Comprehensive review of various corrosion behaviours on 316 stainless steel

Abstract

Corrosion is a destructive process that converts the pure metal into a chemically stable form by hydroxide or sulphide, and it is a slow process of destruction on the material by the chemical or electrochemical reaction in the environmental space. This kind of destruction has been typically produced from oxides or salt content on the material, and it results in distinctive orange colouration. The classifications of corrosion act on atmospheric air and liquids as well as on the contact of two solids. To resist the corrosion rate, stainless steel 316 has been chosen because of the presence of 2-3% molybdenum content, and the presence of molybdenum plays a vital role in corrosion resistance. In this study, literature related to various works has been reviewed to explain the corrosion behaviour on cavitation, crevice, electrochemical, erosion, fatigue, galvanic, uniform, pitting, and stress corrosion which act on 316 stainless steel. In the present work, several coating processes and the additives that have been added to SS 316 to enhance the outcomes according to various corrosion causes are discussed.

Full text

Metallurgical and Materials Engineering
Association of Metallurgical Engineers of Serbia AMES
Review paper
https://doi.org/10.30544/570
COMPREHENSIVE REVIEW OF VARIOUS CORROSION
BEHAVIOURS ON 316 STAINLESS STEEL
K. Baranidharan1, S. Thirumalai Kumaran2

, M. Uthayakumar2,
P. Parameswaran3
1 Department of Automobile Engineering, Kalasalingam Academy of Research and
Education, Krishnankoil–626126, Tamil Nadu, India.
2 Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Kalasalingam Academy of Research and
Education, Krishnankoil–626126, Tamil Nadu, India.
3 Metallurgy and Materials Group, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research,
Kalpakkam–603102, Tamil Nadu, India.
Received 07.10.2020
Accepted 11.12.2020
Abstract
Corrosion is a destructive process that converts the pure metal into a chemically
stable form by hydroxide or sulphide, and it is a slow process of destruction on the
material by the chemical or electrochemical reaction in the environmental space. This
kind of destruction has been typically produced from oxides or salt content on the
material, and it results in distinctive orange colouration. The classifications of corrosion
act on atmospheric air and liquids as well as on the contact of two solids. To resist the
corrosion rate, stainless steel 316 has been chosen because of the presence of 2-3%
molybdenum content, and the presence of molybdenum plays a vital role in corrosion
resistance. In this study, literature related to various works has been reviewed to explain
the corrosion behaviour on cavitation, crevice, electrochemical, erosion, fatigue,
galvanic, uniform, pitting, and stress corrosion which act on 316 stainless steel. In the
present work, several coating processes and the additives that have been added to SS 316
to enhance the outcomes according to various corrosion causes are discussed.
Corresponding author: S. Thirumalai Kumaran, thirumalaikumaran@yahoo.com

xxx Metall. Mater. Eng. Vol xx (x) 2021 p. xxx-xxx
Keywords: corrosion resistance; 316 stainless steel; material damage;
microstructure studies.
Introduction
Corrosion is a process that is linked with rust on the steel and the oxidation of other
metals. It is defined that “the deterioration of a metal with its changes in properties which
react with chemical conditions”. There are several classifications of corrosion that destroy
the material and they are cavitation, crevice, electrochemical, erosion, fatigue, galvanic,
uniform, pitting, and stress corrosion, which are discussed in this present literature survey.
Stainless steel 316 is a high corrosion resistance material that contains 2-3%
molybdenum, 10% nickel, 16% chromium. This work attempts to study the behaviour of
stainless steel 316 while reacting with every corrosion type and in some corrosion cases,
the coatings or additives have been added to enhance better corrosion resistance compared
to the pure form of stainless steel 316.
Corrosion studies on 316 SS
Cavitation Corrosion
The cavitation corrosion is formed when the operating pressure is dropped below
the vapour pressure of the fluid. During this scenario, the gas bubbles are formed, and
they get collapsed at an increased velocity on the surface of the material. It causes
initial cavitation and Table 1 represents the experimental works that are done on stainless
steel 316.
Table 1. Benchmarking on experimental works in cavitation corrosion.
Authors
Cavitation erosion test
Laser surface
Hardness
Arora et al. [1]
✓
✓
Lo et al. [2]
✓
✓
Yucheng Lei et al. [3]
✓
✓
Various ranges of impingement angles have been taken for implementing a non-
circulating type test rig to determine the cavitation behaviour of a zirconium-based bulk
metallic glass [1]. From a reasonable study, it is clear that hydro turbine steel has been
frequently used and computed on these test conditions. When bulk metallic glass (BMG)
is compared with hydro turbine steel based on short impingement angles, it closely results
in higher erosion resistance. On this basis, BMG has improved erosion behaviour, and it
results in high cavitation resistance compared to hydro turbine steel. In the absence of

S. Thirumalai Kumaran et al.- Comprehensive review of Various Corrosion Behaviours … xxx
grain boundaries and higher hardness, high erosion resistance has been found in the
amorphous structure. By adding tungsten carbide powder (WC) with stainless steel 316
and by using laser surface alloying (1 µm size of convenient source), high cavitation
erosion resistance has been obtained [2]. The process has been achieved by high power
tungsten carbide Nd-YAG laser for surface alloying and the following phases such as X-
ray spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), optical microscopy, and X-ray
diffractometry (XRD) have been investigated. Hence, the result indicates that the
improvement in cavitation erosion resistance reaches more than 30 times better results on
SS 316 by increasing the tungsten in the solid solution. In ultrasonic cavitation erosion of
SS 316L, by using liquid Pb-Bi eutectic alloy, the weld joint determines the cavitation
behaviour [3]. Long-period cavitation damage has figured out the mapping surface
properties and Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) has been applied on the
elements, especially on the micro-region surface of the weld joint as well as at 19.2 kHz,
an ultrasonic device is used on lead-bismuth eutectic (LBE), SEM and Atomic Force
Microscopy (AFM). The result has shown that the cracks have occurred on the eroded
surface after the cavitation period and work hardening bubbles impact on the development
stage by strengthening cavitation resistance. Hence, the performance of weld metal has
enhanced much better cavitation resistance on stainless steel 316L.
Crevice corrosion
When the material gets a gap or crack on its joining surfaces, this type of corrosion
takes place instantly adjacent to the surface. The damage of crevice corrosion takes place
on one side of the metal at the localized area within or close to other joining surfaces.
Table 2 illustrates the experimental works that are done on crevice corrosion.
Table 2. Benchmarking on experimental works in crevice corrosion.
Authors
Crevice
test
Pitting
test
Electrochemical
monitoring
Potentiodynami
c testing
Salvago et al. [4]
✓
Buhagiar et al. [5]
✓
✓
✓
Dawson & Ferreira [6]
✓
✓
Chen et al. [7]
✓
Aoyama et al. [8]
✓
✓
Back & Singh [9]
✓
✓
Jakobsen & Maahn [10]
✓
✓
Shojaei et al. [11]
✓
✓

xxx Metall. Mater. Eng. Vol xx (x) 2021 p. xxx-xxx
In crevice corrosion, the resistance of SS 316 occurs in 3.5% sodium chloride
solution and natural seawater. It is done after pre-treatment in nitric acid (HNO3) [4]. The
preheated faults do not cause any unenthusiastic effects to this corrosion and defects on
low unprotected surfaces of HNO3 pre-treatment. Hence, pre-treated samples of both
sodium chloride (NaCl) solution and seawater samples are taken and the stainless-steel is
exposed to sulphide at the concentration shield surface. It comes to the result that the
natural seawater reduces in the long run compared to NaCl solution.
The medical-grade austenitic stainless steel has low-temperature direct current and
active plasma carburising [5]. From the study, it is determined that compared to the
untreated material, the pitting and crevice corrosion resistance provides better surface
composition and direct plasma carburising treatment. By using electrochemical
impedance measurement, the propagation of corrosion has been examined [6]. At the
initial stage, the pitting corrosion of SS 316 has lower accelerated inhibition or metal
dissolution process. The higher frequency capacitance value indicates that active
electrochemical dissolution in lower frequency response indicates an accumulative roll,
as crevice corrosion is propagated. An instrument has been designed for corrosion in high-
temperature water [7]. The crevice corrosion behaviour of stainless steel 304 has been
investigated at high-temperature water. The mechanism of crevice structure on the
oxidation behaviour has been conversed as a result.
In the crevice corrosion of stainless steel 316L, the repassivation mechanism has
been analysed and persuaded by SO42-ions [8]. The crevice corrosion is detected and
active dissolution of type 316L is suppressed by pH 0.4 in anodic polarization
measurements. Hence, the result shows the reduction in pH and repassivation of
cavitation corrosion is enhanced. For pulp bleaching plants, the extensively used
equipment is stainless steel and duplex [9]. NiCr3127 and 654SMO with Pre numbers 51
and 55 are the most destructive chlorine dioxide bleach plant conditions and they are
examined. These are the two issues that cause the occurrence of crevice corrosion and
pitting.
A new experiment with a modified device, ‘Avesta Cell’ has been used to
investigate crevice corrosion of AISI 316 [10]. This investigation in the acidified
environment indicates the crevice corrosion at low-temperature outcomes from the
crevice. The result shows that at the higher temperature, metastable pitting is stabilized
by the crevice. In the initiation process of crevice corrosion, the IR drop on stainless steel
316L at 3.5% NaCl solution is studied [11]. The experiments such as potentiometric,
galvanostatic, and some microscopic studies are performed at 30, 60, 120, and 240 µm
crevice gaps. The result shows the initiation and propagation phases of this corrosion.
Electrochemical corrosion

S. Thirumalai Kumaran et al.- Comprehensive review of Various Corrosion Behaviours … xxx
The electrochemical corrosion of material appears when the electron present in the
atom at the metal surface is transferred to a suitable electron depolarizer. For transporting
the ions, the solution must be present, and it must act as a medium. Hence, most
depolarizations are atmospheric air, acids, and cation of fewer metals. In Table 3, the
experimental works that are conducted on electrochemical corrosion are presented.
The pure forms of SS 304 and SS 316 are exposed to atmospheric, seawater splash
zone and underground environments to evaluate the corrosion rate for 14 months by
adding TSP, chloride, and sulphate in all-weather conditions. Thus, the corrosion rates of
SS 304 and SS 316 are compared and represented in Figure 1 [12]. The corrosion rate of
SS 316 has experimented in ambient temperature with different solutions of acid
concentrations such as sulphuric acid (H2SO4), and phosphoric acid (H3PO4) [13]. This
process is performed through potentiostatic polarization methods for the investigation of
corrosion. The result shows that the addition of 2% NaCl of medium test concentration
enhances the active corrosion reactions by anode dissolution. As a result, the magnitude
of corrosion is considered as low. Overall corrosion performance in the environment is
good from the given solutions [14]. This study has identified the absence of chloride ions
and the presence of thiophene derivation of electrochemical behaviour on stainless steel
316. In the Tafel experiment, polarization resistance and electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy (EIS) have been performed to investigate the corrosion rate. The result
shows TCH>TCA>TCAL>AcT. When the result is compared in anode and cathode, the
efficiency of 97% has been achieved using inhibitors in 0.5 M H2SO4.
Table 3. Benchmarking on experimental works in electrochemical corrosion.
Authors
Pitting
test
Electrochemical
test
Potentiostatic and dynamic
polarization
Loto et al. [12]
✓
✓
Galal et al. [13]
✓
✓
Li et al. [14]
✓
✓
Li et al. [15]
✓
✓
Loto [16]
✓
✓
✓
La Barbera et al. [17]
✓
Pujar et al. [18]
✓
✓
Yi et al. [19]
✓
✓
✓

xxx Metall. Mater. Eng. Vol xx (x) 2021 p. xxx-xxx
Fig. 1. Comparison of corrosion rate of stainless steel 304 and 316.
The corrosion behaviour of stainless steel 316 has been investigated through
hydrochloric acid and acetic acid solutions at 25ºC by electrochemical techniques [15]. A
low concentration of NaF has no significant influence on SS 316, whereas a high
concentration of NaF reduces passive performance. Consequently, the result shows that
the oxide-containing F-ions at the surface of the SS 316 component are selectively
dissolved.
The corrosion behaviour of SS 316 is simulated in proton exchange membrane fuel
cell (PEMFC) with the dilute hydrochloric acid solution at anode environment for
bubbling with pure hydrogen at gas 80ºC and it has been examined in electrochemical
measurements [16]. Both the polarization curve and EIS of SS 316 cannot passivate in
the environment. Hence, EIS spectra reveal porous corrosion on the steel layer with active
distribution in test solutions. SS 316 provides a better corrosion rate at the coating
process. The electrochemical noise has generated pitting and the general corrosion of SS
316 in the acidic environment is observed at ambient temperature [17]. The result depicts
the average noise power by the spectral standard deviation of noise density and roll-off
slope parameters. The noise amplitude increases with decreasing frequency and it is
inversely proportional to the power of constant frequency “flicker” noise. From the SEM
micrograph, the existence of pitting and general corrosion is identified.
SS 316 with plain carbon steel has been tested by electron beam processing in
cladding and alloying [18]. The investigation of electrochemical behaviour is done at

S. Thirumalai Kumaran et al.- Comprehensive review of Various Corrosion Behaviours … xxx
different depths in the original surface, in dilute H2SO4. The microstructure studies are
X-ray microanalysis and electron microscopy. After the resulting layer, the alloying
dilution of chromium is used to enhance its hardness and it is similar to the corrosion
behaviour of alloy in lower chromium content. In this study, the microstructure of uniform
corrosion behaviour of SS 316 with changing concentrations of Cr and Mo as well as
ferrite content is discussed [19]. For extensive microstructural characterization, a weld
metal has been proposed in the oxidizing medium. In SS 316 of potentiodynamic
polarization, the behaviour has been examined in sodium chloride solution with a scan
rate of potential effect [20]. To enhance the stable pitting resistance of the material, the
electric charge density is combined with the critical condition. The experiments of
altering the corrosion of SS 304 and SS 316 in aqueous sulfate solution are studied [21].
When the result of the experiments is examined, the sinusoidal square and triangle
alternating voltage (AV) range have increased the critical current density of positivists.
The result shows that AV has increased the critical current of density and decreased in
passive potential by transpressive potential active direction as well as enhanced the
current density in the passive regime. From this experimental process and studies, it is
clear that both the SS 304 and SS 316 have exhibited the same behaviours in the presence
of AV. The corrosion current is a kinetic value and potential is a thermodynamic value.
It is dissolution current at the corrosion potential. Both corrosion current and corrosion
potential are important factors that connect fundamentally on electrochemistry and
corrosion behaviours of materials. The corrosion potential is a mixed potential (also an
open-circuit potential or rest potential) in which the anodic dissolution rate of the
electrode equals to rate of cathodic reactions (no net current flowing in or out of
electrode). The corrosion potentials (Ecorr) and current densities (icorr) are very important
factors for investigating corrosion behaviour.
In this experiment [22], Which was compared to the untreated sample with the
potential value of -0.095 V, treated samples have high corrosion potential values, the data
is recorded. From all the studies, all corrosion samples experienced elevated in Ecorr and
decrease in icorr, hence the corrosion resistance is improved.
Stainless steel 316 has been subjected to electrochemical corrosions with six
solutions concerning the corrosion rate. The crevice and pitting corrosion tests are also
conducted and the corrosion rates are represented in the graphs which are shown in
Figures 2 and 3, respectively. It is evident from the results that solution 4 has a low
corrosion rate in crevice corrosion and solution 1 has a low corrosion rate in pitting
corrosion [23].
Solution 1 = H2O2 ↔ HO2- + H+
Solution 2 = 2H2O ↔ H2O2 + 2H+ + 2e-
Solution 3 = 2H2O ↔ HO2-+ 3H+ + 2e-
Solution 4 = H2O2 ↔ O2 + 2H+ + 2e-
Solution 5 = HO2- ↔ O2 + H+ + 2e-

xxx Metall. Mater. Eng. Vol xx (x) 2021 p. xxx-xxx
Solution 6 = O2 + 4H+ + 2e- ↔ 2H2O
Fig. 2. Electrochemical studies on crevice corrosion.
Fig. 3. Electrochemical studies on crevice corrosion.
The experiment imposes a constant potential on the working electrode and
measures the resulting current. A potentiostatic experimental imposes a constant potential
on the working electrode for s specific period. The measured current is plotted versus
time. It is the constant applied voltage with variable current with time (plot I vs. time).
For potentiodynamic experiments, the applied potential is increased with time while the
current is constantly monitored. The current (or current density) is plotted versus the

S. Thirumalai Kumaran et al.- Comprehensive review of Various Corrosion Behaviours … xxx
potential. After the potential is scanned to a predetermined current density or potential,
the potential scan may be reversed while the current continues to be measured. It is the
constant applied voltage with variable potential and current (plot E vs I). A
potentiodynamic scan like this is referred to as reverse polarization or cyclic polarization.
Erosion corrosion
This corrosion is a destructive process of material through mechanical action by
impinging, abrasion, liquid particles at fast-flowing in gas, bubbles or dews, and
cavitation processes. Experiments have been performed on erosion-corrosion, and they
are shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Benchmarking on experimental work in erosion-corrosion.
Authors
Erosion
corrosion test
Surface
morphology
Electrochemical
measurement
Wear
Andrews et al. [24]
✓
✓
Li et al. [25]
✓
✓
Yanlin Zhao et al. [26]
✓
✓
✓
✓
Lee et al. [27]
✓
✓
Xiangfeng et al. [28]
✓
✓
Dong et al. [29]
✓
✓
Wood et al. [30]
✓
✓
The test has been performed using an impingement rig in a slurry 3.5% NaCl at
the angles of 20º, 45º, 60º, and 90º the exposed surface results are obtained [24]. The low
angle of impingement at 45º has ductility, and the most critical erosion-corrosion damage
occurs at 60º. The influence of Moon ultrasonic cavitation erosion of SS 316L in NaCl
3.5% solution has been investigated using an ultrasonic cavitation erosion facility [25].
The specimen has been observed after cavitation erosion by SEM. The result shows that
the addition of Mo is decreased and it implies increasing cavitation erosion.
The investigation has been performed to observe the tribo-corrosion wear of SS
316 AISI under two-phase flow and high-speed jet impingement [26]. This work has been
attempted to determine the wear by its weight loss, surface characterized, and
electrochemical measurement. Here, Silica and sea sand are the two types of sands used
to observe the effect of chloride ions. Hence, a short time on the passivation process has
been observed on acidic polarization but passivation disappears when the specimen is

xxx Metall. Mater. Eng. Vol xx (x) 2021 p. xxx-xxx
impinged for a long time. This study has investigated the effect of process in-bed metal
wastage due to erosion and erosion-corrosion in SS 316 rod [27]. The result as weight
loss has been concluded by the experiments with air at room temperature and high
fluidizing velocities. Wear happens mainly due to corrosion and it has been determined
by wear test at 500ºC. The studies have been performed with high temperature and
velocity conditions and they have excellently led to accelerating wear. As a result, the
wear rate is less than 3.0 nm/h in a radial direction.
Erosion-corrosion measurement has been achieved on low temperature nitrided
and non-nitrided SS 316L [28]. Hence, the degree of erosion-corrosion decreases on SS.
Low-temperature liquid nitriding, and the material is also decreased. Erosion-corrosion
resistance can be enhanced with carburising 50% and nitriding 70% at low-temperature
plasma alloying [29]. The presence of erosion-corrosion in the material has been
investigated through focused ion beam (FIB), transmission electron microscopy (TEM),
andsolid particle impact and corrosion of nano-scale are observed by electron microscopy
[30].
Fatigue corrosion
Fatigue corrosion is fatigue in the corrosion environment. The joins and all material
actions are mechanically degraded in cyclic loading. It is caused due to engineering loaded
conditions, structures, and alternating stress which are harmful to the environment. The
experimental works performed on fatigue corrosion are shown in Table 5.
Fatigue corrosion is performed on high and low sulphur of AISI 316 SS which is
simulated and pressurized with a water reactor for coolant [31]. Thus, the result shows
that the loading frequency decreases, and the crack growth rate of the low specimen is
increased. The effect of cold work on microstructure and corrosion fatigue to resist the
AISI 316 SS, which contains 0.11% nitrogen, has been analysed through microscopic
study [32]. Based on electrochemical measurements, the corrosion fatigue test and crack
propagation have been tested. Hence, the outcome is to increase cold work and critical
cracking potential and it decreases by increasing the stress.

S. Thirumalai Kumaran et al.- Comprehensive review of Various Corrosion Behaviours … xxx
Table 5. Benchmarking on experimental work in fatigue corrosion.
Authors
Corrosion
fatigue
test
Fractographic
analysis
Crack and
surface
morphology
Electrochemical
measurements
Mukahiwa et al. [31]
✓
✓
Poonguzhali et al. [32]
✓
✓
✓
Jun Gao et al. [33]
✓
✓
Yawei Peng et al. [34]
✓
✓
✓
Ho-Sub Kim et al. [35]
✓
✓
✓
Ziyu Zhang et al. [36]
✓
✓
Fereidooni et al. [37]
✓
✓
SS 316L with different grain sizes and fractions has been obtained by grain
boundary treatment [33]. Corrosion fatigue behaviour of SS 316LN has been investigated
in lithiated and borated high temperatures. Consequently, no obvious resistance to
transgranular cracking is found on low-∑ coincidence lattice boundaries. Regarding this
work, the corrosion fatigue cracking mechanism is discussed. In SS 316L, the influence
of low temperature has been investigated and the result shows that the SS 316L has 22%
higher endurance compared to untreated SS 316L [34]. In this experiment, the SS 316L
has undergone several tests and it is concluded that the fatigue crack propagation is
enhanced by carburized material at high-level stress with the ductility of 10µm.
Pressurized water reactor (PWR) is used in the environment with 30 ppb of Zn and peak
holding and the low-cycle fatigue (LCF) life of SS 316 are enhanced three times [35].
LCF life and fatigue crack surface are observed along with TEM analysis of crack
propagation and it has a good result. Corrosion fatigue (CF) on SS 316 behaviour in
elevated-temperature with pressurized water from 373 K to 598 K has been investigated
at a strain rate of 0.04%s-1. This mechanism involves temperature, the effect on CF crack
initiation, and the effect of CF life [36]. Corrosion solutions have an enormous effect on
fatigue life and ultrasonic peening has been used to improve the fatigue life in the
corrosion environment [37]. The fatigue corrosion life of 316 SS and 347 SS fillers is
used and taken as a sample.

xxx Metall. Mater. Eng. Vol xx (x) 2021 p. xxx-xxx
Galvanic corrosion
Galvanic corrosion is also known as Bimetallic corrosion, which is the
electrochemical process of partial interaction of metal rusts with the electrical substance
in the presence of an electrolyte. It occurs by the contact of two unrelated metals with
each other in corrosive medium or electrolyte. The galvanic corrosion experiments related
to surveys have been illustrated in Table 6.
Table 6. Benchmarking on experimental work in galvanic corrosion
Authors
Electrochemical
noise and
measurement
Electrochemical
impedance
spectroscopy
Galvanic
corrosion
test
Reza Moshrefi et al. [38]
✓
✓
El-Dahshan et al. [39]
✓
✓
✓
Matjaz Finsgar [40]
✓
✓
From anode and cathode ratios, the tendency of galvanic corrosion of polarization
measurement is done [38]. Electrochemical noise (EN) forwards more positive and
negative anode/cathode ratios. If the localization index value is 1.005, then all the
measurements in corrosion will indicate the material behaviours. Further,improved work
has been done among polarisation measurements, EN results, and EIS. The result shows
that in an aggressive environment, galvanic corrosion occurs between the SS 316L and
the titanium. This study has been performed to measure open circuit potential (OCP) of
single metal and the values of steady-state are formed [39]. The result obtained from this
work shows that the OCP acts in SS 316L oxide film formation in seawater and results in
pitting attack. Al brass is used as a medium for the disappearing stirred solution. Hence,
it is suggested that in seawater, the oxygen content reduces with proper manipulation of
CaCO3 film and Al brass can be greatly reduced to the extent of galvanic corrosion [40].
General or Uniform corrosion:
Uniform corrosion is formed by oxidizing the steel and the life of the component
is estimated comparatively by the simple immersion test result. General corrosion of the
material allows the environment to interact with the surface and as a result, the entire
metal is exposed to the corrosion-causing condition. Table 7 represents the experiments
conducted on general or uniform corrosion.

S. Thirumalai Kumaran et al.- Comprehensive review of Various Corrosion Behaviours … xxx
Table 7. Benchmarking on experimental work in general corrosion
Authors
Electrochemical
impedance
spectroscopy
Surface
morphology
General
corrosion
Polarization
experiments
Moucheng Li et al. [41]
✓
✓
✓
Marin et al. [42]
✓
✓
Hao Yun-wei et al. [43]
✓
✓
Xiaoxia Sheng et al. [44]
✓
✓
✓
In the proton exchange membrane fuel cell environment, the corrosion behaviour
of SS 316 has been investigated with the coating of titanium nitride (TiN) [41]. The result
shows that the TiN coating of SS 316 provides higher corrosion resistance and electric
conductivity. Stainless steel has been extensively used for high corrosion resistance with
excellent mechanical properties [42]. Thus SS 316, which possesses high molybdenum
content, has been taken for this experiment to enhance the corrosion resistance. In atomic
layer deposition, Al2O3/TiO2 layer coating has been used, and enhanced corrosion
resistance has been realized from the microstructure studies.
The stainless steel 316 has been used for corrosion treatment induced by surface
mechanical attrition treatment (SMAT) and it has been determined by XRD and SEM
[43]. The result shows that the average grain size of 19 nm of the nanocrystalline layer is
produced. From this treatment, the corrosion resistance is enhanced greatly by higher
annealing temperatures. The Desulfovibrio desulfuricans and local marine isolate are the
two kinds of sulphate-reduced bacteria that are used in this work [44]. From this process,
it is clear that by adding this biofilm, the corrosion rate is reduced and an enhanced result,
which plays a vital role in SRB cell on localized corrosion, has been obtained.
Pitting corrosion
Pitting corrosion is known as extremely localized corrosion in which cavities or
holes are produced in the material. When comparing the uniform corrosion damage, the
pitting corrosion is riskier because it is problematic to detect and predict. The pitting
corrosion rate is calculated from the following solution test. These solutions are
mentioned as same as in crevice solution samples. The literature survey related to pitting
corrosion is illustrated in Table 8.

xxx Metall. Mater. Eng. Vol xx (x) 2021 p. xxx-xxx
Table 8. Benchmarking on experimental works in pitting corrosion.
Authors
Pitting
corrosion
test
Electrochemical
measurement
Potentiostatic
and dynamic
polarization
Surface
morphology
Talebian et al. [45]
✓
✓
✓
✓
Prieto et. al. [46]
✓
✓
✓
Naghizadeh et. al. [47]
✓
✓
Zakeri et. al. [48]
✓
✓
Liya Guo et. al. [49]
✓
✓
To investigate the pitting corrosion inhibitors, the sodium (E)-4-(nitro benzylidene
amino)-benzoate (SNBB), sodium (E)-4-(benzylidene amino)-benzoate (SBB), and
sodium (E)-4-(hydroxy benzylidene amino)-benzoate (SHBB) is the new synthesis bases
for SS 304 in neutral 0.1 M NaCl solution [45]. In this process, the stainless steel 304
increases its pitting corrosion resistance at the localized layer in the passive layer. The
stainless-steel specimen is used for direct metal laser sintering (DMLS) and in which,
materials corroded with microstructural defects are taken as samples [46] and they are
tested. The corrosion resistance has been observed in the ferric chloride pitting test. In
stainless steel 316, the effect of dichromate ions on corrosion behaviour has been
investigated and the electrochemical measurements are computed using electron
microscopy with 0.1 M NaCl solution [47]. The result shows that the pitting corrosion
resistance gets enhanced in the occurrence of Cr2O72-and decreases in metastable pit
initiation.
The study has been performed to examine the critical pitting temperature (CPT) on
316 SS and the dichromate effectively improves the CPT through potentiostatic
measurement [48]. In natural exposed conditions, corrosion is influenced by the
atmosphere fluctuated with relative humidity [49]. In pitting corrosion, the effect of
relative humidity on SS with MgCl2 has been investigated in situ microstructure studies.
Many small pits are formed for nucleation between 33% RH and 85% RH or 33% RH
and 12% RH at constant growth of single pit exposure.
Stress Corrosion
Stress corrosion is the growth of crack formation in a corrosive environment. It
corrodes due to applied stress, which may be externally applied or residual, and it leads
to sudden failure and normal ductility to tensile stress at high temperature. Table 9
portrays the experiments done on stress corrosion as a literature survey. The passivation
film at the crack tip is broken due to plastic deformation. Metal (pure and normally) is

S. Thirumalai Kumaran et al.- Comprehensive review of Various Corrosion Behaviours … xxx
exposed and attacked by corrosion. The growth rate is combined with corrosion and
cracking. The crack begins to develop when stress concentration at the end of the crack
exceeds the threshold stress intensity factor for stress corrosion cracking (KISCC).
Table 9. Benchmarking on experimental work in stress corrosion
Authors
Stress
corrosion
test
Crack
measurement
Surface
morphology
Fractography
Ulu Pauh & Perlis [50]
✓
✓
Wenqian Zhang et al. [51]
✓
✓
Donghai Du et al. [52]
✓
✓
Xingfei Xie et al. [53]
✓
✓
✓
Alyousif & Nishimura [54]
✓
✓
✓
For stress corrosion cracking (SCC), initiated by stress concentration which defects
the material surface and the load method is used on 304, 310, and 316 SS to examine
along with the boiling saturated magnesium chloride solution [50]. The SCC occurs on
stainless steel 316 with the boiling magnesium chloride solution [51]. From SCC
initiation and propagation at different residual stresses, crack density is evaluated. From
this experiment, the micro-crack was developed by cracking direction, micro-crack
evolution process on the surface and the cracking types. The residual tensile stress in the
machining affected layer has a great influence on stress corrosion cracking (SCC) micro-
cracks (if critical stress is lesser than residual stress, micro-cracks will be initiated.) With
the critical stress of 190 Mpa on SS 316, the density has increased significantly to the
early phase. Hence through the surface layer, the cracking is reduced.
The effects of SS 316 and 316L are studied to obtain SCC crack growth rates [52].
In hydrogenated water, the elevated crack growth rate up to 10-8 is generated in cold
working. In 316 and 316L SS, the lowest crack growth is hydrogenated in pure water. For
accelerating the crack growth rates, chloride has a small effect. The SCC investigation
was carried out from the results. DO and chloride, which accelerate the SCC crack growth
rate is the change in pH and destruction of the crack tip by chloride. Homogeneity and
deformation level affect the morphology of the SCC fracture surface. At the higher-level
cold work 316 stainless steel, transgranular cracking occurs. SCC behaviours of solution-
treated and cold-drawn 316 SS are investigated through a pressurized water reactor and
the slow strain rate is observed on the tensile test [53]. During high Cr concentration
containing oxides at transgranular stress corrosion cracking (TGSCC), crack initiation,
oxygen dissolves and irregular water produce Fe-rich oxide which contains Cl. For SCC,

xxx Metall. Mater. Eng. Vol xx (x) 2021 p. xxx-xxx
cold-drawn 316 stainless steel investigates in a simulated PWR environment and the
micro-crack on 316 stainless steel in abnormal water Cl analysed by TEM. In stainless
steels 304, 310 and 316, the mechanism of stress corrosion cracking has been performed
and it has been examined in a saturated magnesium chloride solution at boiling conditions
using a constant load method [54]. In stainless steel, there is no inter-granular fracture,
whereas only trans-granular fracture has been obtained. As same in SS 304 and 316, at
high-temperatures of 416 K and 428 K, the transgranular is obtained but intergranular has
been obtained at a low temperature of 408 K. The intergranular cracking is attributed to
hydrogen embrittlement (HE) caused to the strain-induced formation of martensite with
grain boundaries with hydrogen entry, And the transgranular cracking is active on
corrosion nucleated at slip steps by dissolution.
Surface modification in 316 stainless steel
Corrosion based stainless steel 316 material is controlled by using protective
coatings or surface modification/treatments. In stainless steel 316, several types of
coating techniques are applied, such as magnetron sputtering, micro-arc oxidation, ion
nitriding, sol-gel process, electrodeposition, shot peening, surface mechanical attrition
treatment (SMAT), thermal spraying etc. From the laser surface melting, alloying and ion
implantation can yield corrosion-resistant surfaces. From the following of surface
modification, the various ways through which the corrosion behaviours of 316 Stainless
Steel can be upgraded.
Surface mechanical attrition treatment (SMAT)
The corrosion behaviour of nanostructured 316 stainless steel has been
experimented with through polarization test in 0.6 M NaCl aqueous solution at room
temperature [55,56]. From the nanostructured layers, the surface mechanical attrition
treatment (SMAT) and corrosion behaviour data of stainless steel 316 is obtained. From
the potentiodynamic polarization test and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS)
studies, low-temperature annealing and the combined SMAT effect are obtained. By the
comparison of the 316 stainless steel corrosion resistance, the SMAT technique is suitable
from other coating techniques in this study [57]. After this process, the treated surface is
polished for reducing the oxidation effect and surface roughness.
Magnetron Sputtering
The electrochemical corrosion resistance of MgZnCa coating with stainless steel
substrate is experimented with by magnetron sputtering deposition coating [58,59]. In this
paper, MgZnCa alloy thin film coating on stainless steel and study on electrochemical
was obtained. Using MgZnCa alloy, the surface of the materialhas been coated and
subjected to magnetron sputtering treatments. From the present studies, the magnetron
sputtering coating method achieves the thin film coating in which the uncoated materials
are controlled. The coating thickness and corrosion resistance of the material are

S. Thirumalai Kumaran et al.- Comprehensive review of Various Corrosion Behaviours … xxx
improved [60]. In polarization, the result shows that better corrosion resistance is obtained
when the MgZnCa coating is applied to the material.
Ion implantation
Ion implantation is a technique used for surface modification of changing the
surface chemistry of the material. From this technique, the adherent coating is
experimented and observed that delay in crack initiation and enhanced fatigue life [61].
Low energy ion implementation is used to enhance the corrosion resistance, wear-
resistance and fatigue life of stainless steel 316. The Dual implantation on boron and
nitrogen in stainless steel 316 is done and results shown that surface hardness and fatigue
lifetime is enhanced up to 250%.
Surface coating on 316SS
The surface modification techniques are results in thermochemical methods, ion
implementation, laser modification and chemical or structural modification are done on
base material only (stainless steel 316). These coating techniques are widely used to
protect the surface damage on stainless steel 316 by wear, corrosion etc life [61,62].
Thermal spray coatings, sol-gel coating, physical vapour deposition are such surface
coating for stainless steel 316 surface treatments.
Conclusions
A comprehensive work has been presented in this review paper to investigate
several classifications of corrosion studies. The following are the collective observations
that have been made:
• From cavitation corrosion, it is identified that the additives such as BMG and
WC are added to show some enhancement on corrosion resistance through
microstructural studies.
• From crevice corrosion, it is clear that some pre-treatment of bonded metal
contact can be done to avoid corrosion. Some samples are done by NaCl in the
effect of HNO3 and it enhances the result of crevice corrosion.
• From electrochemical corrosion, it is evident that the metal gets depolarization
at atmospheric air, acids, and cation of less metal and in which, stainless steel
316 has been used in all solutions from high concentration to low concentration
to obtain a better result in microstructure studies.
• From erosion-corrosion, it is found that the material has been investigated on the
impingement angle with NaCl solution to obtain better erosion-corrosion
resistance to prevent high damage to the material.

xxx Metall. Mater. Eng. Vol xx (x) 2021 p. xxx-xxx
• From fatigue corrosion, it is noted that in every join of the material, the sulphur
or some additive material or solution is added with SS 316 to improve the
corrosion resistance.
• From galvanic corrosion, it is understood that the polarization measurement has
been taken by anode and cathode ratio tendencies. The material has been coupled
with 10% wt of hydrochloric, phosphoric, and sulphuric solutions to avoid
galvanic corrosion.
• From uniform corrosion, it is denoted that the stainless steel is prevented by
using the coating method (TiN) and in other studies, the atomic layer deposition
coating process has been done to prevent corrosion.
• From pitting and stress corrosion, it is evident that to avoid cracks, holes, and
fractures, the biofilm has been added with some enhanced solution to improve
the corrosion resistance.
Acknowledgement
The authors thank UGC-DAE CSR for their financial support to carry out this work
(CSR-KN/CRS-115/2018-19/1053).
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