure.
Observationand
survey.
Fieldnotes,basemaps
oflocation,question‐
naires,andcameras.
Environmen‐
talQualityDe‐
crease
Thedeclineinenviron‐
mentalqualityismeas‐
uredbythefollowingin‐
dicators:sourceofpollu‐
tion,levelofpollution,
andcarryingcapacityof
theenvironment.
Observation,and
survey.
Fieldnotes,question‐
naires,locationbase
maps,andcameras.
3.3.1.Observation
Theobservationsinthisstudywereusedtoobservethecharacteristicsoftheurban
sprawl,changesinland‐use,urbanagglomeration,andmobilityofthepopulationinthe
suburbsofMakassarCity.Theinstrumentsusedintheobservationwerebasemapsand
fieldnotes.Observationswereusedtotracethedata:(1)urbansprawlthatdevelopedin
thesuburbanarea;(2)changesinland‐usebasedondevelopmentactivitiescarriedoutby
thecommunityanddevelopersduringacertainperiodoftime;(3)thegroupingofurban
activities,namelyhousingandsettlements,tradeandservices,industry,offices,andedu‐
cation,(4)thesystemofsocio‐economicactivitiesthatdevelopinthesuburbanareas;(5)
mobilityofthepopulationfromthesuburbanareatothecenter,and(6)urbanactivities
thatdevelopandtheirimpactonthedeclineinthequalityofsuburbanareas.Further‐
more,observationsinthisstudyarealsousedindataretrieval,including(a)thepattern
ofhousingdevelopmentactivitiescarriedoutbythecommunityanddevelopers;(b)trans‐
portationfacilitiesusedbythecommunityinmobility,and(c)newdevelopmentareas
developedbythegovernment.Thedataobtainedthroughobservationisusedbyre‐
searcherstodescribechangesinland‐useanddevelopingurbanagglomerations.Theaim
istodescribetheurbansprawlandland‐usechangesthataredevelopingontheoutskirts
ofMakassarCity.
3.3.2.Questionnaire
Theuseofquestionnairesinthisstudyisusedfortwofunctions:(1)description,
whichdescribesthesocio‐economiccharacteristicsofcommunitieslocatedinruralareas;
and(2)measurement,namelytheassignmentofvaluestoeachvariableandindicator
used.Thequestionnaireinthisstudyusedastructuredandunstructuredlistofquestions
thathadbeenpreparedpreviously.Furthermore,thequestionnairewasusedintracing
thedata:(1)developmentpatternscarriedoutbythecommunityanddevelopers;(2)
changesinland‐useinsuburbanareas;(4)urbanactivitygrouping;(4)thesystemofurban
activitiesinrelationtothesocio‐economicactivitiesofthecommunity;(4)thetransporta‐
tionsystem(originanddestinationpatterns)basedonpopulationmobility,distanceto
thecitycenter,andthemeansoftransportationused,and(5)decreasingenvironmental
qualitybasedondevelopmentscarriedoutbythecommunityanddevelopers.Theresults
ofdatacollectionthroughquestionnairesarethenmeasuredusingintervalandratio

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scales.Thequestionnairewasdistributedtodistrictsthatareincludedinthecategoryof
suburbsinMakassarCity.Thereasontheresearchersdeterminedthelocationwastocom‐
paresprawl,land‐usechange,urbanagglomeration,transportationsystem,population
mobility,andurbanactivitiesthataffectenvironmentaldegradation.
DatacollectionthroughquestionnaireswascarriedoutfromAugusttoOctober2020.
Furthermore,structuredinterviewsusingaquestionnaireconductedbyresearcherswere
carriedoutbyaskingquestionstorespondentsbasedonpredeterminedquestions.Filling
inthequestionnairewasnotsubmittedtotherespondentbutwasguidedbyresearchers
andenumerators.Theenumeratorswerechosenbasedonconsiderations,namely,those
whocancollectdata,areclosetoandunderstandthesocio‐culturalconditionsofthere‐
spondents.Beforecarryingouttheirdutiesinthefield,theenumeratorsweregivenin‐
structionsandexercisesinfillingoutthequestionnaireaswellastechniquesforconduct‐
inginterviewswithrespondents.Thecriteriaforactorswhofilloutthequestionnaire(re‐
spondents)are(i)localresidentslocatedinsuburbanareas,andimmigrantswhobuilda
shelterinsuburbanareas,(ii)peoplewhohavesocio‐economicactivitiesinsuburbanar‐
eas,(iii)developerswhocarryouthousingdevelopmentactivitiesinsuburbanareas,and
(iv)localgovernment.Furthermore,therespondentsinthisstudyweredeterminedusing
apurposivesamplingtechniquewhichtheresearcherdeterminedbasedoncertainchar‐
acteristics.WithdrawalofsamplesreferstoIsaacandMichael[80].Furthermore,thefor‐
mulationsusedindeterminingthesampleareasfollows.
s=λ2NPQ/d2(N‐1)+λ2PQ(1)
wheresisthenumberofsamples,Nisthenumber,ofpopulationλ2isChi‐Square,the
errorrateis1%,5%,and10%d=0.05P=Q=0.5.Thenumberofsamplesinthisstudy
wassetat400samples.Thenumberofsamples(respondents)inthisstudyispresentedin
Table3below.
Table3.Numberofrespondentsinthisstudy.
NumberDistrictTotalPopulation(Person)NumberofRespondents
1Makassar85,51510
2Mariso60,4996
3Tamalate205,54160
4Panakukang149,66445
5Tallo140,33046
6Bontoala57,1976
7UjungTanah29,0544
8SangkarrangIslands14,5312
9Mamajang61,4526
10Rappocini170,12160
11UjungPandang19,0543
12Wajo31,4534
13Manggala149,48745
14Biringkanaya220,45673
15Tamalanrea115,84330
Source:Author’selaboration.
3.3.3.Documentation
Thisstudyusesvariousdocumentsrelatingtothesituationandconditionsofthe
suburbsofMakassarCity.Thedocumentsreferredtoinclude(1)MakassarCitySpatial
PlanobtainedthroughtheMakassarCitySpatialPlanningService;(2)Populationdata
obtainedfromtheMakassarCityStatisticsOffice;(3)thesocio‐economicprofileofthe

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communityisobtainedfromtheDistrictOffice,and(4)Plansfordevelopmentanddevel‐
opmentoftheoutskirtsofMakassarCityareobtainedthroughtheRegionalDevelopment
PlanningAgencyanddeveloperswhoarecarryingoutdevelopment.Thefourdocuments
areusedbyresearcherstosupportthedatafromobservationsandquestionnaires.
3.4.DataAnalysisMethod
Qualitativedataanalysiswascarriedoutduringdatacollectionandaftercompleting
datacollection.Theanalysisiscarriedoutinteractivelyandcontinuestocompletion.Thus,
qualitativedataanalysisinthisstudyisdividedintothreecategories,namelydatareduc‐
tion,datadisplay,andconclusion.Datareductioniscarriedoutwiththefollowingcon‐
siderations:(1)thedataobtainedinthefieldisquitealot,complexandcomplicated,so
thatdatareductionanddatagroupingmustbedoneimmediatelyforinterpretationneeds;
(2)selectingandsummarizingthemainthings,focusingontheimportantthings,themes
andpatterns,thenformulatingtheconclusions;(3)reduceddataareusedtoprovidea
clearpictureaccordingtothefocusofthestudy;(4)datareductionisdonebyproviding
codesoncertainaspectsaccordingtotheobjectivestobeachievedinthisstudy.
Thequantitativeanalysisinthisstudyisusedtoanswerresearchquestions,howare
theeffectsofurbansprawl,land‐usechange,urbanagglomeration,urbanactivitysys‐
tems,andthetransportationsystemonenvironmentaldegradationinthesuburbanarea.
Multipleregressionanalysisinthisstudyisusedtodeterminehowmuchinfluencethe
independentvariablehasonthedependentvariableandtopredictthevalueofthede‐
pendentvariablewhenalltheindependentvariableshaveknownvalues.Theurban
sprawlanalysisconsiderstheratioofhouseholdsinonevillagetototalhouseholdstoone
sub‐districtarea(A),theratioofthebuilt‐upareaofthedistricttothetotalbuilt‐uparea
(B).Furthermore,therelationshipbetweenthetworatiosinthesensethat,if(A)isreduced
(B)resultsinavalueof0thenitiscategorizedinnormalconditions,iftheresultispositive,
itindicatescompact,andifthevalueisnegative,itindicatesasprawl[81].
SprawlmeasurementforeachdistrictinMakassarCityusesseveralanalyticalap‐
proaches,including(1)populationdensityanalysis;(2)buildingdensityanalysis;(3)the
analysisofthedistancetothecitycenterusesanetworkanalysisapproach,theindicators
beingassessedaretheroadnetworkandthedistributionofbuildings;(4)development
analysis,inrelationtoroadnetworkcoverageanddistributionofnewbuildingsinthe
2020period,usingabufferingapproachwithadistanceof100m,asthebasisforassessing
thehighwaystripindex;(5)analysisoftheconstructionofirregularactivitypatterns,us‐
ingadistanceapproachofthelocationofnewhousingbuildingsthatarefragmentedand
locatedoutsidethecenteroftheoldresidentialbuildingtothecenterofactivity.Thedis‐
tancecalculationusestheroadnetworkanalysisapproachandtheresultsobtainedare
describedusingthedevelopmentindexapproachwithoutapattern;(6)sprawlcharacter‐
isticsareclassifiedintothreelevelsandusingscoringanalysis.Theresultswerethen
mappedforeachcategory,namelyhigh,medium,andlow;(7)urbansprawllevelanalysis
usesscoringanalysis,namely(i)score1showstheinfluenceofthevariableonthesprawl‐
inglevelwiththelowcategory,(ii)score2showsthevariableonthesprawlinglevelwith
themediumcategory,and(iii)score3showstheeffectofthevariableonthesprawlinthe
highcategory.Theresultsoftheassessmentthroughscoringarethenfollowedupfor
sprawlclassification.Theaimistodefinethreetypologycategoriesbasedontheclass
rangeresults.Theformulationsusedindeterminingtheurbansprawltypologycategory
areasfollows:
KP  ∑P/LTKB ∑
 IHS  ∑JBUBJJ/∑JBU(2)
IHS  TBU/∑JBURK  NT NTR/∑K(3)
Explanationsrelatedtotheformulausedinclude(1)PopulationDensity(KP)iscal‐
culatedbasedontheratioofthetotalpopulation(people)totheareaofdistrictsanddis‐
tricts(hectares);(2)buildingdensity(KB)iscalculatedbasedontheratioofthenumber

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ofbuildings(units)totheareaofbuiltland(hectares);(3)thehighwaylaneindex(IHS)is
calculatedbasedontheratioofthenumberofnewbuildingsinroadnetworksupport
(units)tothenumberofnewbuildings(units)fortheperiod2006,2010,2015and2020;(4)
thehighwaylaneindex(IHS)iscalculatedbasedontheratioofthetotalbuildingdistance
(meters)tothenumberofnewbuildings(units)fortheperiod2006,2010,2015and2020,
and(5)classdistance(RK)iscalculatedbasedonthehighestscoreminusthelowestscore
forthenumberofclasses(3).Theresultsoftheanalysisarethenexplaineddescriptively
qualitativelyandquantitatively.Totesttheeffectofurbansprawl(X1),land‐usechange
(X2),urbanagglomeration(X3),urbanactivitysystem(X4),transportationsystem(X5),en‐
vironmentalqualitydegradation(Y),basedonquestionnairedataobtainedinthefield.
Thedataisthenanalyzedusingmultipleregressionmethods.Theanalyticalformulations
usedareasfollows.
Y=b0+bX1+bX2+bX3+bnXn+ε (4)
r n∑Xy∑X∑y

n∑X∑X n∑y∑y(5)
y.12 

R2y.12(6)
R2y.12  1 – JKG/n1 s2y(7)
whereYisthedependentvariable,b0istheregressionconstant,b1,b2theregressioncoef‐
ficient/influenceX1,X2,X3aretheindependentvariables,ε=0.Thecorrelationcoefficient
(r)isameasureofthelinearrelationshipoftheXandYvariables.Ther‐valuerangesfrom
(+1)to(−1).Thevalueofrthatis(+)isindicatedbythevalueofbthatis(+),andthevalue
ofrthatis(−)isindicatedbythevalueofbthatis(−).Ifthevalueofrapproaches+1orr
approaches−1,thenXandYhaveahighlinearcorrelation.Ifr=+1orr=−1,thenXand
Yhaveaperfectlinearcorrelation.Ifr=0,thenXandYdonothavealinearrelationship.
R2y.12isthecoefficientofdeterminationformultiplelinearregression,JKGisthesumof
squaresoferrors,ands2yisthesumofsquaresofy(corrected).
4.Result
4.1.DeterminantofUrbanSprawlandLandUseChange
TheexpansionoftheMakassarCityareatothesuburbshasanimpactonchangingthe
characteristicsoftransportationtowardsincreasingpopulationmobility.Thechangein
transportationcharacteristicsisduetotheincreasingneedfortransportationservicesforthe
communityinrelationtotheexistenceofdevelopingcentersofsocio‐economicactivities.
Furthermore,theeconomicactivitypatternofurbancenterresidentsandsuburbanresi‐
dentstogetherformatravelprofilethatisinfluencedbyexternalandinternalfactors.Exter‐
nalfactorsrelatetothemovementoftransportationfromthecitycenterandthemovement
oftransportationtotheurbanareaoftheMamminasataMetropolitanArea.Meanwhile,in‐
ternalfactorsareinfluencedbytheexistenceofnewhousingcomplexesandthemobilityof
thepopulationtowardsthecenterofsocio‐economicactivitiesandthemovementtowards
thecitycenter.Thetransportationsystemandpopulationmobilityinsuburbanareasare
closelyrelatedtothedynamicsofthedevelopmentofMakassarCity.Thespatialdevelop‐
mentofMakassarCityislinearandconcentricispresentedinFigure4below.

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
Figure4.ThedevelopmentofMakassarCityislinearandconcentric.
Figure4showsalinearandconcentricspatialdevelopmentpatterninthesuburbsof
MakassarCity.Thisconditionspecificallyoccursinthecenterofthesuburbsasaresult,
oftheaccumulationofsocio‐economicactivities,andthecenterpointismarkedbythe
existenceofashoppingcenter,followedbythedevelopmentofvariousothersocio‐eco‐
nomicactivities,andsupportedbytheexistenceofnewsettlementsthatarecohesive.
FieldfactsfoundtoillustratethateffortstocontrolthespatialphysicalformofMakassar
Cityinthetransitionzoneandthesuburbanzonearemucheasier,withtheconsideration
thatoutsidethebuilt‐upareaitisstillemptyland,sothatregulationsthatleadtothe
accelerationofthecityʹsspatialphysicaldevelopmentcanbeimplementedwithminimal
resistance.FieldfindingsshowthatnewdevelopmentareasinMakassarCityhavethe
potentialtoexperiencefloods,landerosioninriverbasins,andcoastalabrasion.Thetrig‐
geringfactorsarelandreclamation,land‐useforriveruseareas,anddamagetomangrove
foresthabitat.Landuseplanningisanactiontoeliminatedisasterriskandimproveenvi‐
ronmentalqualityforthebetter[82].ThechangeinspatialuseofMakassarCityispre‐
sentedinTable4below.


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Table4.SpaceutilizationofMakassarCityfortheperiod2006–2020.
NumberTypeofActivitySpaceUtilization(Hectares)
Year2006–2010Percentage(%)Year2015–2020Percentage(%)
1Commercial7.340.04266,14315.14
2Education27.730.16182,8951.04
3Settlement786,18144.7310,589.3137.97
4Health5.210.03112,1490.64
5Offices5.770.03139,1550.79
6Sportsfacilities53.390.30621,6973.54
7Socialfacilities18.770.114,349,69324.75
8Ricefieldsandmixedgardens640,96336.47528,9453.01
Source:Authorelaborator,map(c)2019Google.
Table4showsthechangeintheuseofspaceinMakassarCitytowardsurbandiffer‐
entiationduetotheincreasingscaleofthemodernindustrialsocietyandthedevelopment
ofnewgrowthpoles.Threethingsthatunderliethisprocessoccur,amongothers:(1)the
distributionoftherangeandintensityoftherelationshipbetweenactivitiestowardsthe
changingcharacterofmodernsociety;(2)differentiationofspatialfunctionsandcommu‐
nityactivitypatterns,and(3)themorecomplexspatialorganization.Fieldfactsfound
showthatspatialphysicalchangesinMakassarCityhaveapositivecontributiontosocio‐
economicchangesatthemicro‐levelofsociety.Furthermore,ifitisbasedontheprocess
offormingspatialandsocialdiversityinrelationtothedevelopingsocio‐economicchar‐
acteristics,threesymptomsarefound,namely:(1)changesintheintensityofeconomic
activitytowardsthecreationofaneweconomicorder,whichrequirescertaintypesof
expertiseandskillstoaccessworkofaformalnature.Thisconditionillustratesthatedu‐
cationalbackgroundasanindexofsocialdifferentiationisanimportantfactor;(2)differ‐
entiationofnewfunctionswhichtendstocontinueduetoincreasedreachandservices
andtheirimpactonsocialandeconomicchoicesforthecommunity.Thisconditionallows
foranumber,ofalternativeactivitypatternsforthecommunity;(3)socialordermovesto‐
wardschangesinpopulationmobilityandpopulationcompositiontowardssocietaldiffer‐
entiation.Thedifferencesandassimilationofthecommunity,bothmigrantsandindigenous
people,aremovingtowardssocialandculturaltransformationasonesocialgroup[83].
Fieldfactsfoundtoillustratethattheintensityofland‐usechangeisinfluencedby
severalfactors,including(1)easeoflicensingissuedbythegovernmentanditsimpacton
landbuyingandselling.Thisconditionismarkedbyachangeinthestatusofcommunity
landownershiptodeveloperownership.Furthermore,changesinlandownershipstatus
arefollowedbytheconstructionoflarge‐scalehousingandsettlementsequippedwith
supportingfacilitiesandinfrastructure,whicharepredominantlyinhabitedbyimmi‐
grants;(2)landreclamation,thisconditionischaracterizedbydevelopmentcarriedout
bythedeveloperandtheintensityoflandcoverchangesinwatercatchmentareas,river
benefitareasandcoastalareas;(3)increasingurbanactivitydevelopmentactivitiesand
newhousingdevelopmentshaveanimpactondecreasingtheenvironmentalqualityof
thesuburbanareas.ThedegradationoftheenvironmentalqualityinthesuburbsofMa‐
kassarispresentedinFigure5below.

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Figure5.DecreasingenvironmentalqualityinMakassarCity.Source:Primarydata.
Figure5showsthedeclineintheenvironmentalqualityofMakassarCitybasedon
developingurbanactivities.Threeinterpretationsthatcanbeproposedforthesecondi‐
tions,namely:(1)housingandsettlementdevelopment,landreclamation,andland‐use
changecontributedpositivelytoenvironmentaldegradationwitheachvalueof9.61%;(2)
buildingconstructionwithavalueof9.41%,householdwasteandtransportationsystems
withavalueof9.31%againstenvironmentaldegradation;(3)shoppingcentersanddo‐
mesticwastecontributedpositivelytoenvironmentaldegradationwithavalueof8.82%;
and(4)educationalactivitieswithavalueof8.33%,andhealthactivitieswithavalueof
7.84%againstadecreaseinenvironmentalquality.Urbanexpansionresultsinsocio‐eco‐
nomictransformationswithrelevantimplicationsforlandinsuburbanareas,leadingto
environmentalconcernsaboutlanddegradationandincreaseddesertificationriskineco‐
logicallyfragiledistricts[84].Thisconditionischaracterizedbythegroupingofpeople
basedoneconomiccapacity,segregation,andgentrificationinsuburbanareas.Thecom‐
parisonofurbansprawlinMakassarCityispresentedinFigure6below.

Figure6.ComparisonoftheurbansprawlofMakassarCity:(A)2006,(B)2009,(C)2016,and(D)
2020.

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Figure6showstheurbansprawlinthedynamicsofthedevelopmentofMakassar
City.Interpretationsthatcanbeproposedregardingurbansprawlinclude(1)totheeast,
markedbychangesinland‐usetowardsland‐useforhousingandsettlements,industry,
andshoppingcenters;(2)tothenorth,markedbyconversionofproductiveagricultural
landcoveringanareaof5880.68hectares;(3)tothesouth,itismarkedbycoastalreclama‐
tionforthedevelopmentofeconomicactivitiescoveringanareaof159.24hectares.The
developingurbansprawlhasanimpactonchangesinlandcover,typology,andmorphol‐
ogy,increasedpopulationmobility,populationdensity,andtrafficcongestiononthe
maincityroadcorridors.ChangesinthespatialpatternofMakassarCityduetothesprawl
anditsassociatedimpactsaremarkedbytheunevendistributionoffacilitiesandthedis‐
tributionofsettlementsintheurbanarea.Thisconditionhasanimpactontheaccumula‐
tionofvariousactivitiesincertainareas,scarcityofinfrastructure,anddisparityofsocio‐
economicservicesinthesuburbanareas.Thefactsonthegroundthatwerefoundshow
thattheexistenceofnewsettlementsbuiltbydevelopershasapositivecontributiontothe
differentiationofjobsandpeople’slifestyles.
ThefactorsthattriggersprawlinthesuburbsofMakassarCityincludes(1)lower
landpricesandhighlandpurchasetransactions,whichdevelopersusetobuildlarge‐scale
settlementsandcommercialareas;(2)Supportforinfrastructuredevelopmentdeveloped
bythegovernment,namelyroadinfrastructure,airportsandotherinfrastructure;(3)in‐
creasingcommunityincome,markedbytheabilityofthecommunitytopaylandtaxand
mobilityforwork,business,andsocialactivities;(4)consistencyintheimplementationof
theMakassarCityplanningplan,inrelationtocontrollingspatialuse;(5)thetaxrateis
quitelowwhencomparedtothetaxrateatthecitycenter;(6)highpopulationgrowthdue
tourbanizationandmigration;(7)residentialoptionsforhigh‐incomegroupstobuilda
shelterinsuburbanareas.Thesesevenfactorsmakeapositivecontributiontothesubur‐
banizationofthesuburbanareastowardsincreasingpopulationdensity.Increasedindus‐
trialactivityinlinewithhousingdevelopmentnotonlyhasanimpactonincreasingpop‐
ulationbutalsocontributestothedeteriorationoftheenvironmentalqualityofsuburban
areas[14].
Theever‐increasingpopulationinthesuburbanareaispositivelyassociatedwitha
reductioninagriculturallandandanincreaseinbuildingdensity.Thisconditionillus‐
tratesthattheexpansionofthespatiallayoutofMakassarCitytotheoutskirtsofthecity
hasanimpactonchangingthelivelihoodsoflocalcommunitiesfrombeingagrarianto
industrialcities.Furthermore,theorientationoflocalcommunityactivitiesisdominant
duetochangesinenvironmentalconditions,namelylaborers,masons,andconstruction
workers,includingurbaninformalactivities(mobiletradersandfoodstalls)andasmall
proportionofthemstillworkinagriculturalactivitiesbutarenotdominant.Metropoliza‐
tionisthecauseoftheeconomictransformation,spatialuse,andsocialcultureofsociety
[85].
ThepopulationdensityofMakassarCity(seeFigureA1).Theresultsofthepopula‐
tiondensityanalysisshowthat:(1)Thehigh‐densitycategoryislocatedintheTalloDis‐
trict,BontoalaDistrict,MakassarDistrict,Mariso,andMamajangDistrictwithpopulation
densityfiguresof24,070–33,935people/hectare;(2)Thecategoryofmediumdensityis
locatedinWajoDistrictandRappociniDistrictwithanumberof15,806–18,431peo‐
ple/hectare;(3)Thelow‐densitycategoryislocatedintheUjungPandangDistrict,Ta‐
malateDistrict,PanakkukangDistrict,TamalanreaDistrict,ManggalaDistrict,Biringka‐
nayaDistrict,andSangkarrangIslandswithafigureof3638–11,047people/hectare.Inter‐
pretationsthatcanbeproposedarerelatedtothepopulationdensityofMakassarCity,
namely:(a)districtareaswithhigh‐densitycategoriesshowafairly,lowurbansprawl;(b)
districtswithalowpopulationdensitycategoryshowahighlevelofurbansprawl.These
resultsconfirmthaturbansprawltendstodevelopindistrictswithlowdensityinrelation
totheavailablelandarea.Thus,landareaandlowlandvaluearefactorsthattriggerthe
communityanddevelopersfornewhousingfacilitiesanddeveloptowardslarge‐scale
settlementsinthesuburbanareas.Theroleofgovernmentisveryimportanttomaintain

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environmentalbalanceandensuretherightsoffuturegenerationstothenaturalenviron‐
ment[86].
Theresultsofthefieldconfirmationshowthattheroleofthegovernmentalsocon‐
tributestothesprawlinthesuburbanareas.Thisconditionismarkedbythenumberof
buildingpermitsissuedandlocationpermitsgrantedtodevelopers.Thus,theurban
sprawltrendinthesuburbsofMakassarCityisinfluencedbythreemainfactors,namely
(i)theuseofvacantlandfortheconstructionofhousingfacilitiesbythecommunity,(ii)
theconstructionofnewhousingbydevelopers,and(iii)governmentpoliciesingranting
locationpermits.andbuildingpermits.Fieldfactsfoundindicatethatthedevelopment
mechanismsandproceduresinthesuburbsofMakassarCityhavenotyetreferredtothe
predeterminedspatialplan.Thedevelopmentoflarge‐scalesettlementsaffectsthetypology
andmorphologyofthesuburbanareatowardstheformationofthebuiltenvironment[87].
ThedensityofbuildingsinMakassarCity(seeFigureA2).Interpretationsthatcanbe
proposedfortheseresults:(1)in2005thebuildingdensitylevelwas30.47%,thenin2019,
thebuildingdensitywas60.24%.Thisfigureshowsthatfor15yearsthebuildingdensity
inMakassarCityhasincreasedby29.77%.(2)Buildingdensityisdifferentiatedbasedon
fourmainclassifications,namely(i)buildingdensityatthecitycenterof91.22%,(ii)the
easternareaofMakassarCitycoveringfivesub‐districtswithabuildingdensityof63%,
(iii)theareatheNorthcoversfourdistrictswithabuildingdensityof76.91%,(iv)the
Southincludesthreedistrictswithabuildingdensityof80.3%.Inaddition,therelatively
lowbuildingdensityindicatesirregulardevelopment.Fieldfactsthathavebeenfound
illustratethatthemassiveincreaseinbuildingdensityislocated,intheEastandSouth
regions.Furthermore,thedistrictsdetectedwithafairly,lowlevelofbuildingdensityare
located,intheTamalanreaDistrict,TamalateDistrict,ManggalaDistrict,andBiringka‐
nayaDistrict.Thefourdistrictsarecategorizedasexperiencingirregulardevelopmentsin
thedynamicsofthedevelopmentofMakassarCityfortheperiod2006–2020.Thespatial
expansionofMakassarCitytothesuburbsareahasapositivecorrelationwithchangesin
thelivesoflocalcommunities.Thisconditionismarked,socialrelationsbetweencommu‐
nitiesarestartingtodeclineandonlytakeplaceinsmallgroups.Fieldfactsthatwere
foundindicatetheexistenceoflocalcommunitysettlementsthattendtobeclusteredin
certainlocationsandcomeinto,contactwithnewhousinglocationsinhabitedbymigrant
residents.Thus,urbansprawlhasapositivecontributiontochangesintypologyandmor‐
phologyofthesuburbanarea[88].
Furthermore,basedonthefactorofconsideration,thedistancetotheCentralBusi‐
nessDistrict(CBD)locationisdeterminedbasedontheaccumulationofspatialfunctions
bothintheoldcityareaandonnewdevelopmentsinMakassarCity.TheseCBDsinclude
(i)CBDoftheoldcity,(ii)CBDofPanakkukangMas,(iii)CBDDaya,and(iv)CBDofthe
MetroTanjungBungaarea.Indicationsfordistrictareasthatexperiencesprawlthrough
bufferingaresetwitharadiusofreachasfaras5–10km.Fieldfactsthatarefoundillus‐
trate:(1)83.20%ofthesub‐districtsinMakassarCityarewithinaradiusoffivekilometers
and(2)16.80%oftheareasareinaradiusoftenkilometers.Thus,thefartheradistrictis
totheCBDlocation,thehigherthesprawlrateandthecloserthedistrictistotheCBD
location,therelativelylowurbansprawlrateandhighlydependentondevelopingresi‐
dentialclusters.Thelevelofincomeofthecommunityinfluencesthedecisiontochoose
thelocationofresidenceandtheshapeofthecityiscloselyrelatedtothepopulationdis‐
tribution[89].
ThetypologyandcomparisonofthedistancebetweenthedistrictstotheCBDloca‐
tion(seeFigureA3).Threethingscanbeexplainedinrelationtothis,amongothers:(1)
25.42%ofdistrictswhicharefivekilometersfromtheoldcitycenter;(2)39.89%ofdistricts
thathaveadistance,offivekilometerstotheCBDlocationofPanakkukangMas;(3)
37.09%ofdistrictareasthathaveadistance,offivekilometerstoCBDDaya,and(iv)
18.58%ofdistrictsthathaveadistanceoffivekilometerstotheCBDoftheMetroTanjung
Bungaarea.InthecontextofurbansprawlinMakassarCity,slumsettlementsarefound

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adjacenttotheCBDlocation.Thelocationoftheseslumsettlementsismarkedbytheex‐
istenceoftheurbanpoor,characterizedbyspatialsegregationandadeclineinenviron‐
mentalquality.Slumsettlementsthatdeveloparecloselyrelatedtopoorhealthcondi‐
tions,sourcesofpollution,sourcesofdiseasespread,anddeviantbehaviorthataffectpeo‐
ple’slives[90].
TheexpansionoftheMakassarCityareashowsthat29.77%ofthedistrictexperiences
urbansprawlwithtypologicaldiversity.Typologyofurbansprawlisdividedintothree
maincategories,namely:(1)Typology1coverseightsub‐districtsor15.32%ofthetotal
areaofMakassarCity;(2)Typology2coverstwodistrictareasor13.01%ofthetotalarea
ofMakassarCity,and(3)Typology3coversfourdistrictsor71.65%ofthetotalareaof
MakassarCity.Theseresultsconfirmthatduringtheperiodof15yearsurbansprawlin‐
creasedsignificantlyandthisincreaseoccurredbetweentheperiod2010–2020.Thefield
factsfoundshowthaturbansprawliscategorizedashighinrelationtoseveralthings,
namely(i)theaccelerationofdevelopmentinMakassarCitytowardssuburbanareasare
followedbydevelopmentpoliciesthatprovideeasylicensingfordeveloperstobuildnew
housing,(ii)conversionofproductiveagriculturallandduetoweakcontroloverspatial
use,(iii)massiveland‐useconversioninthesuburbanarea,and(iv)landvaluewhichis
quitelowandtheproductivityofagriculturallandtendstodecline,causinghighland
transactionsbetweenlocalpeopleandhousingdevelopers.Governmentpoliciesrelated
toland‐usewillrequireecologicalandenvironmentalconservationactionstowardssus‐
tainableeconomicandsocialdevelopment[91].Furthermore,theprocessofexpanding
theurbanareatowardstheoutskirtsofMakassarCityisdividedintothreecategories,
namely:(1)Theconcentricdistributionischaracterizedbyequaldistributionofactivity
throughouttheexistingurbanareasandthistypeiscategorizedastheslowspread.(2)
Thelongitudinalspreadischaracterizedbytheurbanstretchthatdevelopsalongtheex‐
istingroadnetwork.Thismeansthatthetransportationnetworkplaysanimportantrole
intheprocess.(3)Thespreadofhoppingischaracterizedbyaseparatebuildingpattern
fromthemaincityandCBD.
TwocategoriesofurbansprawlthathavedevelopedinthesuburbsofMakassarCity
are:(1)in2006thetrendofurbansprawlwasstilllimitedtotheborderareabetweenthe
corezoneandthetransitionzone;(2)In2010–2020,thespatialexpansionofMakassarCity
tendstoexpandtowardstheMamminasataMetropolitanurbanareawhichisdeveloping
rapidlybothlinearlyfollowingthemainroadcorridorsanddevelopingconcentrically(p‐
value0.01andz‐zero2.44).Thisconditiondevelopsapartfromtheresultofafairly,low
landvalue,anothersupportingfactoristheintegrationoftheMamminasaMetropolitan
urbansystem.Furthermore,differentconditionsintheperiod2006–2010tendedtode‐
velopconcentricallywithap‐valueof0.01andaz‐zeroof2.51.Thisconditionisinfluenced
bythepreferenceforlivinginthesuburbs.Asummaryoftheurbansprawltypologyof
MakassarCityisinTable5below.
Table5.ComparisonofurbansprawltypologyinMakassarCityin2006,2010,and2020.
ParameterQuantificationTypology
PopulationDensityYear2006Year2010Year2020
High24.000–34.000111,2
Moderate13.000–24.0001,21,22
Low0–13.0001,2,31,2,31,2,3
Buildingdensity
High79–100111
Moderate59–79‐22
Low0–591,2,32,33
Distancetocitycenter(CBD)
Far7001–12.0002,333
Moderate3.000–7.0001,21,2,31,2,3

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Near0–3.000111
Developmentwithinroadnetworkcoverage
Affordable0.9–1.001,21,21
QuiteAffordable0.8–0.91,2,31,2,31,2
Unreachable0.7–0.8333
Thepatternofdevelopmentisirregular
High1.200–1.900‐33
Moderate600–1.20031,31,2
Low200–6001,21,21
Source:Analysisresults.
Table5showsthedifferencesintheurbansprawltypologyofMakassarCity.Inter‐
pretationsthatcanbesubmittedregardingtheseresults,namely:(1)in2006thesprawl
tendencyofMakassarCitywasdominantindevelopingtransitionalareasandnewdevel‐
opmentareas,namelyinTamalanreaandManggalaDistricts;(2)the2010periodtheten‐
dencyofsprawltoshowdominantlytowardsthetransitionareaandsub‐urbanMakassar
City;and(3)In2020thedominanturbansprawlmovedtothesuburbs,namelyinthe
areasofPanakkukangDistricts,BiringkanayaDistricts,andTamalateDistricts.
4.2.UrbanAgglomerationandTransportationSystems
ThepositionofMakassarCityasacorecityintheMamminatasaMetropolitanurban
system.Threefactorsdetermineurbanunification,amongothers:(1)easeofproduction
processesandtradeflowsthatcauseabuilt‐insystemenvironment;(2)MakassarCity
providesvarioussocio‐economicfacilitiesaswellasavarietyofgoodsandservicesso
thatitbecomesanattractivefactorforthemobilityofthesurroundingurbanpopulation,
and(3)theavailabilityofpublicfacilitiesinMakassarCity,whichismoredominantwhen
comparedtothesurroundingcities,causesthedemandforgoodsandservicesinitsterri‐
torialareastobequitehigh.Furthermore,therelationshipbetweenpopulationdensity
distributionandpublicservicefacilitieshasadirectrelationshipwiththelayoutofpublic
facilities[92].AgglomerationinthedevelopmentdynamicsofMakassarCityischaracter‐
izedbythegroupingofseveraldominantsocio‐economicactivitiesthatdevelopinthe
suburbswhicharelocateddirectlyadjacenttotheMamminasataMetropolitanurbanarea.
Fieldfactsfoundshowthatalongthedevelopingroadcorridorsaremarkedbythe
presenceofshoppingcenters,serviceservices,offices,industry,healthfacilities,andnew
settlementsdevelopedbythedeveloper.TheexistenceoftheMakassarCityroadcorridor
hasanimpactonurbanagglomerationtowardstheunificationoftheMamminasataMet‐
ropolitanurbanarea.Thus,duringthe2006–2020period,theaccelerationofdevelopment
andeconomicgrowthofMakassarCityexperiencedasignificantincreaseandhadanim‐
pactonlabormobilityinitshinterlandareas.Theimpactofspatialexpansiononenviron‐
mentaldegradationwillrequirealongprocessinrelationtothesocialandeconomiccon‐
ditionsofthecommunity[93].Thecomparisonofurbanagglomerationsbasedonthespa‐
tialzoningofMakassarCityispresentedinTable6below.


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Table6.ComparisonofurbanagglomerationsbasedonspatialzonesinMakassarCity.
UrbanAgglomeration
CityCenterArea(CBD)TransitionZoneFringeZone
LandArea
(ha)
%ofCBD
Area
LandArea
(ha)
%ofTransi‐
tionZone
Area
LandArea
(ha)
%toAreaofSubur‐
banZone
Settlement510.3465.294252.4530.751889.748.90
Offices5.770.740.040.000.000.00
Education5.630.72152.901.1124.360.11
Trading101.9213.04180.531.3125.670.12
Industry0.000.00219.801.59401.901.89
HotelsandTouristFacilities32.444.15117.400.8521.260.10
Source:Authorelaborator,Map©2021Google.
Table6showsthecomparisonofurbanagglomerationsbasedonthespatialzoning
ofMakassarCity.Threeinterpretationscanbeputforwardregardingthisprocess.First,
theagglomerationthatdevelopedintheoldcitycenter(CBD)wascharacterizedbythe
groupingofshoppingcenters,bankingservices,offices,andtouristfacilities.Thisurban
activityistheembryoofthegrowthofMakassarCitywhichcausestheflowoftranspor‐
tationtothecitycentertobequitehigh.Second,theagglomerationthatdevelopsinthe
transitionzoneismarkedbytheconversionofresidentialbuildingstocommercialactivi‐
ties.Thiszoneischaracterizedbyagroupingofresidentialapartmentbuildings,multi‐
functionalshoppingcenters,offices,warehouses,andhealthservicecenters.Third,the
suburbanzoneisanewdevelopmentarea.Thiszoneischaracterizedbytheconversion
ofproductiveagriculturallandswhicharepredominantlydevelopedintolarge‐scaleres‐
identialareas.Settlementdevelopmentutilizesalargeareaoflandwhichisconnectedto
thecity’smainroadnetworksystem.Furthermore,thesuburbanzoneischaracterizedby
thegroupingofresidentialareas,commercialactivities,andofficesalongthemainroad
corridorsandintegratedwiththeMamminasataMetropolitanurbansystem.Thedevel‐
opmentofbigcitiesshowsasignificanttrendofsuburbanizationandisveryimportantto
considerintheformulationofurbanspatialplanning[94].Theinfluenceofurbansprawl,
land‐usechange,urbanagglomeration,urbanactivitysystem,andtransportationsystem
onenvironmentalqualitydegradationinthesuburbsofMakassarCityispresentedin
Table7below.
Table7.Summaryoftestresultsforthesignificanceofmultipleregressioncoefficients.
CorrelationCoefficientErrort‐Countt‐Table
β Sbi
UrbanSprawltoenvironmentaldegradation(ryx1)0.1910.0672.8721.84
Urbanagglomerationtoenvironmentaldegradation(ryx2)0.1380.0532.8541.84
Land‐usechangetoenvironmentalqualitydegradation(ryx3)0.4060.0974.1841.84
Cityactivitysystemtoenvironmentalqualitydegradation(ryx4)0.2010.0692.6891.84
Transportationsystemtoenvironmentaldegradation(ryx5)0.1320.0652.6521.84
SourcevariantSumofsquares
(JK)FreeDegrees(db)
Averageofthe
sumofthesquares
(RJK)
F‐countF‐table
α=0.05
Regression
Residue
32,504
1458
7
12
6.547
0.07686,1446.76
Total33,96219‐‐‐
RR2db1db2F‐countF‐table
0.9270.85971286,1446.76
Source:Analysisresults.

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TheresultsofTable7thatcanbeexplainedinclude(1)urbansprawlhasapositive
correlationwithenvironmentaldegradation;(2)urbanagglomerationhasapositivecor‐
relationwithenvironmentaldegradation;(3)land‐usechangehasapositivecorrelationto
environmentalqualitydegradation;(4)thesystemofactivitieshasapositivecorrelation
toenvironmentalqualitydegradation,and(5)thetransportationsystemhasapositive
correlationtoenvironmentalqualitydegradation.Thus,itcanbeconcludedthaturban
sprawl,urbanagglomeration,changesinland‐use,urbanactivitysystems,andtranspor‐
tationsystemshaveasignificanteffectonenvironmentalqualitydegradationwithacoef‐
ficientofdeterminationoftheeffectof85.9%.Thus,itisnecessarytoevaluateenviron‐
mentalconditionsbytaking,intoaccountthesocio‐economicconditionsofthecommu‐
nityinsuburbanareas[95].
5.Discussion
5.1.UrbanSprawlandUrbanAgglomerationHandlingSolutions
Urbansprawl,changesinland‐use,andurbanagglomerationinthesuburbsofMa‐
kassarCityhavecontributedpositivelytoenvironmentaldegradation.Furthermore,the
conversionofland‐usefunctionsandtheconversionofproductiveagriculturallandsdue
toindustrialdevelopment,housing,trade,services,andeducation.Furthermore,theex‐
pansionofMakassarCitytowardstheoutskirtshasanimpactonincreasingpopulation
mobility,trafficvolume,andspatialsegregation.Thus,thesolutionsneededtohandle
urbansprawlinclude(1)consistencyinspatialplanningimplementationthroughtight‐
eningthegrantingoflocationpermitsanddistributionpatternsofurbanactivities;(2)
applicationofincentivesanddisincentivesfollowedbylawenforcementagainstviola‐
tionsofspatialplanning;(3)arrangementofperipheralareasthroughpopulationdensity
distribution,intensificationofeconomicandsocialactivities,towardssustainabledevel‐
opmentofsuburbanareas.Thesustainabilityofthehandlingisaimedatcreatingalivable
urbanfuture[96].Theimplementationofdevelopmentpoliciesanddevelopmentofsub‐
urbanareasiscarriedoutconsistentlythroughthefollowingefforts:(1)realizingsocial
justiceforallgroupsofsociety,especiallylow‐incomepeople;(2)conservingland‐use
througheffortstotightenpermitsforspatialusetosupportthesustainabilityofecosystem
functions;(3)synergizingpopulationdensitytowardsmeetingtheneedsofsocio‐eco‐
nomicactivities,intensifyingpublictransportation,andincreasingcommunitywelfareto‐
wardssustainabledevelopmentofsuburbanareasbyinvolvingtheroleofcommunity
participation.Sustainabledevelopmentandurbandevelopmentstrategiescanbe
achievedthroughthecooperationofallstakeholders[97].
Thesuccessfulhandlingofurbansprawlandurbanagglomerationinthesuburbsof
MakassarCitywillrequirevariousactions,including:(1)developingapublictransporta‐
tionsystemthatisaccessible,comfortable,safe,andeconomical;(2)developingnewset‐
tlementnodesbyapplyingamixedland‐usepatternthatisintegratedwiththeurbanac‐
tivitysystem;(3)integratingzoningforspatialusewhichisorientedtowardsenviron‐
mentalsustainability,and(4)distributionofurbanactivitiestoreduceservicedisparities
andanticipationofgentrificationandsegregationofsuburbanareas.Inorder,tosupport
theeffectivenessandefficiencyofspatialuseinsuburbanareas,thecompactcityconcept
aspartofthespatialplanforMakassarCityisveryimportanttoimplementtoanticipate
land‐usechangesthatarealignedwiththeapplicationofincentivesanddisincentives.The
applicationofthispolicyiscarriedoutbysimulatingappropriateprogramstominimize
thenegativeimpactscaused.Theroleofstrategicplanningisveryimportantaspartof
urbangovernancewhichrequirestheinvolvementofthecommunityandtheprivatesec‐
tortowardssustainabledevelopment[98].
5.2.SustainabilityoftheSuburbsofMakassarCity
ThesustainabilityoftheurbansystemofMakassarCityinrelationtothehandlingof
urbansprawl,land‐usechange,andfutureurbanagglomeration,isorientedtowardsfive

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basicprinciples,namelyenvironmental,economic,social,andstrengtheninggovernment
capacityindecisionmaking.Severalthingsneedtobeconsideredintheformulationof
developmentpoliciesforthesuburbsofMakassarCity,amongothers:(1)buildingpublic
awarenessofeffortstosavetheenvironment;(2)buildingequalityinaccessingurbanspa‐
tialfunctionsbasedoneconomicjusticeprinciplestoreducedisparitiesinservicesbe‐
tweenurbanareas;(3)ecologicalsustainabilityisorientedtothearrangementofthesub‐
urbanareasbasedonnaturaldisastermitigationwhichissynchronizedwithglobalcli‐
matechange.
Sustainabledevelopmentinthecontextofthesuburbanareaisorientedtowardsfour
mainthingsaspartofeffortstocontrolspatialuse,amongothers:(1)equitabledistribu‐
tionandsocialjustice,inthiscasereducinginequalityinexcessiveuseofnaturalresources
througheffortstoequalizelanddistributionandfulfillment.urbanservicestandards;(2)
Respectfordiversity,inthiscaseinadditiontopreservingbiodiversity,itisalsonecessary
toanticipatetheemergenceofdiscriminationagainsturbanspaceaccesstowardscommu‐
nalharmonyandculturaldiversitytopreventsegregationinthesocio‐economicdynam‐
icsofsociety;(3)integrative,inthiscase,theimplementationofthedevelopmentofthe
suburbanareasguidedbythereciprocalrelationshipbetweenhumansandtheenviron‐
ment;and(4)long‐termperspective,inthiscase,spatialplanningwhichisorientedto‐
wardsoptimizingthemanagementandutilizationofnaturalresourcesthatcanbeused
inthelongtermandabletoaccommodatetheinterestsofthegeneralpublic.Spatialplan‐
ningobjectivesbecomethebasisfordecision‐makingrelatedtogovernment,privatesec‐
tor,andactionscommunitytaken[99].Spatialplanningusingacross‐sectoralapproach
aimstobalancespatialaspectsandlandrequirementstowardsenvironmental,social,and
economicsustainability[100].Theresultsoftheanalysisthathavebeencarriedoutillus‐
tratethatthedevelopmentorientationofthesuburbsofMakassarCityinrelationtourban
sprawlandurbanagglomerationwillrequiredevelopmentpolicysupportfromthegov‐
ernmentwhichisorientedtowardsthreemainpillarsinthesustainabilityofurbandevel‐
opment,namelyenvironmental,economic,andsocialaspartofthedirectionofdevelop‐
menttobeachieved,namelyequitabledevelopmentandimprovementofcommunity
welfarewhilemaintainingthebalanceoftheurbanenvironment.Thesustainabilityof
MakassarCitydevelopmentispresentedinFigure7below.

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
Figure7.SustainabledevelopmentofthesuburbsofMakassarCity.Source:Author’selaboration.
6.Conclusions
TheexpansionoftheMakassarCityareatothesuburbshasanimpactonland‐use
changesandthecharacteristicsofthetransportationsystemduetoincreasedsocio‐eco‐
nomicactivities.Urbansprawlinthespatialdynamicsofsuburbanareashasdifferent
characteristicsandishighlydependentonpopulationdensity,buildingdensity,spaceca‐
pacity,andenvironmentalcarryingcapacity.Theintensityofland‐usechangeinsubur‐
banareasisinfluencedbyseveralfactors,namelyeaseoflicensing,changesinlandown‐
ershipstatus,andsuburbanization.Theimpactofland‐usechangecontributestotheland‐
useofwatercatchmentareas,riveruseareas,andcoastalbenefitareasduetolandrecla‐
mationforhousingandsettlementdevelopmentneedsaswellasurbaninfrastructure.
Increaseddevelopmentactivitiesinsuburbanareashaveapositivecontributiontoriver
waterqualitypollution,airpollution,anddamagetonaturalvegetationtowardsenviron‐
mentaldegradation.Developmentactivitiesthatcontinuetoincrease,bothcarriedoutby
thecommunityanddevelopers,areaccompaniedbytheconstructionofaroadnetwork
system,inadditiontoencouragingincreasedpopulationmobilityandincreasedsocio‐
economicactivitiestowardstheintegrationoftheurbansystem,whichispositivelyasso‐
ciatedwithurbansprawlinsuburbanareas.Factorsthattriggersprawlinsuburbanareas,
namelylowlandprices,infrastructuredevelopmentdevelopedbythegovernment,in‐
creasedcommunityincome,inconsistenciesintheimplementationofspatialplans,low
taxrates,populationgrowth,andpreferenceforcommunitysettlements.Urbansprawl
tendstodevelopindistrictareaswithlowdensityinrelationtotheavailablelandarea.

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Thus,theexpansionofurbanareastosuburbanareasispositivelyassociatedwithsocio‐
economicdisparitiesandslumsettlementstowardsspatialsegregationandadecreasein
environmentalquality.
UrbanagglomerationinthedynamicsofdevelopmentofMakassarCityhasanim‐
pactoneconomicgrowthandispositivelyassociatedwithchangesinland‐use,spatial
structure,spatialpatterns,typology,andmorphologyofsuburbanareastowardsenviron‐
mentaldegradation.Urbanagglomerationcoupledwithurbanspatialintegrationhasan
impactonagriculturallandconversion,changesinpeople’slifestyles,urbanization,mi‐
gration,suburbanization,andsocio‐economicdisparitiestowardsindustrializationof
suburbanareas.TheaccelerationofthedevelopmentofMakassarCityhasanimpacton
energymobilityandtheflowoftransportationtothecitycenterisquitehigh.Urbanag‐
glomerationbasedongrowingspatialzoninghasanimpactonthegroupingofhousing
andsettlements,commercialactivities,industry,educationalfacilities,andofficesthat
dominatetheareaonthemaincityroadcorridorstowardstheintegrationoftheurban
system.Thus,urbansprawl,urbanagglomeration,changesinland‐use,urbanactivity
systems,andtransportationsystemshaveasignificanteffectonthedeteriorationofthe
environmentalqualityofsuburbanareas.Todealwithurbansprawlandurbanagglom‐
erationthatdevelopsinsuburbanareas,itwillrequirethesupportofdevelopmentpoli‐
ciesfromthegovernmentwhichisimplementedconsistentlythroughthefollowingef‐
forts:(1)realizingsocialjusticeforalllevelsofsociety,(2)conservationoflandandwa‐
tershedresourcesthrougheffortstotightenspaceutilizationpermitstosupportthe
preservationofecosystemfunctions;(3)synergizingpopulationdensityandbuildingden‐
sitysupportedbythefulfillmentofsocio‐economicactivities;(4)preparationofadequate
publictransportationfacilities,and(5)increasingthewelfareofthecommunitytowards
sustainabledevelopmentbasedoncommunityparticipation.
ThesustainabilityoftheurbansystemofMakassarCityasasolutiontodealingwith
urbansprawl,land‐usechange,andurbanagglomerationinthefuture,isorientedtosev‐
eralbasicprinciples,namelyenvironmental,economic,social,andstrengtheninggovern‐
mentcapacityindecisionmaking.Severalthingsthatneedtobeconsideredintheformu‐
lationofdevelopmentpoliciesforthesuburbsofMakassarCity,amongothers:(1)build‐
ingpublicawarenessofeffortstosavetheenvironment;(2)buildingequalityinaccessing
urbanspatialfunctionsbasedontheprinciplesofeconomicjusticeandreducingdispari‐
tiesinservicesbetweenurbanareas;(3)ecologicalsustainabilityisorientedtothearrange‐
mentofthesuburbanareasbasedonnaturaldisastermitigationwhichissynchronized
withglobalclimatechange.Furthermore,theactionsneededindevelopingsuburbanar‐
eastowardssustainableurbandevelopmentinclude(a)landstewardshipwhichempha‐
sizestheimportanceofbuildingecologicalethicstomanageandpreserveecosystems;(b)
determiningthethresholdforspatialusebasedonthemanagementofthebuiltenviron‐
mentandanticipatingenvironmentalqualitydegradationthroughmonitoringandman‐
agementofwaste,airpollution,anddepletionofresourcesinasustainablemanner;(c)
interdependenceincludesnotonlyecologicalrelationshipsbetweenspeciesandnature
butalsoeconomicandculturalrelationshipsatthelocalandregionallevels;(d)economic
restructuringbymeansofexpandingemploymentopportunitiesforthecommunityin
synergywitheffortstopreservetheenvironment;(e)socialjusticeinmeetingpeopleʹs
needsfordecentwork,educationandhealthservices;(f)intergenerationalneedsthatem‐
phasizetheneedforthelongtermtoimprovepeopleʹswelfare.
SustainabledevelopmentinthesuburbsofMakassarCityinthefutureisoriented
towardsfourmainthingsaspartofeffortstocontrolspatialuse,including:(1)equitable
socialandeconomicfacilitiesbasedonsocialjusticetoreduceinequalityinexcessiveuse
ofnaturalresourcesandequitablelanddistributionfollowedbyfulfillmenturbanservice
standards;(2)respectfordiversity,inthiscaseinadditiontopreservingbiodiversity,itis
alsonecessarytoanticipatetheemergenceofdiscriminationagainsturbanspaceaccess
towardscommunityharmonyandculturaldiversitytopreventsegregationinthesocio‐

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economicdynamicsofsociety;(3)integrative,inthiscasetheimplementationofthede‐
velopmentofthesuburbanareasguidedbythereciprocalrelationshipbetweenhumans
andtheenvironment,and(4)long‐termperspective,inthiscaseistoimplementspatial
planningthatisorientedtowardsoptimizingthemanagementandutilizationofnatural
resourceseffectivelyandefficientlyforthelongtermandabletoaccommodatetheinter‐
estsofthegeneralpublic.
AuthorContributions:B.S.,conceptualization;B.S.,H.H.,andA.S.,compilingtheresearch;S.S.
F.M.,andE.S.R.,establishingthestudy;B.S.,H.H.;S.S.,andF.M.,processingdata;A.S.,F.M.,and
E.S.R.,contributingtomaterials/methods/analysistools;B.S.,S.S.,andH.H.,analyzingdata;F.M.
andE.S.R.,contributingtodatachecking;B.S.,H.H.,S.S.;S.S.,F.M.,andE.S.R.,writingandrevising
concepts.Allauthorshavereadandagreedtothepublishedversionofthemanuscript.
Funding:ThisresearchisfundedbytheGovernmentthroughtheMinistryofEducationandCul‐
tureoftheRepublicofIndonesiaintheformofresearchanddevelopmentgrantassistanceforuni‐
versities.
InstitutionalReviewBoardStatement:ThisresearchwasconductedwiththeapprovaloftheInsti‐
tuteforResearchandCommunityService(LPPMBosowaMakassarUniversity)withContract
Number12/LPPM/VIII/2020dated12August2020.Furthermore,fundingforthisresearchisfunded
throughtheBosowaMakassarUniversityInstitutethroughresearchanddevelopmentandhasbeen
approvedbytheChairpersonoftheBosowaUniversityLPPM.
InformedConsentStatement:TheresultsofthisstudyhavereceivedapprovalfromtheInstitute
forResearchandCommunityServiceatBosowaUniversityMakassarasoutlinedintheapprovalof
theChairpersonofLPPMNumber72/LPPM/IX/2020.
DataAvailabilityStatement:WefullysupportopenscientificexchangethroughMDPIinsharing
andarchivingresearchdatafromthisstudy.Wefullycomplywiththeprovisionsthathavebeen
setbyreferringtotheestablishedjournalguidelines.
Acknowledgments:Wearegratefulfortheparticipationofstakeholdersincontributingideasand
ideastotheimplementationofthisstudy.ThankyoutotheMinistryofEducationandCultureof
theRepublicofIndonesiafortheirsupportandgrantaidforappliedresearchgrantsinsupporting
theresearchofthisstudy.
ConflictsofInterest:Theauthorsdeclarenoconflictofinterest.


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AppendixA

FigureA1.PopulationdensityofMakassarCitybydistrict:(A)in2006,(B)in2010,(C)in2015,and(D)in2020.

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
FigureA2.ComparisonofbuildingdensityinMakassarCity:(A)2006,(B)2009,(C)2016,and(D)2020.

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FigureA3.DifferencesindistancebetweendistrictstoCBDlocationsandsprawltypologyofMakassarCity.(A)Year
2010,(B)Year2015,(C)Year2020,and(D)DistancetoCBD.


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