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Are There Two Types of Escapism? Exploring a Dualistic Model of
Escapism in Digital Gaming and Online Streaming
Frode Stenseng
1, 2, 3
, Jonas Falch-Madsen
4
, and Beate Wold Hygen
4, 5
1
Department of Education and Lifelong Learning, Norwegian University of Science and Technology
2
Department of Special Pedagogy, Queen Maud University College
3
Department of Psychology, Bjørknes University College
4
Department of Psychology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology
5
Department of Social Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology
Escapism is predominantly assumed to be a negative aspect of media consumption. However, research
also indicates that escapism may spur positive psychological outcomes. Here, using a 2-dimensional
model of escapism and its corresponding scale, we tested a dualistic approach to escapism in relation to
both gaming and online streaming. Data were collected from 2 separate Web-based questionnaires.
Study 1 comprised 126 dedicated gamers, whereas Study 2 comprised 191 university students regularly
using streaming services. Results showed that the Escapism scale—with its 2 dimensions, Self-
Expansion and Self-Suppression—demonstrated good factorial validity and internal consistency in both
samples. In the gaming sample, self-expansion was related to positive psychological outcomes from
gaming, whereas self-suppression was substantially overlapping with Internet gaming disorder (Ten-
Item Internet Gaming Disorder Test [IGDT-10]) and negative psychological outcomes. In the streaming
sample, self-expansion was related to general positive affect and approach coping, whereas self-suppres-
sion was related to avoidance coping and general negative affect, tested in a path model. Overall, results
provide preliminary support for a 2-dimensional conceptualization of escapism in media engagement,
here evidenced in gaming and streaming. Furthermore, results indicate that a dualistic operationalization
of escapism, currently not incorporated in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders,
Fifth Edition,orInternational Classification of Diseases, 11th Edition, Revised, classifications of patho-
logical gaming, may help distinguish healthy from unhealthy gaming and may also be relevant for dis-
tinguishing adaptive from maladaptive streaming.
Public Policy Relevance Statement
Escapism is an imperative motivation in media consumption. Nevertheless, the phenomenon is
debated and has been criticized for having an ambiguous role in, for example, the classification of
pathological gaming (in Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, and
International Classification of Diseases, 11th Edition, Revised). In 2 studies, derived from the 2-
dimensional model of escapism, an adaptive and a maladaptive form of escapism was identified in
gaming and streaming, illuminating a potential explanation for the unsettled role of escapism in
media engagement.
Keywords: gaming, emotion regulation, addiction, regulatory focus, immersion
Escapism is highlighted as a key motivation in media consump-
tion. The phenomenon has been related to TV watching (Henning
& Vorderer, 2001) and smart phone use (Wang et al., 2015) and is
most relevant for the objectives herein: digital gaming (Demetrovics
et al., 2011;Yee, 2006) and online streaming (Flayelle et al., 2019). A
common notion is that escapism is exclusively rooted in maladaptive
This article was published Online First February 18, 2021.
Frode Stenseng https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6581-1133
Beate Wold Hygen https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6238-6338
This research was partly funded by Grants 240097 and 228685 from the
Research Council of Norway. We have no conflict of interest to disclose.
This research was carried out in compliance with the World Medical
Association Declaration of Helsinki, 2008.
All authors contributed to the research questions and the design of
the study. Frode Stenseng conducted the main analyses and wrote
the first draft of the paper. Jonas Falch-Madsen and Beate Wold
Hygen were consulted throughout the writing process and contributed
actively in the final writing stages. All authors approved the final
manuscript.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Frode
Stenseng, Department of Education and Lifelong Learning, Norges
Teknisk-Naturvitenskapelige Universitet, Loholt allé 85, Pavillion A,
Dragvoll, NO-7491 Trondheim, Norway. Email: frode.stenseng@ntnu
.no
319
Psychology of Popular Media
©2021 American Psychological Association 2021, Vol. 10, No. 3, 319–329
ISSN: 2689-6567 https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000339
This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers.
This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
motivation and predominantly associated with negative psychological
outcomes (Kuss, 2013;Li et al., 2011). More recently, however,
authors proposed that escapism may be instigated from healthy needs
and be psychologically rewarding (Flayelle et al., 2019;Hagström &
Kaldo, 2014;Kosa & Uysal, 2020). Hence, in the present empirical
investigation, we explore a two-dimensional operationalization of es-
capism in media consumption, more specifically, related to digital gam-
ing and streaming in two independent survey samples.
Escapism as Motivation
Motivation to escape one’s self, in terms of less self-awareness
and self-criticism, does not exclusively apply to media consump-
tion, but also to a broad set of everyday activities, such as attend-
ing sporting events and religious ceremonies (Mattis, 2002;Smith
& Stewart, 2007). It also applies to alcohol and drug use (Sadava
et al., 1978). Admittedly, well-established theories on escapism
from a psychological perspective are rare, and empirical studies
are rather few (Calleja, 2010). The most impactful theoretical
model is arguably Baumeister’s“escaping the self”theory (1991).
In this theory, escapism is described as a need to experience relief
from one’s constant monitoring of one’s actions, emotions, and
thoughts—described as selfhood—through acts which draw one’s
attention away from self and toward more specific aspects of a par-
ticular situation. Baumeister refers to several behaviors where
individuals may experience a relief from selfhood, such as getting
intoxicated, engaging in intense sexual behavior, binge eating, and
even suicide ideation. Apart from these potentially self-destructive
engagements, Baumeister also relates escapism to self-nourishing
activities, such as running a marathon, playing an instrument, or
enjoying arts or sports. Notably, when relating escapism to activ-
ities that are nurturing for individuals, this psychological condition
may resemble how flow in activity engagements is defined by
Csikszentmihalyi (1997; Csikszentmihalyi & LeFevre, 1989). The
flow state is described as a situation where one’s capabilities tran-
scends the challenges in an activity, leading to intense task con-
centration, mastery, and physical awareness, accompanied by
positive affect (Jackson & Marsh, 1996). Such a state may be
interpreted as a temporary compartmentalization of the self
(Showers, 1992), where specific parts of the self connected to the
activity are intensified (e.g., activity-related competence, identity,
status), whereas more general aspects of the self are moderated
(Stenseng & Dalskau, 2010). In our view, this also resounds with
the TEBOTS model (temporary expanding the boundaries of the
self; Johnson et al., 2015;Slater et al., 2014), which posits that
individuals—when self-control resources are depleted—are more
motivated to temporarily escape the self through absorption in nar-
ratives. Because most types of media offer narratives in some way,
perhaps most evidently in books, series, and movies, the TEBOTS
model arguably is relevant for media consumption. The model
explains why engagement in narratives, through shifting the focus
of attention from one’s current general self, or unpleasant parts of
the self, toward narratives and/or stories outside oneself, feels
rewarding for individuals.
From the abovementioned theoretical and empirical arguments,
we suggest that escapism may not only be understood as a psycho-
logical need that leads to negative outcomes, as a flight from self-
hood to suppress negative thoughts and emotions, but also a need
that directs individuals toward engagements that are nurturing for
them. A vast range of everyday activities, such as reading books,
going to the movies, and other leisure activities, may be perceived
as self-governing journeys that are enjoyable in the moment, but
also satiate the individual with long-term energy.
A Two-Dimensional Model of Escapism
Building on Baumeister’s escape from self-theory (1991) and
Csikszentmihalyi’s (1997) flow theory, Stenseng and coworkers
developed a two-dimensional model of escapism in a leisure activ-
ity context (Stenseng et al., 2012;Stenseng & Phelps, 2016). The
first dimension, self-expansion, is linked to promotion motives
(Higgins, 1987). Such motives are characterized by a focus on the
anticipated positive psychological outcomes that the activity
engagement may bring, such as mastery, positive affect, and self-
growth. The second dimension, self-suppression, is characterized
by prevention motives (Higgins, 1987). When engaging out of
such motives, the individual engages in the activity to suppress
negative emotions (Gross & Levenson, 1993), block ruminations,
and avoid critical self-evaluation. Difficult life circumstances may
enforce self-suppression because they provoke an uncomfortable
state for the individual, and he or she will accordingly seek ways
to modify or escape from it. Self-expansion, on the other hand,
may facilitate better psychological well-being because it contrib-
utes to personal growth, compatible with upward spirals in the
broaden-and-build theory (Fredrickson, 2001). As such, self-
expansion is related to better self-regulation strategies, such as
using approach coping instead of avoidance coping, compared
with self-suppression.
Motivation grounded in self-expansion is supposed to facilitate
more psychological need satisfaction in the engagement. For
instance, when an individual is gaming out of promotion motives,
motivation will be more in line with an autonomous engagement,
which is central in self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985,
2000). Furthermore, autonomous engagement will make it more
likely that the individual experiences satisfaction of the three basic
psychological needs postulated in self-determination theory:
autonomy, competence, and relatedness. This was indirectly sup-
ported in a previous study (Stenseng & Phelps, 2016), which
showed that self-expansion was positively associated with harmo-
nious passion for an activity (Vallerand, 2015;Vallerand et al.,
2003)—which is a type of passionate interest that stems from au-
tonomous internalization. In contrast, the self-suppression dimen-
sion was negatively related to harmonious passion and positively
related to its opposite type of interest, namely, obsessive passion.
It has also been shown that self-suppression is related to lower
general well-being and poorer self-regulation compared with self-
expansion, as well as a tendency to suppress negative emotions
(Stenseng et al., 2012). Correspondingly, in a longitudinal design,
general negative affect predicted more self-suppression in activity
engagement over a 3-wk period (Stenseng et al., 2012). In other
words, self-suppression seems to be associated with pathological
engagements in gaming and streaming. The fundamentally differ-
ent emotional outcomes from self-expansion and self-suppression
seen in previous studies also support the notion that escapism in
activity engagements is not a one-dimensional concept but de-
pendent upon the type of motives that guide the individual in the
pursuit of escapism.
320 STENSENG, FALCH-MADSEN AND HYGEN
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Escapism in Digital Gaming
The body of research on escapism in gaming is rather extensive,
and currently much richer than for online streaming. In fact, gam-
ing with intent to escape negative emotions is incorporated in the
clinical assessment of Internet gaming disorder in the Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition
(DSM–5;American Psychiatric Association, 2013), and gaming
that takes precedence over other life interests is one of the main
criteria in the recently included gaming disorder diagnosis in the
International Classification of Diseases, 11th Edition, Revised
(ICD–11;World Health Organization, 2018). Simultaneously, es-
capism in gaming is coinciding with concepts considered to be
psychologically valuable, such as immersion (Jennett et al., 2008),
absorption (Dauphin & Heller, 2010), and presence (Ryan et al.,
2006). In common, such terms describe how gamers become so
intensely engaged in the games that their sense of time evaporates,
their alertness to physical and/or auditive nongaming surroundings
is reduced, and real-life commitments are temporarily unheeded.
As recently reported by Mills and Allen (2020), lower subjec-
tive well-being in terms of general need satisfaction predicts more
Internet gaming disorder, partly mediated by trait self-control.
This finding highlights the role of self-regulation in how the state
of escape in gaming is managed in a nourishing versus maladap-
tive manner, which may be disconnected from the sheer descrip-
tors of the gaming (e.g., amount of time spent gaming, types of
games played). Notably, in a large survey study by Przybylski and
Weinstein (2019) on 14- and 15-year-olds, neither in-game satis-
faction nor dysregulated gaming correlated with gender or age,
and both were similarly related to the amount of time spent gam-
ing. Escapism in gaming has respectively been linked to adaptive
coping processes in several recent empirical studies (Bowditch et
al., 2018;Di Blasi et al., 2019;Snodgrass et al., 2018).
Consequently, findings suggest that the regulatory processes
related to escapism in gaming must be heeded, and that it is an
oversimplification to regard escapism as dominantly dangerous or
detrimental, when gaming also is a way to unwind, relax, and to
disconnect from daily hassles in an adaptive manner (Kardefelt-
Winther, 2014;Kardefelt-Winther et al., 2017). As such, the path-
ologizing of gaming is debated (Aarseth et al., 2017;van Rooij
et al., 2018), and the problematic role of escapism in (Internet)
gaming disorder seems unsettled (Kuss et al., 2017). Moreover,
the ambiguous data on this matter call for a better differentiation
between adaptive and detrimental gaming, which perhaps may be
obtainable through a multidimensional understanding of escapism
in gaming.
Escapism in Online Streaming
As a result of the introduction of online video streaming
services, consumption of movies and series has become much
more user-centered, including more flexibility when it comes
to place and time of such engagement. Such autonomy also
puts more responsibility on the user to engage in a well-regu-
lated manner, so that the use of streaming services does not
come into conflict with real-life duties or goals, like work or
education. The phenomenon of “binge watching,”watching
multiple movies or episodes in one sequence, has been pro-
blematized as dysfunctional regulation of the use of such
media services (Riddle et al., 2018). In a cluster analysis com-
prising more than 4,000 participants, recruited through an
online questionnaire, Flayelle et al. (2019) detected “underre-
gulated binge watchers”asoneoffourclusters(apartfromthe
clusters “regulated,”“avid,”and “recreational”). Interestingly,
these four clusters did not differ substantially when it came to
the amount of time spent on streaming services, indicating that
problematic binge watching is dependent on other factors than
the mere amount of consumption. However, in the same study,
a measure of coping-escapism motives in streaming engage-
ment, defined as “watch series to avoid thinking about real-life
problems or to cope with negative affect,”were much more
pronounced in the avid and in the underregulated clusters than
in the other two. Notably, the operationalization of escapism in
streaming in this study was unidimensional, only tapping into
the avoidance-coping mechanisms in such engagement. How-
ever, this measure did not help differentiate avid from underre-
gulated users, indicating that a broader understanding of the
phenomenon may be needed to understand escapism in
streaming.
In a recent review, Starosta and Izydorczyk (2020) pointed
to the paradox that those individuals who have most conflicted
cognitions and negative emotions related to binge watching are
more likely to spend more time doing it (Panda & Pandey,
2017). Further, they argue that binge watching may become an
alley to satisfy compensatory needs, such as escape from real-
ity and avoidance of negative emotions. It is likely that the
negative cognitions and emotions found among high consum-
ers of streaming services may root in intrapersonal conflicts
regarding the amount of time spent on streaming, leaving less
time for more proactive and constructive real-life behaviors (e.
g., doing homework, domestic tasks, and intrapersonal rela-
tions). As such, this potentially stressful situation resembles
that described in gaming; the psychological outcomes from
binge watching depends on the mindset that drives you into it
—to promote positive emotions and experiences, or to avoid
negative ones. Notably, these mindsets are integrated in the
two-dimensional model of escapism, and hence the model
seems relevant for illuminating the paradox highlighted by
Starosta and Izydorczyk (2020) and others. Moreover, because
the model emphasizes the motivational mindsets in escapism,
and not merely the amount of time spent on such engagement,
it is aligned to the findings of Flayelle et al. (2019).
Study 1
In Study 1, we explored the factorial and empirical validity of
the two-dimensional model and its corresponding scale (Stenseng
et al., 2012;Stenseng & Phelps, 2016) in a sample of dedicated
gamers. The two-dimensional model advocates that there are two
motivational underpinnings of escapism in freely chosen activities.
The first dimension, defined as self-expansion—which is charac-
terized by promotion motives—was hypothesized to be unrelated
to symptoms of Internet gaming disorder, but to be related to more
need satisfaction in gaming and more positive emotional out-
comes. The second dimension, defined as self-suppression—which
is derived from motives to prevent self-evaluation and correspond-
ing negative emotions—was expected to be related to more symp-
toms of Internet gaming disorder, less positive psychological and
ESCAPISM IN GAMING AND STREAMING 321
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emotional outcomes, and poorer trait self-control. First, we tested
the factorial validity of the Escapism scale (Stenseng et al., 2012),
and second, we explored the relationships between the two dimen-
sions of escapism and measures of Internet gaming disorder, affec-
tive outcomes from gaming, need satisfaction in gaming, and trait
self-control. Potential discrepancies of the dimensions’relations to
gaming descriptors (e.g., time spent gaming) and individual char-
acteristics were also analyzed (e.g., age and gender).
Method
Participants and Procedure
Participants were recruited through a Norwegian website for
dedicated gamers (www.gamer.no) in October 2018. A link to our
web-based questionnaire was placed on the website for 5 days,
approved by the administrator of the site. The study’s theme was
described as “motivation for gaming,”and an according text out-
lined some additional information about the study, such as focus-
ing on both positive and negative aspects of gaming. We also
informed about ethical measures taken, such as consent of partici-
pation and that all respondents would remain fully anonymous in
the study, and we also encouraged gamers with a problematic
engagement in gaming to contact help services (www.hjelpelinjen
.no). Approximate time for filling out the questionnaire was 10 to
15 min.
A total of 126 individuals participated in the study, 105 men
and 21 women. Mean age in the sample was 18.3 years (SD =
3.15). The average time spent gaming on weekdays was 2.81 hr
(SD = 1.35), and 3.22 hr (SD = 1.33) per day on weekends. The
three most popular games among the participants (i.e., the game
they played most at that particular time) were: God of War (N=
17), Fortnite (N= 9), and World of Warcraft (N= 8).
Measures
The Escapism Scale. Stenseng et al. (2012) developed the Es-
capism scale from their two-dimensional model of escapism.
Building on regulatory focus theory (Higgins, 1987), two motiva-
tional directions of escapism were suggested. In a version adapted
to gaming in the current study, the Self-Expansion dimension
comprised five items capturing escapism from a promotion per-
spective, with item examples: “When I game I continually try to
learn new things about myself”and “When I game I open up for
experiences that enrich my life.”The Self-Suppression dimension
comprised six items with sample items: “When I game I try to for-
get difficult things in my life”and “I want to escape from myself.”
Responses were made on a 6-point Likert scale ranged from 1 (do
not agree at all)to6(totally agree). Cronbach’s
a
s in the sample
were .82 for self-expansion and .92 for self-suppression. Escapism
criterion items were included in the scale, in conjunction with pre-
vious studies (Stenseng et al., 2012), based on the same stem
(When I game . . .): (a) . . . I want to live in the moment, (b) . . . I
want to focus as much as possible on the activity, and (c) . . . I
want to experience total concentration. These items were
computed into an escapism criterion index, with a Cronbach’s
a
of .77.
Symptoms of Internet Gaming Disorder. The Ten-Item
Internet Gaming Disorder Test (Király et al., 2017,2019) is a self-
report measure developed to assess pathological gaming as
described in DSM–5(American Psychiatric Association, 2013). It
captures addiction-like behavior related to gaming such as “Have
you ever in the past 12 months unsuccessfully tried to reduce the
time spent on gaming?”and “Have you tried to keep your family,
friends, or other important people from knowing how much you
were gaming or have you lied to them regarding your gaming?”
The Norwegian version of the scale has been validated in a previ-
ous study (Király et al., 2019), showing good psychometric qual-
ities. Responses were made on a 3-point scale: never (1),
sometimes (2), and often (3). Cronbach’s
a
was .73.
General Positive and Negative Affect. Items from the Pos-
itive and Negative Affect Scale (PANAS-X; Watson & Clark,
1994) were used to measure subjective well-being and ill-being, in
terms of recent affective experiences. Individuals rated their levels
of positive and negative emotions experienced the last 14 days on
a 4-point scale ranged from 1 (never)to4(all the time). Positive
Affect items were, for example, active and determined, whereas
Negative Affect items were, for example, irritable and nervous.
Each affect dimension comprised four items. Cronbach’s
a
for
Positive Affect was .86, and .75 for Negative Affect.
Basic Need Satisfaction in Gaming. Psychological need
satisfaction in gaming—as embedded in self-determination theory
(Deci & Ryan, 2000)—was measured by means of the Player Ex-
perience of Need Satisfaction Scale (Ryan et al., 2006). The three
needs were measured with three items each, slightly adapted to the
present study, with the stem “When I game. . .”A sample item of
the Autonomy Need dimension (
a
= .61), is “I do things because it
interests me,”a sample item of the Competence dimension is (
a
=
.82), “I feel very capable and effective.”A sample item of Related-
ness is “Ifind the relationships I form fulfilling”(
a
= .89).
Responses were made on a 7-point scale ranged from 1 (do not
agree at all)to7(totally agree).
Trait Self-Control. The Brief Self-Control Scale developed
by Tangney et al. (2004) was used to measure trait self-control.
This is a 13-item scale designed to measure adaptive self-regula-
tion. To shorten the questionnaire, we included five items from
this scale previously related to problems with restraining addictive
behavior, such as “I have a hard time breaking bad habits”(Hagger
et al., 2018). Responses were made on a 6-point scale ranged from
1(do not agree at all)to6(totally agree). Cronbach’s
a
was .72.
Results
To examine the validity of the Escapism scale (Stenseng et al.,
2012;Stenseng & Phelps, 2016) in a gaming context, we tested
the factorial validity of the proposed two-dimensional structure
both through confirmatory factor analysis. We also conducted de-
scriptive analyses with regard to mean levels of scales and sample
characteristics. Finally, we conducted correlation analyses to
determine how the two escapism dimensions are related to meas-
ures expected to be convergent, or differentially associated with
the two dimensions.
Confirmatory Factor Analysis
Confirmatory factor analysis of the scale was conducted in
Mplus 8.1 (Muthén & Muthén, 2018), using the maximum like-
lihood estimator. Missing values were treated according to the
full information maximum likelihood procedure. Model fits
were evaluated according to recommendations of Hu and
322 STENSENG, FALCH-MADSEN AND HYGEN
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Bentler (1999; see also Marsh et al., 2004). Regarded as good
fits of a model are values of the comparative fit index (CFI)
and the Tucker–Lewis index (TLI) close to and above .95, and
values of the root mean squared error of approximation
(RMSEA) and the standardized root mean squared residual
(SRMR) less than .06 and .08, respectively. Results showed
that the two-factor model had a good fit with the data:
x
2
(43, N
= 126) = 68.00, p,.001, CFI = .96, TLI = .95, RMSEA =
.058, SRMR = .050. Factor loadings ranged from .56 to .89,
with a .10 correlation between the dimensions (see Table 1).
Analyses of Conceptual Overlaps
In the two-dimensional model of escapism, self-expansion (SE)
and self-suppression (SS) are argued to be equally (or similarly)
related to the conceptualization of escapism. Although different
conceptualizations of escapism exist, we believe that escapism is
experienced through intense focus on the activity, high-grade con-
centration on the challenges and reward in the activity, and time
scope limited to the presence (Baumeister, 1991). Accordingly,
the Escapism scale has been validated with criterion items expect-
ing to capture these core aspects of escapism (Stenseng et al.,
2012). When using these items in the present study, this criterion
index correlated significantly with both escapism dimensions
(with SE,r= 42, p,.01, and SS, r= .35, p,.01).
Introductorily, we proposed that a dualistic approach to escap-
ism might be beneficial in differentiating pathological gaming
from highly engaged gaming that is not problematic. As expected,
SS was substantially overlapping with Ten-Item Internet Gaming
Disorder Test (IGDT-10; r= .53, p,.01), whereas SE was uncor-
related to pathological gaming (r= .11, p= .25). Also notably, a
strong correlation (r= .74, p,.001) was found between SS and
the Escape item of IGDT-10 (Item 8: “. . . have been gaming to
escape negative emotions”), whereas SE was unrelated to this item
(r=.02, p= .86).
Furthermore, because SS previously had been linked to lower
life satisfaction, poor self-control, and emotion suppression strat-
egies, we included corresponding measures to validate this in the
gaming context (see Table 2).
As expected, SS was associated with more negative daily affect
(r= .64, p,.001) and less positive affect (r=.57, p,.001), as
measured by PANAS-X items. Self-expansion, on the other hand,
was unrelated to negative affect (r=.05, p..05), and positively
related to positive affect (r= .44, p,.01). Basic need satisfaction
in gaming was also differentially related to the escapism dimen-
sions. Whereas SS and SE were similarly related to autonomy sat-
isfaction in gaming (r= .25, p,01, and r= .44, p,.01,
respectively), they were contrarily related to competence satisfac-
tion (SS: r= .09, p.05; SE: r= .58, p,.01) and relatedness sat-
isfaction (SS: r=.11, p.05; SE: r= .48, p,.01). Poor self-
control has been linked to problematic gaming in previous
research (Mehroof & Griffiths, 2010), and hence trait self-control
was included in the present study. Results showed that SS was
negatively correlated to trait self-control (r=.40, p,.01),
whereas SE was uncorrelated to this measure (r=.12,p.
.05). This latter finding indicates that escapism through SS is
linked to an addiction-prone personality, whereas SE is not,
and as such, this lends further support for a two-dimensional
operationalization of escapism in gaming.
Brief Discussion
In extension of previous studies on escapism in gaming, as
well as the unsettled role of “escape”in current diagnostic tools
for determining pathological gaming (DSM–5and the ICD–11),
we aimed at testing a two-dimensional model of escapism in
gaming. Results evidenced a clear distinction between escapism
rooted in self-suppression versus self-expansion in gaming con-
veyed through the factorial structure of the scale as well as
covariates measuring Internet gaming disorder, need satisfaction
in gaming, trait self-control, and general psychological well-
being.
Study 2
Arguably, motivational processes are rather universal by nature
(Vallerand et al., 2003), and this should also apply to escapism, in the
sense that the corresponding psychological state of escape may be
obtainable through engagement in many different activities. Given
this premise, escapism should not be limited to one or a few specific
activity engagements, but rather be a psychological condition obtain-
able through many different interests. Hence, we investigated the va-
lidity of the two-dimensional model and its corresponding scale
(Stenseng et al., 2012;Stenseng & Phelps, 2016) in use of streaming
services. First, we wanted to test the factorial validity of the scale
when tapping escapism in streaming engagement; second, we wanted
to explore the two dimensions’differential overlap with relevant
Table 1
Standardized Factor Loadings From Confirmatory Factor Analysis in Study 1
Item wording and factor loadings Self-Expansion Self-Suppression
I continually try to learn new things about myself (SE1). .68 —
I often surprise myself in a positive way (SE2). .56 —
I open up for experiences that enrich my life (SE3). .83 —
I try to get to know myself better (SE4). .76 —
I am filled with a positive energy that transfers to other parts of my life (SE5). .57 —
I try to forget difficult things in my life (SS1). —.85
I try to suppress my problems (SS2). —.88
I want to escape from reality (SS3). —.75
I want to escape from myself (SS4). —.79
I shut out the difficult things I don’t want to think about (SS5). —.83
I try to prevent negative thoughts about myself (SS6). —.76
Note. SE = Self-Expansion; SS = Self-Suppression. Conducted in Mplus 8.1. N= 122–126 (factor dimension correlation: r= .10.).
ESCAPISM IN GAMING AND STREAMING 323
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psychological constructs. More specifically, and based on the afore-
mentioned literature regarding streaming motivation and coping strat-
egies (Starosta and Izydorczyk, 2020), we hypothesized that self-
expansion would be positively related to higher general well-being
and adaptive individual coping strategies (“approach”;seeMoritz et
al., 2016), whereas self-suppression would be related to lower general
well-being and maladaptive coping strategies (“avoidance”). More-
over, we tested a path model with general positive/negative affect,
approach/avoidance coping, and self-expansion/self-suppression as
successive stages.
Method
Participants and Procedure
Participants were recruited through an intranet site for students
at a Norwegian University College in May 2020. A link to our
web-based questionnaire (www.questback.com) was placed on the
website for 5 days, approved by the administrator of the site (www
.dmmh.no). The study was presented as “Do you stream?”and an
introductory text outlined some additional information about the
study, including ethical measures taken, such as consent of partici-
pation. Estimated time for filling out the questionnaire was 8 to 12
min.
A total of 191 individuals participated in the study, 154 women
and 37 men. Mean age in the sample was 21.8 years (SD = 3.57).
The most frequently used streaming services were Netflix (63.7%)
and YouTube (32.1%), and participants used most frequently their
mobile phones (47.3%) for streaming, relative to tablets, personal
computers, or televisions. The average time spent streaming on
weekdays was 2.16 hr (SD = 1.43), and 4.07 hr (SD = 2.63) per
day on weekends.
Measures
The Escapism Scale. The version of the scale in Study 1 was
used but with an ingress relating the questions to participants’own
streaming engagement, as well as slightly adapted items (e.g.,
“When I stream, I try to forget difficult things in my life”). Also,
the item “I often surprise myself in a positive way”was dropped,
because streaming is a less active activity engagement and is thus
less likely to give some sort of feedback on one’s actions.
Responses were made on a 4-point Likert scale ranged from 1
(do not agree at all)to4(totally agree). Cronbach’s
a
s were .77
for Self-Expansion and .86 for Self-Suppression. The Cronbach’s
a
of the escapism criterion index was .71.
Maladaptive and Adaptive Coping Styles. The subdimen-
sions Adaptive Coping and Avoidance from the Maladaptive and
Adaptive Coping Styles Questionnaire (Moritz et al., 2016) were
used to measure individual differences in tendencies toward
approach versus avoidance coping under changing life circumstan-
ces. A sample item of adaptive/approach coping is “I actively
address a problem and try to solve it,”whereas a sample of avoid-
ance coping is “I always keep my problems to myself and do not
share them with others.”Five items were used to measure
approach, and four items measured avoidance, with responses
made on a 4-point Likert scale ranged from 1 (do not agree at all)
to 4 (totally agree). Cronbach’s
a
for Avoidance was .81, and for
Approach it was .68.
Table 2
Means, Standard Deviations, and Bivariate Correlations for Study Variables in Study 1
Descriptives and bivariate correlations MSD 12345678910111213
1.Self-suppression (SS) 15.68 8.04 —
2.Self-expansion (SE) 20.71 4.42 .08 —
3.Age (years) 18.3 3.14 .02 .04 —
4.Gender (boy = 2) 1.16 0.37 .28** .08 .02 —
5.Hours gaming, weekdays 2.81 1.35 .15 .19* .05 .00 —
5.Hours gaming, weekend 3.22 1.33 .16 .21* .15 .06 .76** —
6.Internet gaming disorder 14.70 3.42 .53** .11 .20* .07 .32** .32** —
7.Autonomy (in gaming) 14.44 2.52 .25** .44** .09 .11 .44** .39** .25** —
8.Competence (in gaming) 14.40 2.69 .09 .58** .12 .07 .29** .30** .00 .54** —
10.Relatedness (in gaming) 13.36 3.60 .11 .48** .14 .04 .41** .35** .08 .45** .61** —
11.General positive affect 10.90 2.21 .57** .24** .11 .08 .04 .01 .25** .04 .10 .14 —
12.General negative affect 8.13 2.43 .64** .05 .01 .29 .04 .02 .39** .10 .08 .22* .63** —
13.Trait self-control 11.63 3.87 .40** .12 .06 .04 .11 .11 .58** .04 .20* .11 .21* .37** —
Note. N = 122–126.
*p,.05. ** p,.01.
324 STENSENG, FALCH-MADSEN AND HYGEN
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This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
General Positive and Negative Affect. Items from the
PANAS-X (Watson & Clark, 1994) were used to measure recent
well-being/ill-being. Individuals rated their levels of positive and
negative emotions experienced the last couple of weeks on a 4-
point scale ranged from 1 (never)to4(all the time). Positive affect
items were, for example, active and determined; negative affect
items were, for example, irritable and nervous. Each affect dimen-
sion comprised four items. Cronbach’s
a
for Positive Affect was
.90, and .74 for Negative Affect.
Results
To test the validity of the Escapism scale in relation to stream-
ing, we conducted confirmatory factor analysis of the scale in
Mplus 8.1 (Muthén & Muthén, 2018), using the maximum likeli-
hood estimator and the full information maximum likelihood pro-
cedure. Results showed that the two-factor model had adequate fit
with the data:
x
2
(45, N= 191) = 578.74, p,.001, CFI = .94,
TLI = .92, RMSEA = .073, SRMR = .056. Factor loadings
ranged from .54 to .81, with a .22 correlation between the
dimensions. The criterion index, with an
a
of .71, correlated
significantly with both escapism dimensions (with SE, r= .36,
p,.01; and SS, r=.32p,.01). Gender was unrelated to
both dimensions.
Analyses of Conceptual Overlaps
Self-expansion (SE) was positively correlated to general posi-
tive effect as measured by the PANAS-X (r= .15, p,.05), and
somewhat surprisingly, to both approach and avoidance coping
(r= .15, p,.05, and r= .17, p,.05, respectively). Self-suppres-
sion (SS) was negatively correlated to general positive affect (r=
.38, p,.001) and positively correlated to general negative
affect (r= .49, p,.001), and it overlapped substantially with
avoidance coping (r= 55, p,.001), whereas it was inversely
related to approach coping (r=.28, p,.001; see Table 3).
Path Analysis
According to the two-dimensional model of escapism (Stenseng
et al., 2012;Stenseng & Phelps, 2016), problematic life circum-
stances will increase self-suppression in activity engagement,
mediated through avoidance coping. In Study 2, we tested this pre-
sumption in a path model, albeit recognizing the limitations of
investigating causal effects in cross-sectional data. We suggest
that the most likely timeline is: well/ill-being !coping strategies
!escapism; at the same time admitting that other constellations
are credible, and that cascade effects and feedback loops will
occur under real-life circumstances.
Two primary causal structures were tested in a single-path
model, with cross-lagged effects: (a) negative general affect !
avoidance coping !SS, and (b) positive general affect !
approach coping !SE. Covariates were freed between the meas-
ures at each concurrent step of the model. First, model fits showed
that the model was fully saturated:
x
2
(14, N= 191) = 187.58, p,
.001, CFI = 1.00, TLI = 1.00, RMSEA = .00, SRMR = .00. Sec-
ond, standardized regression paths partly supported the hypothe-
sized causal structure; negative affect promoted avoidance coping
(
b
= .43, p,.01), which thereby promoted SS (
b
= .37, p,
.01), and positive affect promoted approach coping (
b
= .33, p,
.01), which thereby promoted SE (
b
= .22, p= .01). Moreover,
mediation analyses showed that avoidance coping interceded the
effect of negative affect on SS, z= 1.55, 95% confidence interval
[.09, .24], whereas there was no mediation of the effect of positive
affect on SE through approach coping, z= .06, 95% confidence
interval [.01, .13]. Significant effects and correlations are shown
in Figure 1.
General Discussion
The two studies reported herein—empirically testing a two-
dimensional model of escapism in gaming and streaming
(Stenseng et al., 2012;Stenseng & Phelps, 2016)—lend sup-
port for a dualistic comprehension of escapism motivation.
The two distinctive dimensions, self-expansion and self-sup-
pression, were differently related to a number of adaptive and
maladaptive psychological constructs, as well as life situa-
tions, while simultaneously sharing the same root of escapism.
As such, the present results give indirect support for similar
theoretical ideas, such as those embedded in the escape from
self theory (Baumeister, 1991) and in the TEBOTS model (Sla-
ter et al., 2014).
Relevance for Gaming Research
With reference to the debate regarding the ambiguous role of es-
capism in gaming (Aarseth et al., 2017; Kuss et al. 2017; van
Rooij et al., 2018) and its unsettled psychometric validity in the
assessment of Internet gaming disorder as included in DSM–5and
ICD–10, we tested the applicability of the Escapism scale (Sten-
seng et al., 2012) in a sample of dedicated gamers.
Foremost, results from Study 1 conveyed that the scale displays
adequate psychometric qualities in the gaming context. Internal
consistencies of the two dimensions were in line with conventional
Table 3
Means, Standard Deviations, and Bivariate Correlations for Study Variables in Study 2
Descriptives and bivariate correlations MSD 123 4 56
1. Self-suppression 9.25 3.49 —
2. Self-expansion 10.90 2.49 .19** —
3. Avoidance coping 11.57 3.03 .55** .17* —
4. Approach coping 12.77 2.19 .28** .15* .42** —
5. General negative affect 9.21 2.20 .50** .14 .48** .25** —
6. General positive affect 11.58 2.05 .38** .15* .29** .35** .55** —
Note. N = 191.
*p,.05. ** p,.01.
ESCAPISM IN GAMING AND STREAMING 325
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statistical thresholds (Furr, 2011), and confirmatory factor analysis
showed that the items of the scale loaded on their predefined
dimensions. The psychometric qualities of the scale were in line
with previous findings on individuals’favorite activities more
broadly (Stenseng et al., 2012;Stenseng & Phelps, 2016). Hence,
individuals’motivation toward escapism in activity engagement
may be more or less independent of the prerequisites of the activ-
ity itself, so that the psychological motives may be analogous for
gaming, sports, arts, and so on.
To test for convergent and discriminate validity of the Es-
capism scale in the gaming context, measures related to patho-
logical gaming, need satisfaction in gaming, trait self-control,
and psychological well-being were included. As expected, self-
suppression was strongly associated with pathological gaming,
as measured by a self-report questionnaire (IGDT-10). Self-
expansion, on the other hand, was not significantly related to
pathological gaming. This differentiated pattern of escapism
motives in relation to IGD illustrates that escapism may be a
more complex phenomenon than represented in the current
diagnostic tools for assessing pathological gaming (DSM–5and
ICD–11). When treating escapism as a unidimensional aspect,
and predominantly as maladaptive, it may fail to differentiate
healthy from unhealthy gaming. As such, adaptive forms of es-
capism may be pathologized and regarded as a symptom,
although the phenomenon in singular cases may not be associ-
ated with other symptoms of IGD. Accordingly, Study 1 lends
support to the criticism put forward by several authors (Karde-
felt-Winther et al., 2017;van Rooij et al., 2018), warning that
healthy interest in gaming and recreational gaming may be
falsely interpreted as pathological.
Self-suppression and self-expansion were differently
related to other measures in the study as well, such as basic
need satisfaction in gaming (Deci & Ryan, 2000;Ryan et al.,
2006). Self-expansion was strongly and positively associated
with satisfaction of the three basic psychological needs
(autonomy, competence, and relatedness) in gaming. Self-
suppression was unrelated to competence and relatedness sat-
isfaction, but moderately associated with autonomy
satisfaction in gaming. Surprisingly, autonomy in gaming
was moderately overlapping with the IGD measure, indicat-
ing that autonomy may be experienced in gaming although
the engagement may have pathological overtones. The posi-
tive links between these three concepts—self-suppression,
autonomy, and IGD—indicate that the gaming context is
absorbing to the extent that it feels like a free space for the
gamer, although it simultaneously may be in conflict with
other parts of life outside this space. As such, these findings
are in line with the TEBOTS model, in the sense that the indi-
vidual freely chose to engage in narratives that are momentar-
ily rewarding, despite that longer term consequences may be
negative.
Relevance for Research on Streaming and Binge
Watching
As pointed out introductorily, the two-dimensional model of es-
capism is developed from the notion that a state of escape may be
achieved through many different types of activity engagements.
Gaming differs from streaming in the sense that it is calls for more
active engagement, but the psychological condition may be simi-
lar: a temporary disconnection from real-life challenges. In con-
trast to the gaming field, there are apparently no theories of
escapism in streaming, which outlines two different types of es-
capism, although empirical findings hint toward such a view (Star-
osta & Izydorczyk, 2020). Hence, in Study 2, we applied the two-
dimensional model of escapism to streaming to explore the dualis-
tic operationalization of escapism identified in gaming. Results
supported the existence of the two dimensions of self-suppression
and self-expansion in streaming; the former overlapping with gen-
eral negative affect and avoidance coping, whereas the latter over-
lapped more distinctively with general positive affect and
approach coping. In other words, much of the same pattern as evi-
denced in Study 1 was repeated in Study 2, although attached to a
different type of media. These findings call for future investiga-
tions of escapism in streaming, especially to dissect adaptive from
maladaptive use of streaming services, and in particular, perhaps,
Figure 1
Results From Path Model Analysis in Study2 Conducted in Mplus 8.1
Note. *p,.05. ** p,.01.
326 STENSENG, FALCH-MADSEN AND HYGEN
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This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly.
binge watching. In relation to the current debate on a potential
inclusion of binge watching as a mental disorder (Flayelle et al.,
2019), perhaps even in the same manner as Internet gaming disor-
der has been included into the DSM and ICD systems, two differ-
ent mindsets of escapism may be fruitful to take into account.
Limitations and Conclusions
The present research has some limitations. Larger sample sizes
would have strengthened the conclusions, and more differentiated
analyses could have been conducted, such as separate factor analy-
ses on different categories of gaming or streaming preferences.
Also, the samples herein are not representative of all gamers or
consumers of streaming services, as both samples display rather
narrow frequencies of both age and amount of gaming and stream-
ing. In samples of younger and/or older individuals, results may
turn out differently. We used web-based questionnaires to recruit
participants, which incite some limitations on the amount of ques-
tions possible to ask (to limit dropouts). Finally, the assessment of
the validity of the Escapism scale may have profited from being
contrasted to similar scales measuring escapism or associated phe-
nomena in gaming.
Taken together, the present findings lend support for one of
the main assumptions in the escapism model, which postulates
that individuals—and particularly those with less self-regula-
tion resources—may turn to activities that make them experi-
ence less critical self–evaluation when life circumstances are
challenging. Accordingly, Stenseng et al. (2012) found that
self-suppression was related to emotion suppression as the
dominating emotion regulation strategy, whereas self-expan-
sion was not. This underlines that self-suppression as a motive
for escapism is associated with traits known to be associated
with more vulnerability for other types of addictions, such as
alcohol and drugs (Berking & Wupperman, 2012). Escapism
out of self-expansion, on the other hand, does not seem to be
associated with addiction-prone personality characteristics, nor
in the present study or in previous research (Stenseng et al.,
2012).
As mentioned introductorily, apart from some exceptions
(Hagström & Kaldo, 2014), escapism is regarded as a unidi-
mensional concept and as a psychologically detrimental phe-
nomenon in the literature. It is also embedded, although more
broadly defined, as a symptom in the classification of patholog-
ical gaming in DSM–5and ICD–11. The clear support for the
two dimensions of escapism found in the present study, applied
to both gaming and online streaming, suggests that there are
two motivational paths leading to such engagement in these
activities, originating in promotion and prevention motives as
described in regulatory focus theory (Higgins, 1987). This
finding calls for a clarification of the “escapism”item in
DSM–5and ICD–11, as adaptive gaming may be interpreted as
pathological in the current operationalization of the phenom-
enon. It also points to a clear distinction between adaptive and
maladaptive use of streaming services, which recently has
gained attention (Flayelle et al., 2019). Furthermore, the pres-
ent study puts some empirical support behind the ideas pre-
sented by Baumeister (1991) in his escape theory, and by
Slater in his TEBOTS model (Slater et al., 2014), emphasizing
people’s need to unwind from the constant self-monitoring
occurring in their everyday lives, through immersive activities
that momentarily facilitate well-being.
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Received January 23, 2020
Revision received October 17, 2020
Accepted January 5, 2021 n
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