EffEcts of diEtary oxidizEd oil on growth pErformancE, mEat quality and biochEmical indicEs in poultry - a rEviEw

Abstract

lipids (fats and oils) are a concentrated source of energy in poultry diets that improves palat-ability, feed consistency, provides essential fatty acids and increases the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins. fresh oil is an expensive energy source and its exposure to air, heat, metallic catalyst during storage and processing may lead to its oxidative deterioration. this review highlights the response of modern poultry to dietary oxidized oil on growth performance, nutrients digestibil-ity, gut health, carcass characteristics, meat quality, blood chemistry and tissue oxidative status. literature shows that in moderately (peroxide value (pv): 20 to 50 meq kg-1) and highly (pv: 50 to 100 meq kg-1 or above) oxidized oils, lipid peroxidation causes rancid odours and flavours that negatively affect feed palatability, reduces intestinal villus height that decreases the surface area available for nutrients absorption. the oxidation products also damage fat soluble vitamins (a, d, E and K) in blood resulting in an oxidative stress. the use of oxidized oil in poultry diets has no significant effect on dressing percentage, pH and meat colour, whereas carcass weight decreases and drip loss of meat increases. Overall, there is a contradictory data regarding the influence of oxidized oil in poultry feed depending on the pv and inclusion levels. the reviewed literature shows that the use of mildly oxidized (pv<20 meq kg-1) oil in poultry feed with 4 to 5% inclusion level decreases the feed cost and ultimately cost of poultry production without compromising their growth performance. It can, therefore, partially replace fresh oil as an efficient, cost effective and sustainable energy source in poultry diets. Carbohydrates and lipids (fats and oils) are the main energy sources in poultry ration. Lipids provide about 2.25 times greater energy compared with carbohydrates

Full text

Ann. Anim. Sci., Vol. 21, No. 1 (2021) 29–46 DOI: 10.2478/aoas-2020-0043
EFFECTS OF DIETARY OXIDIZED OIL ON GROWTH PERFORMANCE,
MEAT QUALITY AND BIOCHEMICAL INDICES IN POULTRY –
A REVIEW
Shafqat Nawaz Qaisrani1♦, Muhammad Rizwan1, Ghulam Yaseen1, Fehmeeda Bibi2,
Muhammad Awais Sarfraz1, Nazir Ahmed Khan3, Saima Naveed1, Talat Naseer Pasha1,2
1Department of Animal Nutrition, University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore 54000,
Pakistan
2Department of Zoology, University of Education Lahore, Multan Campus 66000, Pakistan
3Department of Animal Nutrition, Faculty of Animal Husbandry and Veterinary Sciences,
The University of Agriculture Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan
♦Corresponding author: shafqat.qaisrani@uvas.edu.pk
Abstract
Lipids (fats and oils) are a concentrated source of energy in poultry diets that improves palat-
ability, feed consistency, provides essential fatty acids and increases the absorption of fat-soluble
vitamins. Fresh oil is an expensive energy source and its exposure to air, heat, metallic catalyst
during storage and processing may lead to its oxidative deterioration. This review highlights the
response of modern poultry to dietary oxidized oil on growth performance, nutrients digestibil-
ity, gut health, carcass characteristics, meat quality, blood chemistry and tissue oxidative status.
Literature shows that in moderately (peroxide value (PV): 20 to 50 meq kg-1) and highly (PV: 50
to 100 meq kg-1 or above) oxidized oils, lipid peroxidation causes rancid odours and avours that
negatively affect feed palatability, reduces intestinal villus height that decreases the surface area
available for nutrients absorption. The oxidation products also damage fat soluble vitamins (A, D,
E and K) in blood resulting in an oxidative stress. The use of oxidized oil in poultry diets has no
signicant effect on dressing percentage, pH and meat colour, whereas carcass weight decreases
and drip loss of meat increases. Overall, there is a contradictory data regarding the inuence of
oxidized oil in poultry feed depending on the PV and inclusion levels. The reviewed literature
shows that the use of mildly oxidized (PV<20 meq kg-1) oil in poultry feed with 4 to 5% inclusion
level decreases the feed cost and ultimately cost of poultry production without compromising their
growth performance. It can, therefore, partially replace fresh oil as an efcient, cost effective and
sustainable energy source in poultry diets.
Key words: oxidized oil, growth performance, meat quality, poultry
Carbohydrates and lipids (fats and oils) are the main energy sources in poultry
ration. Lipids provide about 2.25 times greater energy compared with carbohydrates

S.N. Qaisrani et al.
30
and proteins, and are obtained from both vegetable and animal sources. The build-
ing blocks of lipids are fatty acids that form bonds with various compounds to make
corresponding lipids. These fatty acids are further categorized based on their chain
length, number and conguration of double bonds. Fatty acids, because of the pres-
ence of double bond, are divided into saturated (without double bond), unsaturated
(with double bond), monounsaturated (with one double bond) and polyunsaturated
fatty acids (PUFAs) (with two or more double bonds) (Orsavova et al., 2015). Veg-
etable oils, rich in PUFAs, are used in broiler ration to enhance their growth perfor-
mance because of their high digestibility (Engberg et al., 1996). Fats with longer
chain length and a higher degree of saturation result in a lower fat absorption lead-
ing to a lower nitrogen corrected apparent metabolizable energy. Fats with great-
er proportion of short- and mid-chain fatty acids (C4:0–C14:0) are well absorbed
compared to long-chain animal fats (Ketels and De Groote, 1988). Inclusion of oil
in poultry diets helps birds to overcome growth depression and manage heat stress
(Gous and Morris, 2005; Wang et al., 2016). Lipids increase the energy content of the
diet, decrease feed dustiness (Varady et al., 2012), enhance feed palatability (Cleland
et al., 2005), consistency and fat soluble vitamins absorption, and supply of essential
fatty acids leading to an improved zootechnical performance of the birds (Braga and
Baiao, 2001; Junqueira et al., 2005).
Lipid oxidation
Lipid oxidation is a procedure where oxidants including free radicals or non-rad-
ical species invade lipids having carbon-carbon double bond(s) that involve hydro-
gen abstraction from a carbon with oxygen insertion, particularly in PUFAs, leading
to production of hydroperoxides and lipid peroxyl radicals (Yin et al., 2011). The
process of lipid oxidation is divided into three phases including initiation, propaga-
tion and termination with each phase consuming and producing primary, secondary
and tertiary complexes, respectively (Belitz et al., 2009). Lipid oxidation consists of
a chain reaction that yields and utilizes substances including peroxides, aldehydes
and polar compounds by weakening the oil antioxidant capability. The level of oxi-
dation varies and depends upon oil composition, temperature and extent of thermal
processing. Since there is no single measure to evaluate the oxidation status of oil, it
is biologically more descriptive to test different markers of oxidation. (Lindblom et
al., 2019). Many peroxidation compounds including acids, aldehydes, and polymer-
ized fatty acids formed during lipid peroxidation process can be assessed to evalu-
ate the severity of lipid peroxidation (Kerr et al., 2015). The peroxide value (PV)
measures primary products including lipid peroxides and hydroperoxides contents
that are produced in the initiation phase. The PV is expressed as milliequivalents
per kilogram (meq kg-1) and tends to be highest in the initiation phase and decreases
in the propagation and termination phases (Shurson et al., 2015). The propagation
phase produces secondary oxidation products including aldehydes, ketones and acids
which are commonly estimated by thiobarbituric acid reactive substances and p-ani-
sidine value. P-anisidine value measures the total molecular weight of saturated and
unsaturated aldehydes. Thiobarbituric acid reactive substances are indirect measure
of malondialdehyde, formed in lipid peroxidation, whereas there are other aldehydes

Use of oxidized oil in poultry 31
contributing to the thiobarbituric acid reactive substances value not specic to li-
pid peroxidation (Kerr et al., 2015). The termination phase follows the propagation
phase and is supposed to yield the most harmful products of lipid peroxidation rela-
tive to DNA, protein or lipid damage.
Lipid peroxidation, in high PUFA oils, during storage and processing may lead to
deterioration of unsaturated fatty acids resulting in a reduced digestibility of energy
in broilers (Engberg et al., 1996; Wiseman, 1999). Oxidized fats also cause destruc-
tion of pigments, amino acids and fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) (Zdunczyk et
al., 2002). The oxidation of lipids is a serious issue for food industry and consumers
since it decreases the shelf life of meat and meat products resulting in increased ran-
cid odours and bad avours in it (Lima et al., 2013). The production of free radicals
during oxidation process can be a potential threat for consumer health as well (Ja-
kobsen, 1999). The consumption of such oxidative compounds can increase nutrients
damage, particularly those of unsaturated fatty acids and vitamin E, leading to an
increased oxidative stress that is linked with muscle dystrophy, exudative diathesis,
encephalomalacia, tissue necrosis of different organs and lower rates of fertility and
hatchability (Cabel et al., 1988).
Global frying of food in heated oil/fat is a popular method of food preparation
to develop desirable avour, aroma, golden brown and crispy texture. The repeated
heating, however, of oils and fats at deep frying temperature (150 to 190°C), particu-
larly for extended period, predisposes the unsaturated fatty acids to thermal oxidation
and polymerization leading to a partial transformation of unsaturated fatty acids into
saturated and trans-fatty acid. As a result of oxidation, free radicals, peroxides and
secondary oxidation products including ketones and aldehydes are formed (Frankel,
1991). Oils retrieved from frying industry can be a convenient energy source for ani-
mal feed (Tres et al., 2013). Provision of feed, containing oxidized oil, to broilers and
turkeys resulted in a decreased growth performance and feed efciency (Engberg et
al., 1996; Jankowski et al., 2000) possibly due to a decreased feed intake because of
off avour, reduced palatability and digestibility of the feed. Oxidized fat in diets has
a signicant effect on the production of lipid rancidity in meat products that leads to
an increased drip loss and a decrease in its shelf life (Jensen et al., 1997; Delles et
al., 2015).
The contribution of oxidized fats to overall energy consumption has been dis-
tinctly expanded in developed countries mainly because of increased fast food con-
sumption comprised of heated and processed dietary fats, including frying oil. The
current review highlights the response of modern poultry to supplementation of oxi-
dized oil on growth performance, nutrients digestibility, gut health, carcass charac-
teristics, meat quality, blood chemistry and tissue oxidative status.
Inuence of dietary oxidized oil in poultry
Effects on growth performance
Growth performance is measured in terms of feed intake (FI), body weight gain
(BWG) and feed conversion ratio (FCR) and, in general, reects the nutritional
quality of the diet. Development of rancid odour and off avour due to secondary
oxidation products including aldehydes can inuence palatability and feed intake in

S.N. Qaisrani et al.
32
poultry (Dibner et al., 1996). These oxidation products reduced fat retention to 1.4%
and energy value of the diet by 1%, resulting in a lower BWG in broilers (Engberg
et al., 1996). Tavarez et al. (2011) performed a study to examine the inuence of oil
quality (PV: 180 meq kg–1 of oil) and antioxidant inclusion (blend of ethoxyquin and
propyl gallate at two levels; 0 or 135 mg/kg) in broilers and observed that antioxidant
supplemented diets increased FI by 2.4% and BWG by 4%, whereas FCR remained
unaffected compared to the birds in control group (PV: 1 meq kg–1).
Zhang et al. (2011) executed a trial to examine the effects of oxidized oil with
and without supplementation of antioxidant on growth performance in broilers dur-
ing 4 to 6 weeks of age and found no signicant effects in broilers fed control diet
(5% fresh vegetable or animal fat), diet with oxidized fats (5% fresh vegetable or
animal fat, PV: 100 meq kg–1) and diet containing oxidized fat supplemented with
antioxidants (5% fresh vegetable or animal fat, 200 ppm BHA, 500 IU vitamin E).
Tan et al. (2018 a), similarly, offered diets containing 4% fresh (PV: 20 meq kg–1),
mildly oxidized (PV: 140 meq kg–1), moderately oxidized (PV: 183 meq kg–1) and
highly oxidized (PV: 277 meq kg–1) sh oil to broilers during 1 to 21 days to evaluate
their effects on growth performance. In contrast to the previous study, these authors
reported that broilers fed oxidized sh oil reduced body weight by 7.25%, increased
FI by 2.10% and FCR by 10.4% compared to those fed fresh sh oil based diets.
Bayraktar et al. (2011) did not nd any signicant difference in FI and BWG in heat
stressed male broilers fed diets containing oxidized oil (PV: 100 meq kg–1), oxidized
diet with α-tocopherol acetate (vitamin E, 75 mg kg–1) and control group with fresh
sunower oil and α-tocopherol acetate (75 mg kg–1) during 4 to 6 weeks of the age.
Studies in rats reported that FI and BWG were not affected by oxidized oil (PV: 150
meq kg–1) containing vitamin E (250 mg kg–1) in comparison with those fed control
diet containing fresh fat (PV: 1.6 meq kg–1) with vitamin E (250 mg kg–1) (Eder et al.,
2002; Keller et al., 2004). Acikgoz et al. (2011) compared the inuence of feeding
dietary oxidized oil (PV: 148 meq kg–1) with or without vitamin E supplementation
with fresh oil (PV: 1 meq kg–1) based diets and observed no signicant difference in
growth performance of broilers. Zdunczyk et al. (2000), similarly, used mildly (PV:
5 meq kg–1) oxidized oil in the diets of rats and reported that feed palatability, protein
and fat digestibility remained unaffected, consequently FCR and body weight gain.
Some studies, in contrast, reported that oxidized oil in turkeys and rats impaired their
health and growth (Jankowski et al., 2000; Zdunczyk et al., 2002; Eder et al., 2003).
Detrimental effects of oxidized oil in these studies were possibly due to the use of
oils with high PV (100–150 meq kg–1) or higher secondary oxidation products of li-
pids. Tan et al. (2018 b) offered broilers diets containing 4% fresh (PV: 3.7 meq kg–1),
low oxidized (PV: 25 meq kg–1), moderately oxidized (PV: 56 meq kg-1) or highly
oxidized (PV: 73 meq kg-1) soybean oil from 0 to 21 days of age to evaluate the
growth performance. The broilers fed highly oxidized oil based diets resulted in an
increased FI by 7.3% and BWG by 3.6% compared to those fed fresh oil based diets.
Da Rocha et al. (2012) executed a trial to examine the effects of different levels
of oxidized fat (PV: 0, 110, 250 meq kg–1) and supplementation of vitamin E (65 or
800 mg kg–1 of diets) on growth performance of turkeys and found no difference in
FCR by the oxidation levels. Engberg et al. (1996) reported that broilers fed diets

Use of oxidized oil in poultry 33
containing 11% fresh (PV: 1 meq kg–1) vegetable oil and oxidized oil (PV: 156 meq
kg–1) did not show any signicant effect on FI and FCR. Jankowski et al. (2000)
studied the effects of 2% dietary fat with different PV (<5, 50, 100 and 150 meq kg–1)
on growth performance in turkeys and reported that BWG remained unaffected at 4
and 8 weeks of age irrespective of the dietary treatments. Turkeys fed diets contain-
ing higher level of fat peroxides (PV: 150 meq kg–1) showed 10% less FI and 11.4%
lower BWG compared with the birds that fed diets with a lower fat PV (<5 meq kg–1)
at 12 and 16 weeks of age. Zdunczyk et al. (2002) performed a study to examine the
growth performance of turkeys by supplementing fat with varied degrees of oxida-
tion (PV: <5, 50, 100, 150 meq kg–1) and concluded that oxidized fat led to a 1.64%
decrease in BWG of turkeys because of decreased (8.5%) feed intake. Lin et al.
(1989) investigated the effects of fresh (PV: 1 meq kg-1) and oxidized (PV: 400 meq
kg–1) sunower oil based diets on growth performance of broilers and reported 4.2%
lower BWG in broilers fed oxidized oil based diets compared with control (fresh
oil). The decrease in growth rate by using oxidized sunower oil may be due to low
nutritional value and toxic effects of lipid oxidation products. Anjum et al. (2004)
performed a study to examine the inuence of feeding fresh (PV: 3 meq kg-1) vs. oxi-
dized (PV: 50 meq kg–1) soybean oil on growth performance of broilers during 0 to
42 days of age and observed a 1.8% decrease in FI and a 4.5% decrease in BWG in
broilers consuming oxidized oil based diets than those fed fresh oil based diets. The
inuence of oxidized oil on growth performance in broilers is presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Effects of oxidized oil on growth performance1 in poultry
Inclusion
level
(%)
Oxidation level
(meq kg–1)
Optimum*
(meq kg–1)Days
Growth performance (%)2
References
FI BWG FCR
4 20c, 140, 183, 277 277 0–21 +2.09 –7.25 †+10.44 Tan et al. (2018a)3
4 3c, 25, 56, 73 73 0–21 +7.34 +3.62 +3.05 Tan et al. (2018b)3
2 7.5c, 50.5, 157, 448.5 448.5 0–21 +1.91 –2.19 +4.81 Liang et al. (2015)3
3.5 0c, 110, 250 250 0–22 +3.07 +3.27 –0.13 Da Rocha et al. (2012)4
6 1c, 148 148 21–42 +0.63 –0.12 +1.70 Acikgoz et al. (2011)3
6 1c, 100 100 28–42 +1.04 +0.19 –1.80 Bayraktar et al. (2011)3
4 1c, 180 180 0–39 –1.64 –6.05 +4.42 Tavarez et al. (2011)3
5 1c, 100 100 28–42 +1.34 –0.72 +2.31 Zhang et al. (2011)3
2 3c, 50 50 0–42 –1.75 –4.47 +2.99 Anjum et al. (2004)3
2 5c, 50, 100, 150 150 0–28 –8.58 –1.64 +2.10 Zdunczyk et al. (2002)4
11 1c, 156 156 0–28 –7.20 –7.80 +0.68 Engberg et al. (1996)3
5.5 1c, 400 400 28–49 –1.81 –4.21 +2.94 Lin et al. (1989)3
cControl.
*Highest oxidation level.
1FI= Feed intake; BWG= Body weight gain; FCR= Feed conversion ratio.
2±These values indicate the difference between control and optimum level in % age.
†+FCR= Poor feed conversion ratio.
‡-FCR= Improved feed conversion ratio.
3Studied in broiler.
4Studied in turkey.

S.N. Qaisrani et al.
34
This literature review suggests that supplementation of oxidized oil (PV: 25 to
448.5 meq kg–1) with the inclusion of 2 to 11% in poultry (broilers and turkeys) diets
for a period of 0 to 49 days, resulted in 1 to 8% decrease in FI, 0.5 to 8% reduction
in BWG and 2 to 10% poorer FCR.
Effects on nutrients digestibility
Acikgoz et al. (2011) investigated the nutrients digestibility in broilers by sup-
plementing the oxidized (PV: 148 meq kg–1) oil with or without vitamin E and did not
observe any signicant effect on digestibility coefcients of crude protein and fat in
male broilers during the grower phase (22–42 days). The apparent crude-fat digest-
ibility was, however, decreased from 95% (fresh sh oil) to 91% (PV: 200 meq kg–1)
and 74% (PV: 400 meq kg–1) in mink (Borsting et al., 1994). Engberg et al. (1996)
executed a study to examine the digestibility response of broilers fed oxidized oil
based diets (PV: 156 meq kg–1) and reported no signicant difference in the retention
of DM and nitrogen, whereas about 1.6% reduction in energy and fat retention was
observed compared with the birds fed fresh oil based diets.
Effects on gut health
Gastrointestinal tract is an organ system that mediates uptake of nutrients.
Healthy gut is, therefore, the foundation for optimum performance of the birds. Gut
health includes effective digestion and absorption of nutrients and operative immune
response. Intestinal villi is a basic site for the nutrients absorption and its surface
area mainly controls absorption efciency of nutrients. High digestive and absorp-
tive functions of the intestine is directly related to increased villus height and surface
area of intestine (Amat et al., 1996). Da Rocha et al. (2012) conducted a study on
turkeys to evaluate gut health in response to feeding of oxidized soybean oil (PV: 250
meq kg–1). The study showed that birds fed diets containing oxidized soybean oil had
14% decrease in villus height, which the authors related to the effects of primary and
secondary oxidation products on intestinal epithelium. Some of the oxidation prod-
ucts including aldehydes, acids, ketones and esters were assumed to have deleterious
effects that led to destruction of the brush border membrane (Kimura et al., 1984).
According to Yamauchi and Isshiki (1991) when an agent that disturbs the balance
in cell loss and regeneration comes in contact with the intestine a decrease in villus
height is observed as a response of intestine to that particular agent. Dibner et al.
(1996) conducted a trial on broilers by providing diets with oxidized poultry fat (PV:
212.5 meq kg–1) and lard (pig fat) (PV: 3.2 meq kg–1) without supplementing any an-
tioxidant to evaluate the gut health of birds and observed an increased cell turnover
in the intestine. According to Dibner and Richards (2004), an increased degree of
functional cells proliferation of gastrointestinal tract and its decreased lifetime was
found in birds fed oxidized oil based diets. Reduction in villus height decreased the
surface area available for nutrients absorption, digestive enzyme secretions and ulti-
mately led to a poor performance of the broilers (Dibner et al., 1996).
Tan et al. (2018 b) performed an experiment to examine the effects of oxidized
soybean oil with different degrees of oxidation (PV: 3.7, 25, 56 and 73 meq kg–1) on
intestinal barrier functions in broilers and reported that different dietary oxidized oil
levels did not cause any signicant effect on intestinal morphology of the jejunum
and ileum. A better absorption of unsaturated fats than saturated fats in intestine led

Use of oxidized oil in poultry 35
to an improved growth performance during starter phase of broilers. During the rst
week of age low utilization of fat was due to limited bile secretion and reduced activ-
ity of lipase (Mossab et al., 2000). The broilers fed oxidized oil based diets showed
more proliferation in the gut and liver cells that enhanced the tissues maintenance
requirements, ultimately leading to a poorer FCR (Dibner et al., 1996).
The above mentioned studies reported a small decrease in villus height of jeju-
num in birds (broilers and turkeys) fed diets containing oxidized oil. The decrease
in height of villus was, however, non-signicant compared to the birds fed fresh oil
based diets.
Effects on carcass characteristics and meat quality
Effects of oxidized oil on concentrations of fat soluble vitamins in the liver and
skeletal muscles are shown in Table 2, whereas effects of oxidized oil on carcass
characteristics and meat quality of poultry are summarized in Table 3. Heating of oil
may lead to decreased capability of the broilers to metabolize and utilize energy as
a result of increased primary, secondary and tertiary oxidation products that may en-
hance the oxidative stress in the birds (Ehr et al., 2015). Lin et al. (1989) concluded
that the oxidative products destroy the fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K) and
reported 25% decreased concentration of α-tocopherol in white and dark muscles of
broilers fed diets supplemented with 5.5% thermally oxidized (PV: 400 meq kg–1)
sunower oil compared with birds fed fresh (PV: 1 meq kg–1) oil based diets. This re-
duced concentration of α-tocopherol may be due to the damage of some α-tocopherol
contents in the diets by the dietary oxidized oil before offered to the broilers. A part
of the α-tocopherol present in tissue may protect the tissue lipids from oxidation.
Engberg et al. (1996) examined the effects of oxidized oil (PV: 156 meq kg–1) based
diets on tocopherol (vitamin E) levels and observed reduced concentrations of α and
γ-tocopherol in all tissues of broilers. Zdunczyk et al. (2002) documented that inclu-
sion of oxidized fat (PV: 150 meq kg–1) in turkey’s diets caused 48.9% reduction in
tocopherol concentration in hepatic cells. Jensen et al. (1997) performed an experi-
ment to evaluate the effects of oxidized oil (PV: 156 meq kg–1) on meat quality and
observed 41.7% reduction of α-tocopherol level in breast muscles and 47.6% reduc-
tion in thigh muscles. The study also reported that the concentration of α-tocopherol
in muscles was 50% lower on a weight-to-weight basis in breast muscles compared
to thigh muscles, regardless of the feeding regime.
Engberg et al. (1996) executed a study to nd the effects of oxidized oil (PV:
156 meq kg–1) on the retinol (vitamin A) concentrations in broilers and indicated
that birds fed oxidized oil based diets reduced retinol level by 13.7% in the liver
and 21.8% in the abdominal fat compared with those fed fresh vegetable oil (PV:
1 meq kg–1) based diets. The observed difference of retinol in the tissues may poten-
tially be due to its decreased availability in the intestine because of its destruction
by oxidation products (aldehydes, acids, ketones and esters). Zdunczyk et al. (2002)
performed an experiment to examine the inuence of different oxidation levels (PV:
<5, 50, 100, 150 meq kg–1) of oil on retinol concentration in turkeys and found 22.5%
lower retinol level in the liver. Lu et al. (2014) reported that birds fed with 3% oxi-
dized oil (PV: 180 meq kg–1) supplemented with vitamin E (10 IU kg–1) in the diets
caused a 17.4% decrease in the retinol concentration of breast muscles compared to

S.N. Qaisrani et al.
36
control group (3% non-oxidized oil + vitamin E at 10 IU kg–1) with 1.3% increased
drip loss.
Table 2. Concentrations of fat soluble vitamins in the liver and skeletal muscles of poultry fed diets
containing oxidized oil
Inclusion
level (%)
Oxidation
level
(meq kg–1)
Optimum*
(meq kg–1)
Retinol concentration
(%)1
Tocopherol
concentration (%)1
References
liver breast
muscle
thigh
muscle liver breast
muscle
thigh
muscle
3 1c, 180 180 ND2–17.48 ND ND –7.01 ND Lu et al.
(2014)3
4 1c, 180 180 –60.00 ND ND –50.00 ND ND Tavarez et al.
(2011)3
2 5c, 50, 100, 150 150 –22.52 ND ND –48.98 ND ND Zdunczyk et
al. (2002)4
2 5c, 50, 100, 150 150 –22.52 ND ND –48.98 ND ND Jankowski et
al. (2000)4
11 1c, 156 156 ND ND ND ND –41.69†–47.61†Jensen et al.
(1997)3
11 1c, 156 156 –13.77 ND –33.3 –48.41†–30.51†–64.94‡Engberg et al.
(1996)3
8 1c, 55 55 ND ND ND ND –80.8†–88.57†Sheehy et al.
(1993)3
cControl.
*Maximum oxidation level used.
1±These values indicate the difference between control and optimum level in % age.
2Not determined.
†α-tocopherol.
‡γ-tocopherol.
3Studied in broiler.
4Studied in turkey.
Carcass quality is measured by carcass weight, dressing percentage, breast yield,
leg quarter yield and abdominal fat contents. Anjum et al. (2004) evaluated the re-
sponse of carcass characteristics in broilers by feeding of oxidized (PV: 50 meq kg–1)
and fresh (PV: 3 meq kg–1) soybean oil. The study reported no signicant difference
in dressing percentage and weights of internal organs (heart, gizzard and bursa) by
supplementation of oxidized soybean oil, whereas liver weight was increased by 8%
compared with the broilers fed fresh soybean oil based diets. Jankowski et al. (2000)
evaluated the inuence of varied degrees (PV: <5, 50, 100, 150 meq kg–1) of oxidized
oils on dressing percentage in turkeys and reported no signicant difference in the
carcass yield, breast and leg quarter yield. Lin et al. (1989), in contrast, reported that
diets containing oxidized oil (PV: 400 meq kg–1) reduced the carcass weight of male
broilers by 7.3% compared with birds fed fresh oil. Tavarez et al. (2011) conducted
a study and, likewise, observed 5.1% lower carcass weight with no effect on breast

Use of oxidized oil in poultry 37
yield in broilers fed oxidized oil (PV: 180 meq kg–1) compared to those fed fresh oil
(PV: 1 meq kg–1). In the mentioned study, however, dressing percentage remained
unaffected in birds fed oxidized oil. Lu et al. (2014) performed a trial in broilers to
compare the effects of feeding 3% oxidized oil (PV: 180 meq kg–1) and vitamin E
(10 IU kg–1) supplementation. The study found no signicant difference in carcass
yields compared with the broilers fed with control diet (3% non-oxidized oil + vita-
min E at 10 IU kg–1). Supplementation of high PV fats in broiler diets did not inu-
ence percent yield of breast, fat pad, leg, thigh and wing (McGill et al., 2011). Inclu-
sion of oxidized fat (PV: 150 meq kg–1) in turkey’s diets did not inuence carcass
yield, breast and leg quarter yield and abdominal fat (Zdunczyk et al., 2002). Dietary
oxidized poultry offal fat in broilers resulted in 0.18% and 0.22% increase in carcass
weight and dressing percentage, whereas 1.16% and 1.46% decrease in breast and
leg quarter yield compared with the group fed fresh poultry offal fat (Racanicci et
al., 2008).
Meat quality is commonly described as a measurement of traits or characteristics
that dene the appropriateness of meat to be eaten as fresh or stored for reasonable
time without any deterioration. Meat colour is a main quality attribute that is affected
by age, sex, meat pH, muscle pigmentations, pre-slaughtering and processing condi-
tions (Sabow et al., 2016) and may also inuence customers’ acceptability of meat
(Adeyemi et al., 2016). Feeding oxidized oil (PV: 100 meq kg–1) did not affect the
colour of breast meat in broilers (Bayraktar et al., 2011). Lu et al. (2014) performed
a trial to evaluate the meat colour by supplementing oxidized oil (PV: 180 meq kg–1)
in broiler diets and documented that redness in the breast muscles was not affected.
Tavarez et al. (2011) executed a study to examine the inuence of oxidized oil (PV:
180 meq kg–1) on meat quality and reported that broilers fed diets containing oxi-
dized oil showed 25.4% increase in yellowness compared with the birds fed fresh
oil based diets. Zhang et al. (2011) investigated the inuence of control (with 5%
fresh animal or vegetable fat), oxidized (with 5% oxidized fat at PV: 100 meq kg–1)
and antioxidants supplemented (with 5% fresh fat, 500 IU vitamin E, and 200 ppm
butylated hydroxyanisole) diets in broilers and found no signicant effect on the
colour lightness, yellowness or brownness of the breast muscles. Among these three
treatments, the pH values at 0, 2.5, and 5 hours post-slaughter were also not signi-
cantly affected, but rate of pH decline of breast muscles was 50% faster for broilers
fed oxidized oil based diet between 0 and 1 hour post-slaughter than the control and
antioxidant groups. The increased drip loss and decreased water holding capacity in
the birds fed oxidized oil based diets was due to quicker drop of pH at early post-
mortem (0–1 hour) in the breast muscles. Birds fed with oxidized oil (PV: 156 meq
kg–1) showed no pathological changes in the carcass and organs, i.e. muscular dystro-
phy during slaughter (Engberg et al., 1996). Zhang et al. (2011) documented 62.8%
higher drip loss in the breast muscle of broilers fed oxidized (PV: 100 meq kg–1) oil
based diets compared with the control group (PV: 1 meq kg–1) after 1 day of storage
at 4ºC. Cellular and subcellular membranes consist of a high amount of PUFAs and
are susceptible to oxidation. The oxidation process leads to the production of free
radicals that disrupt the membrane integrity resulting in more water leakage from the
cells ultimately causing a greater drip loss (Mahan, 2001).

S.N. Qaisrani et al.
38
Table 3. Effects of oxidized oil on carcass characteristics and meat quality in poultry
Inclusion
level (%)
Oxidation level
(meq kg–1)
Optimum*
(meq kg–1)
Carcass characteristics (%)1, † Meat quality (%)1, ‡
References
CW D BY LQY pH Colour DL
L* a* b*
3 1c, 180 180 ND2ND ND ND ND ND ND ND +1.33 Lu et al. (2014)3
3 1c, 100 100 ND ND ND ND +0.17 +9.50 +25.2 –3.45 ND Bayraktar et al. (2011)3
3, 6 0c, 75, 150 150 ND –0.64 +1.75 –0.16 ND ND ND ND ND McGill et al. (2011)3
4 1c, 180 180 –5.09 –1.18 –0.01 ND +0.00 –0.54 +2.39 –25.4 –8.57 Tavarez et al. (2011)3
5 1c, 100 100 ND ND ND ND +0.74 –0.94 +3.22 –3.17 +62.8 Zhang et al. (2011)3
4 2.83, 38.7 38.7 +0.18 +0.22 –1.16 –1.46 ND ND ND ND ND Racanicci et al. (2008)3
2 3c, 50 50 ND –0.99 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Anjum et al. (2004)3
2 5c, 50, 100, 150 100 ND +0.12 –2.02 –1.56 +3.22 ND ND ND ND Zdunczyk et al. (2002)4
2 5c, 50, 100, 150 150 ND +0.12 –2.02 –1.56 +3.22 ND ND ND ND Jankowski et al. (2000)4
5.5 1c, 400 400 –7.32 –3.28 ND ND ND ND ND ND ND Lin et al. (1989)3
cControl.
*Maximum oxidation level used.
†CW= Carcass weight; D= Dressing; BY= Breast yield; LQY= Leg quarter yield.
‡L*= Lightness; a*= Redness; b*= Yellowness; DL= Drip loss.
1±These values indicate the difference between control and optimum level in % age.
2Not determined.
3Studied in broiler.
4Studied in turkey.

Use of oxidized oil in poultry 39
Effects on blood chemistry and tissue oxidative status
The inuence of dietary oxidized oil on biochemical indices in the blood of poul-
try is presented in Table 4. Blood chemistry is a biochemical prole that is a reliable
indicator of health and provides valuable information for evaluation of health status
(Abdi-Hachesoo et al., 2011). Jankowski et al. (2000) evaluated the inuence of fat
(combination of rapeseed oil and poultry fat) with varied degrees of oxidation (PV: <5,
50, 100 and 150 meq kg-1) on tocopherol as well as retinol concentrations in turkeys
and reported that oxidized fat (PV: 150 meq kg-1) caused 29.7% reduction in tocopherol
and 2.8% reduction in retinol concentration in serum compared to control group (PV:
˂5 meq kg–1). Engberg et al. (1996) studied the effects of oxidized vegetable oils (PV:
156 meq kg-1) with 11% inclusion level (9% rapeseed and 2% soybean oils) on tocoph-
erol and retinol concentrations in broilers. The study reported a 6% lower concentra-
tion of α-tocopherol in blood plasma of the birds compared with the fresh oil (PV:
1 meq kg–1), whereas the levels of γ-tocopherol and retinol in blood plasma were not
affected. Tavarez et al. (2011) conducted an experiment to evaluate tocopherol level
in serum of broilers fed oxidized oil (PV: 180 meq kg–1) based diets and found 58.5%
lower tocopherol concentration compared to control group (PV: 1 meq kg–1).
Table 4. Biochemical indices in the blood of poultry fed oxidized oil
Inclusion
level
(%)
Oxidation
level
(meq kg–1)
Optimum*
(meq kg-1)
Biochemical indices (%)1
References
Vitamin
A
Vitamin
ETG†MDA‡Cholesterol
2 7.5c, 50.5,
157, 448.5
448.5 ND2ND ND +38.93pND Liang et al. (2015)3
3 1c, 100 100 ND ND –49.23p+53.84p–8.46pBayraktar et al.
(2011)3
4 1c, 180 180 ND –58.47sND ND ND Tavarez et al. (2011)3
4 3.8c, 21.2,
56, 88
88 ND ND –7.80sND –4.13sYue et al. (2011)5
6 1c, 148 148 ND ND +5.26p+79.3p+5.31pAcikgoz et al. (2011)3
2 5c, 50, 100,
150
150 –2.83s–29.76sND ND ND Zdunczyk et al.
(2002)4
2 5c, 50, 100,
150
150 –2.83s–29.71sND ND ND Jankowski et al.
(2000)4
11 1c, 156 156 –0.97p–38.64pND ND ND Engberg et al. (1996)3
8 1c, 55 55 ND –88.88pND ND ND Sheehy et al. (1993)3
cControl.
*Maximum oxidation level used.
1±These values indicate the difference between control and optimum level in % age.
2Not determined.
†Triglyceride.
‡Malondialdehyde.
3Studied in broiler.
4Studied in turkey.
5Studied in layer.
pPlasma.
sSerum.

S.N. Qaisrani et al.
40
Bayraktar et al. (2011) studied the inuence of oxidized oil (PV: 100 meq kg–1)
on triglyceride and cholesterol level in the blood plasma of broilers and reported that
broilers fed oxidized oil (PV: 100 meq kg-1) had 49.2% lower triglycerides and 8.4%
lower cholesterol in blood plasma compared to control group (PV: 1 meq kg–1). This
decreased triglyceride concentration can be attributed to lower fatty acid de novo syn-
thesis (Eder and Kirchgessner, 1999). Acikgoz et al. (2011) determined the inuence
of feeding oxidized oil (PV: 148 meq kg–1) on triglyceride and cholesterol concentra-
tion in blood plasma and found that oxidized dietary oil caused 5.3% increase in the
concentration of triglycerides and 5.3% increase in cholesterol compared to control
group (PV: 1 meq kg–1). Birds fed diets supplemented with oxidized oil (PV: 148 meq
kg–1) and vitamin E (DL-α-tocopherol acetate 200 mg kg–1) had 6.8% lower plasma
triglycerides concentration and 5.9% lower cholesterol concentration. Yue et al. (2011)
performed an experiment to evaluate inuence of oxidized oil with different PV (3.8,
21.2, 56.0, and 88.0 meq kg–1) on serum lipid concentrations in laying hens. These
authors reported that oxidized oil (PV: 88 meq kg–1) caused 7.8% reduction in triglyc-
eride and 4.1% reduction in total cholesterol level compared with the group fed fresh
oil (PV: 3.8 meq kg–1). Juskiewicz et al. (2000) examined the inuence of oxidized oil
with varied degrees of oxidation (PV: 5, 40, 80, 120, 160, and 200 meq kg–1) in rats and
found no signicant effects on triglycerides and cholesterol concentration in the serum.
Malondialdehyde (MDA) is the main by-product of lipid oxidation and generally
used to indicate the oxidative damage or stress. Weak antioxidant defence system and
excessive production of free radicals causes oxidative stress that is a very harmful pro-
cess (Kelly, 2003). The excess of free radicals can produce several harmful effects in
the cells and tissues as well as the oxidation of lipids, proteins and DNA (Halliwell and
Whiteman, 2004). Protein and DNA damage are assessed by quantifying the protein
carbonyl concentration and 8-hydroxy 2-deoxyguanosine, respectively (Lindblom et
al., 2019). Bayraktar et al. (2011) examined the inuence of oxidized oil (PV: 100 meq
kg-1) on MDA level in broilers and reported that there was 53.8% higher MDA level
in plasma compared with control group (PV: 1 meq kg–1), which showed an increased
lipid peroxidation. Acikgoz et al. (2011) conducted a trial by offering 6% oxidized oil
(PV: 148 meq kg–1) based diets to broilers to evaluate the MDA level and documented
that oxidized oil caused 79.3% higher MDA in blood plasma compared to control group
(PV: 1 meq kg-1). Liang et al. (2015) executed a study to examine the inuence of oil
with various oxidation levels (PV: 7.5, 50.5, 157, 247.5, 352.5, 448.5 meq kg–1) on MDA
level of yellow male broilers fed corn-soy based diets and concluded that oxidized oil
(PV: 448.5 meq kg–1) increased MDA level by 38.9% in blood plasma compared to con-
trol group (PV: 7.5 meq kg–1). Amount of thiobarbituric acid (TBA) is used to evaluate
the quality of fat containing products. The products that have high TBA would not be
suitable for use because it has high peroxide or aldehyde contents. Anjum et al. (2004)
conducted a trial to evaluate the TBA in broiler meat and liver tissue by supplementing
oxidized soybean oil (PV: 50 meq kg–1) in the diets and concluded that oxidized oil did
not signicantly affect the TBA number in broiler meat, whereas 23.3% higher TBA
numbers in liver tissue were found compared to fresh oil based diets (PV: 3 meq kg–1).
In the study by Tavarez et al. (2011), plasma TBA values of broilers receiving oxidized
oil (PV: 180 meq kg–1) in diets were not signicantly affected compared to control group
receiving fresh (PV: ˂ 1 meq kg–1) soybean oil based diets.

Use of oxidized oil in poultry 41
Tasaki and Okumura (1964) reported that uric acid in birds is the key end-product
of nitrogen metabolism that plays a vital role as an antioxidant (Klandorf et al.,
2001). Acikgoz et al. (2011) evaluated plasma uric acid concentration by supple-
menting oxidized oil in broiler diets and observed that thermally oxidized sunower
oil (PV: 148 meq kg–1) treated group had 2.1% lower plasma uric acid concentration
compared to control group (PV: 1 meq kg–1). These ndings showed a milder oxida-
tive stress in broilers fed oxidized sunower oil based diets. Bayraktar et al. (2011)
found that oxidized oil (PV: 100 meq kg–1) increased uric acid concentrations in plas-
ma by 17.6% compared to control group (PV: 1 meq kg–1). Amount of uric acid was
well associated with the concentrations of triglycerides and glucose. Plasma uric acid
is needed as an antioxidant at a higher state of oxidation with increased concentra-
tions of plasma glucose and triglyceride (Koga et al., 2004). In oxidative stress, nitric
oxide activates the antioxidant enzymes (Dobashi et al., 1997) and plays a key part
in the limitation of stress reactions, because of its antioxidant characteristics (Kanner
et al., 1991). Acikgoz et al. (2011) concluded that oxidized oil supplementation (PV:
148 meq kg–1) did not inuence the concentration of nitric oxide.
Glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and total superoxide dismutase (T-SOD) are
biomarkers of metabolic oxidative status. Tan et al. (2018 a) performed a study to
estimate the inuence of sh oil with different oxidation levels (PV: 20.8, 140.4,
183.6, 277.4 meq kg–1) on GSH-Px concentration in broilers and stated that GSH-Px
concentration in the liver was not affected by oxidized oil based diets. Engberg et al.
(1996) documented that GSH-Px concentration in liver of broilers remained unaf-
fected by feeding diet containing oxidized vegetable oils (PV: 156 meq kg–1) at 11%
inclusion level (9% rapeseed and 2% soybean oil), and reported that oxidized oil
did not cause oxidative damage of liver. Bayraktar et al. (2011) examined the inu-
ence of oxidized oil (PV: 100 meq kg–1) on GSH-Px activity in blood plasma. This
study found 27.2% higher GSH-Px concentration in broilers fed oxidized oil-based
diets and documented that higher GSH-Px concentration can be an adaptive reaction
to the increased oxidative stress and hydrogen peroxide production. Acikgoz et al.
(2011) supplemented the male broilers diet with oxidized oil (PV: 148 meq kg–1) and
found that GSH-Px concentration in blood plasma remained unaffected. Tan et al.
(2018 a) conducted an experiment to evaluate T-SOD concentration in the liver of
broilers by supplementing oxidized oil with different oxidation levels of sh oil (PV:
20.8, 140.4, 183.6, 277.4 meq kg–1) and observed that dietary oxidized sh oil did
not inuence the T-SOD concentration in the liver of broilers at 14 or 21 day of age.
The study also found no signicant difference in T-SOD concentration of the jejunal
and ileal mucosa. Liang et al. (2015) conducted a trial to examine the inuence of
oil with different PV (7.5, 50.5, 157, 248, 353, 449 meq kg–1) on T-SOD activity of
yellow male broilers fed corn-soy based diets and reported that oxidized oil (PV:
449 meq kg–1) in broiler diets has no inuence on T-SOD activity in blood, jejunal
and ileal mucosa. Acikgoz et al. (2011) performed an experiment in broilers to ex-
amine T-SOD activity by supplementing oxidized oil (PV: 148 meq kg–1) in diet and
observed that oxidized oil caused 46.6% reduction of T-SOD activity in blood plas-
ma of male broilers. The reduction of T-SOD activity was because of its utilization
against reactive oxygen species developed in erythrocytes. The inuence of oxidized
oil on antioxidant indices in the different tissues of poultry is shown in Table 5.

S.N. Qaisrani et al.
42
Table 5. Antioxidant indices1 in the different tissues of poultry fed oxidized oil
Inclusion
level
(%)
Oxidation level
(meq kg–1)
Optimum*
(meq kg–1)
Antioxidant indices (%)2
ReferencesBlood Liver Jejunal mucosa
T-SOD GSH-Px Vit. E T-SOD GSH-Px Vit. E T-SOD
4 3c, 25, 56, 73 73 ND†ND ND –24.19 –4.11 ND –8.75 Tan et al. (2018b)3
2 7.5c, 50.5, 157, 448.5 448.5 +3.53pND ND ND ND ND +9.88 Liang et al. (2015)3
3 1c, 100 100 ND +27.20pND ND ND ND ND Bayraktar et al. (2011)3
4 1c, 180 180 ND ND –58.47sND ND –50 ND Tavarez et al. (2011)3
6 1c, 148 148 –46.57p+11.14pND ND ND ND ND Acikgoz et al. (2011)3
2 5c, 50, 100, 150 150 ND ND –29.76sND ND –48.98 ND Zdunczyk et al. (2002)4
2 5c, 50, 100, 150 150 ND ND –29.7sND ND –48.98 ND Jankowski et al. (2000)4
11 1c, 156 156 ND ND ND ND –13.05‡, p ND ND Engberg et al. (1996)3
8 1c, 55 55 ND ND –88.88pND ND ND ND Sheehy et al. (1993)3
cControl.
*Maximum oxidation level used.
1T-SOD= Total superoxide dismutase; GSH-Px= Glutathione peroxidase; Vit. E= Vitamin E.
2±These values indicate the difference between control and optimum level in % age.
†Not determined.
‡Selenium dependent glutathione peroxidase.
3Studied in broiler.
4Studied in turkey.
pPlasma.
sSerum.

Use of oxidized oil in poultry 43
Conclusions
Mildly oxidized (PV: up to 20 meq kg–1) oil has negligible detrimental effects on
growth performance, whereas moderately (PV: 20 to 50 meq kg–1) or highly oxidized
(PV: 50 to 100 meq kg–1 or above) oil can cause depression in growth performance of
broilers. This reduction in growth performance is caused by the oxidation products,
which produce rancid odours and avours resulting in a lower feed palatability and
its intake, ultimately the growth performance. Oxidized oil with greater peroxide
value (PV: 250 meq kg–1), additionally, reduces intestinal villus height that decreases
the surface area available for nutrients absorption, resulting in a poor performance
of the birds. The oxidation products lead to damage of fat soluble vitamins (A, D,
E and K) in blood resulting in an oxidative stress as indicated by greater MDA and
GSH-Px values. The use of oxidized oil in poultry diets has no signicant effect on
dressing percentage, pH and meat colour, whereas carcass weight decreases and drip
loss of meat increases. In conclusion, based on the results presented in the literature
reviewed herein, the use of mildly oxidized (PV: 20 meq kg–1) oil in poultry feed at
about 4 to 5% inclusion will decrease the feed cost and ultimately cost of poultry
production. It can, therefore, replace fresh oil as an efcient, cost effective and sus-
tainable energy source in poultry diets.
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Received: 12 XI 2019
Accepted: 27 III 2020