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Termites
Abstract
Termites are eusocial insects belonging to the insect infraorder Isoptera and are characterized by their colonial behavior. The word Isoptera originated from the Greek words isos which means equal and pteron which means wing and refers to the two pairs of identical wings in the adult. Termites are polymorphic insects, living in large communities of several hundred to several million individuals, composed of alate or apterous reproductive forms together with numerous apterous sterile soldiers and workers. Their numerous colonies have great influence in many ecosystems. There are 12 families of which the family Termitidae is the largest accounting about 75 percent of all termites. With the peculiar digestive system and the ability to digest lignocelluloses, the most abundant resource on the planet, termites became the most successful insects. Termites built huge and most complex nesting systems ever known by an insect. They change the ecosystems by their activities, and at the same time, they are dreaded pests on agriculture and man-made wooden structures. Due to their cryptic life, it is very difficult to manage them. Though chemical insecticides are very effective on termites, their method of application is challenging. Killing few thousand termite workers does not mean killing the colony; as long as the primary and secondary reproductives are alive and active deep inside the termite mounds, the termite problem exists, perennially.
Global food production is anticipated to rise along with the growth of the global population. As a result, creative solutions must be devised to ensure that everyone has access to nutritious, affordable, and safe food. Consequently, including insects in diets has the potential to improve global food and nutrition security. This paper aims to share recent findings by covering edible termites as the main aspect, from their consumption record until consumer acceptance. A total of 53 termite species are reported as edible ones and distributed in 6 biogeographic realms. Generally, termites have a nutrient composition that is suitable for human consumption, and cooked termites are a better dietary choice than their raw counterparts. Besides, increasing customer interest in eating termite‐based food can be achieved by making it more palatable and tastier through various cooking processes, that is, boiling, frying, grilling, roasting, smoking, and sun‐drying. Moreover, edible termites can also be used as a new source of medication by exhibiting antimicrobial activity. Regarding their advantages, it is strongly encouraged to implement a seminatural rearing system to sustain the supply of edible termites. Overall, this paper makes it evident that termites are an important natural resource for food or medicine. Hence, the long‐term objective is to stimulate scientific inquiry into the potential of edible insects as an answer to the problem of global food security.
Insects are the most abundant and diverse organisms on this earth. They are the environmental engineers, and the major service providers to our ecosystems. Insects provide us four major types of ecosystem services, i.e. provisioning services, regulating services, supporting services, and cultural services. By contributing towards the structure, fertility, and spatial dynamics of soil, insects maintain the biodiversity and food webs. They provide medical and industrial products, and are even consumed as food. In agroecosystems, insects perform functions, like pollination, nutrient and energy cycling, pest suppression, seed dispersal, and decomposition of organic matter, feces, and carrion. In terms of money, the ecosystem services provided by insects have an estimated value of US dollar 57 billion per year in the United States alone, and insect pollination may have an economic value of US dollar 235–577 billion per year worldwide. Despite their wide ecological significance, very little information is available on the functional roles that insects play and the ecosystem services they provide. The absence of detailed information is due to the lack of manipulative controlled experiments for several services provided by insects. Hence, there is an urgent need to address the different insect groups and the ecosystem services they provide so that their diversity may be conserved for our own survival.KeywordsInsectsEnvironmental engineeringEcosystem servicesPest suppression
Globally, incidence of insect-pests has increased from 5.1% to 9.3% from period of pre-green to post-green revolution era leading to huge crop yield losses. Worldwide, wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) is playing a significant role in meeting global food and nutritional security. Earlier, the wheat crop was reported to be free from insect-pests but with the changing climate the incidence of insect-pests on it is increasing. Insects are poikilothermic organisms that maintain their internal body temperature according to the surrounding environmental conditions. Climate change, which is the combined effect of environmental and edaphic factors, is directly or indirectly influencing the primary life activities of insect-pests. Moreover, the introduction of varieties with a longer crop duration has resulted in increased severity of insect-pests, short insect developmental period and higher number of generations per crop season. The relationship between temperatures and moisture regimes has also been affected by climate change, leading to a disruption in the diapause strategies of many insect species. Overall, crop damage because of insect-pests has increased and pests of minor importance have attained the status of major insect-pests, leading to more pesticide usage for their control. But in spite of the development of new chemical molecules, not all stages of insect life have been controlled effectively due to difference in biological behaviour of insect-pests. A thorough understanding of insect-pest biology and distribution along with the crop biology is required to successfully manage insect-pests. Moreover, efforts should be made to develop integrated pest management (IPM) practices comprising of multiple control options to manage a pest such as cultural, biological, host plant resistance and chemical. The application of IPM practices in an agro-ecosystem will not only increase the efficiency of control measures with minimum input but have no or less environmental hazards. In this chapter, we have discussed the major insect-pests causing damage to wheat crop along with their biology and management strategies to reduce crop yield losses.
Of the surveyed 12 different wheat fields of Anand Agricultural University, Anand, the termite damage was noted after 4 th week of sowing (52 nd standard meteorological week) of wheat. The maximum infestation was observed during end of February (9 th SMW), whereas, the lowest infestation was noticed at the end of December (52 nd SMW). The termite species Microtermes mycophagus (Desneux), Odontotermes sp. nr. redemanni and Odontotermes obesus (Rambur) were found to be damaging the wheat crop. Among them, Odontotermes obesus (Rambur) was found as the dominant species of termite in wheat.
Two field experiments were conducted to study the efficacy of clothionidin 50WDG against termites Odontotermes obesus Rambur (Isoptera: Termitidae) of sugarcane at the Department of Agricultural Entomology, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Coimbatore during 2015-2017. The experiments were conducted in a randomized block design with seven treatments replicated thrice with a plot size of 8 x 5 m. Applications of insecticides were made at the time of planting. Germination of sugarcane setts recorded at 30 days after planting (DAP) and termite infestation was observed at 60, 120 DAP and at harvest and the per cent infestation was calculated. Results revealed that, the per cent germination data indicated that the clothianidin 50 WDG @ 150 g a.i. ha-1 treatment recorded higher germination and it was on par with clothianidin 50 WDG @ 125 g a.i. ha-1. The above two treatments showed significantly higher germination per cent than all other treatments including standard checks and untreated control recorded the least germination per cent. The termite damage was minimum in the plots treated with the test chemical clothianidin 50 WDG @ 150 g a.i. ha-1 at all the days of observation and it was on par with the clothianidin 50 WDG @ 125 g a.i. ha-1. The above two treatments resulted significantly superior in controlling termite damage over other treatments. Clothianidin 50 WDG @ 125 g a.i. ha-1 and 250 g a.i. ha-1 does not have any phytotoxicity effect on sugarcane. The study on the impact of clothianidin 50 WDG on natural enemies in the sugarcane agroecosystem revealed that, insecticidal treatments in the planting did not adversely affect the population of natural enemies in the crop. Clothianidin 50 WDG at 150 g a.i. ha-1 registered significantly more cane yield followed by clothianidin 50 WDG at 125 g a.i. ha-1. Effect of clothianidin 50 WDG on yield parameters were recorded at the time of harvest and results indicated that commercial cane sugar (CCS) yield followed similar trend like cane yield whereas, Brix unit and POL per cent (Sucrose per cent) did not show any significant difference among the treatments. Hence it is concluded that, clothianidin 50 WDG @ 150 g a.i. ha-1 remained on par with clothianidin 50 WDG @ 125 g a.i. ha-1 have effectively controlled the termite infestation in sugarcane ecosystem.
The pest complex associated with Pigeon pea crop grown in Tripura, a North Eastern state of India has been recorded for the first time during 2015-16 and 2016-17. A total of 64 insect pests belonging to 7 orders and 32 families were recorded. Among these, 9 species were recorded as major, 30 were recorded as minor and remaining 25 were recorded as negligible pests. A total of eleven species of insect pests constituting the pod borer complex have been recorded, out of which three species viz., Maruca vitrata (Fabricius), Melanagromyza obtusa (Malloch) and Apion clavipes (Gerst.) were found to be the most destructive key pests. 36.4 and 42% pod damage by Apion, 34.8 and 36.5% by pod fly, 5.2 and 6% by Helicoverpa, 1.6 and 3% by Lycaenid larvae, 3.8 and 4.8% by Exelastis atomosa and 2 and 2.2% by Etiella zinckenelia were recorded during two consecutive seasons.
Termites are the eusocial arthropod decomposers, and improve soil fertility, crop yield, and also are used by humanity for their benefits across the world. However, some species of termites are becoming a threat to the farming community as they are causing major losses to the agricultural system directly and indirectly. It is estimated that termites cost the global economy more than 40 billion USD annually, and considerable research has been done on its management. In this review, we present the available information related to sustainable and integrated termite management practices (ITM). Furthermore, we insisted that the better management of this menace can be possible through; (i) improving traditional methods to keep termite away from crops, (ii) improving agricultural practices to maintain plants more vigor and less susceptible to termite attack, and (iii) integration of available techniques to reduce termite infestation in crops and surroundings. The application of an effective combination of traditional practices with recently developed approaches is the best option for agricultural growers. Moreover, keeping in mind the beneficial nature of this pest, more innovative efforts for its management, particularly using rapidly emerging technology (e.g. RNA Interference), are needed. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved
Entomopathogenic fungus as well as their toxins is a natural threat surrounding social insect colonies. To defend against them, social insects have evolved a series of unique disease defenses at the colony level, which consists of behavioral and physiological adaptations. These colony-level defenses can reduce the infection and poisoning risk and improve the survival of societal members, and is known as social immunity. In this review, we discuss how social immunity enables the insect colony to avoid, resist and tolerate fungal pathogens. To understand the molecular basis of social immunity, we highlight several genetic elements and biochemical factors that drive the colony-level defense, which needs further verification. We discuss the chemosensory genes in regulating social behaviors, the antifungal secretions such as some insect venoms in external defense and the immune priming in internal defense. To conclude, we show the possible driving force of the fungal toxins for the evolution of social immunity. Throughout the review, we propose several questions involved in social immunity extended from some phenomena that have been reported. We hope our review about social 'host-fungal pathogen' interactions will help us further understand the mechanism of social immunity in eusocial insects. Keywords: social insects; fungal pathogens; social immunity; behavioral and physiological adaptations; social interaction network Key Contribution: This review summarizes the multiple defense strategies and the mechanism of social immunity in eusocial insects against fungal infections including the possible molecular basis of social immunity. Meanwhile, it presents some phenomena about social immunity, which remains unclear and may be an exciting question for the future study.
The origins of many large-scale ‘biogenic’ earthen structures are controversial, because often the species that built them have vanished. This is especially true when they form regular (over-dispersed), self-organized vegetation patterns [1]. Here, we describe a vast array of soil mounds constructed by termites (Syntermes dirus) that has persisted for up to 4000 years and covers an estimated 230,000 km² of seasonally dry tropical forest in a relatively undisturbed and climatically stable region of Northeast Brazil. The mounds are not nests, but rather they are generated by the excavation of vast inter-connecting tunnel networks, resulting in approximately 10 km³ of soil being deposited in 200 million conical mounds that are 2.5 m tall and approximately 9 m in diameter. S. dirus termites are still present in the soil surrounding the mounds and we found that intra-specific aggression occurred at a scale much larger than an individual mound. We suggest that the complex network of tunnels built to access episodic leaf-fall has allowed for the optimization of waste soil removal, which over thousands of years has formed an over-dispersed spatial pattern of mounds. Martin et al. show that in Northeast Brazil an estimated 200 million, regularly spaced, termite mounds are up to 4000 years old. Each mound is 2-4m high by 9 m in diameter; they occupy 230,000 km², and arise from the excavation of 10 cubic km of soil during the construction of a vast tunnel network that still allows termites’ safe access to their food.
Scouting for formicidae presence in Microcerotermes diversus galleries was conducted from March to September 2014 in 10 date palm trees located in the Omaltomire region of Khuzestan Province, Iran. Measurements and morphological observations were made of 20 ant workers. For the in vitro predation test, M. diversus nymphs (n = 10 per replicate) were placed in a petri dish. Then, live freshly field-collected worker of ants were added. After 24 h, the number termite nymphs that were fully or partially devoured was determined. Five ants, including Plagiolepis pallescens, Polyrhachis lacteipennis, Pheidole teneriffana, Crematogaster antaris, and Monomorium destructor were predators of termites in date palm orchards. P. lacteipennis and P. teneriffana, and P. pallescens, C. antaris, and M. destructor, showed Type II and Type III functional responses, respectively. The highest predation efficiency, and the lowest handing time coupled with the highest attack rate by predators was recorded for P. lacteipennis and P. teneriffana, and C. antaris and M. destructor, respectively. Predator ant characteristics measured include: HL-Head length; HW-head width; SL-scape length; EL-eye length; PW-pronotal width; WL-thorax length; GL-gaster length; TL-total length; FL-femur length. HL, HW, SL, EL and FL showed positive effects on the functional response parameters. Results showed that termite defense capabilities declined with increasing of ant predation efficiency.
The research experiment was conducted at Research Farm of College of Agriculture, Swami Keshwanand Rajasthan Agricultural University, Bikaner (Rajasthan) during rabi 2013-14. Eight organic amendments viz., Bone meal, cotton cake, mustard cake, groundnut cake, neem cake, FYM, Vermi-compost and poultry manure were tested against termites in wheat as soil application at the time of land preparation before sowing. All the organic amendment treatments were found significantly superior to control till 15 week after sowing.The application of neem cake as organic amendments resulted the lowest 2.75 per cent plant damage and found significantly superior in managing the termite infestation in wheat crop over all the evaluated organic amendments except bone meal (3.66%) and vermi-compost (3.97%). The plots treated with cotton cake (6.02%), were not equally effective as neem cake and found at par with poultry manure (6.10%).Out of these evaluated organic amendments, the highest (9.76%) damaged plants were observed in plots treated with FYM and it was at par with groundnut cake (9.74%) treated plots. the application of neem cake, bone meal and vermi-compost @ 1 tonne/ha were found highly effective against termite in wheat as organic amendments. The maximum (4210 kg ha-1) grain yield was obtained from the plots treated with neem cake and it was at par with bone meal (3852 kg ha-1) and vermi-compost (3728kg ha-1). Introduction Wheat [Triticumaestivum (Linnaeus) Em. Thell] belongs to family Gramineae, believed to have originated from South West Asia. It is most important cereal cultivated crop in temperate area of the world. Wheat is second important staple food crop after rice. Its value in human diet, both as a source of carbohydrates and protein and its baking qualities make it relatively more important crop than other cereal grains. Wheat flour is used in the form of chapatti, puri, bread, cake, sweetmeats, halwa, etc. It provides characteristic substance "Gluten" which is very essential for bakers.Wheat straw is also used in paper industries and for making temporary huts and roof. The bran, husk and other portion of grain and straw are valuable feed for livestock as well as good source of bedding material for livestock. The ripe unthreshingearheads are used to decorate items. It provides 20 per cent of total calories for human. Wheat grain contains 12.2 per cent protein, which is more than other cereals. Wheat is one of the leading cereal crop which have provided daily sustenance for a large proportion of the world's population for millennia. There are many biotic constraints that hamper wheat production of which infestation of insect pests is major one. Wheat crop is attacked by 24 species of insect pests (Singh, 1998). Major insect pests of wheat are termite, Odontotermesobesus (Rambur), gujhia weevil,) and stalk borer, Chiloauricilius (Dudgeon). Over and above these insect pests damaging the wheat crop, the non insectpestsmollusca, slugs, Derocerasreticulatum (Muller) and snails, Cepaeahortensis (Muller) also damage the crop.Mehta and Verma (1968) calculated the loss due to termite up to 230 million rupees for all the agricultural crops. The work on different aspect in relation to termite in wheat is lacking in the arid ecosystem of Rajasthan. Hence, the present investigations were carried out.
Termites are an important component of savannah ecosystems throughout Africa. Despite their importance in the ecosystem, they can be serious pests of structures, houses, rangelands, tropical forestry, and agriculture. For many decades, chemical insecticides have remained popular for termite management worldwide. However, with the growing environmental concerns over pesticides, biological control using entomopathogenic fungi such as
Metarhizium anisopliae
(Metschnikoff) Sorokin has become an often-considered alternative.
Metarhizium anisopliae
is an ubiquitous, naturally occurring pathogen, which has been reported infecting over 200 insect species; therefore, there is concern that use of
M. anisopliae
may affect non-target organisms. The effects of
M. anisopliae
isolate ICIPE 30 were experimentally tested on the ants which associate with
Odontotermes
spp. termite mounds. Laboratory bioassays were carried out to assess the effects of direct exposure to
M. anisopliae
on
Crematogaster mimosae
and
Camponotus
spp. In addition, ant diversity was monitored over 18 months from termite mounds treated with
M. anisopliae in situ
near the Mpala Research Centre in Laikipia District of central Kenya. Results obtained revealed no effects of direct exposure to
M. anisopliae
isolate ICIPE 30 on the mortality of
C. mimosae
(
F
1
= 7.29,
P
= 0.0072) or
Camponotus
spp. (
F
1
= 13.01,
P
= 0.0004) in the laboratory. No significant difference in Shannon indices of ant diversity from treated and untreated mounds (
F
1
= 0.016,
P
= 0.8989) was found. It is evident that
M. anisopliae
has no negative effects on ants that are associated with
Odontotermes
spp. termites.
Field efficacy of sesamin was tested against the termites, Odontotermes wallonensis (Isoptera: Termitidae) in groundnut between February to May, 2012 in Kovilangulam village, Tamil Nadu. Sesamin 1000 ppm, 900 ppm, 800 ppm, 700 ppm and 600 ppm were soil drenched in groundnut field @ 1000 ml/acre. A standard synthetic chemical insecticide, Chlorantraniliprole 18.5 SC was used as a reference product and untreated control plot was also maintained. The effects of sesamin on pod damage (PD) and pod scarification (PS) were assessed till harvest (90 days). Significantly more termite infestation was found in control (75% PD and 40.33% PS) as compared to treated plots (p < 0.05). Chlorantraniliprole 18.5% SC was effectively reduced the termite infestation (17.96% PD and 13.98% PS). Sesamin 1000ppm was on par with standard check which controlled the pod damage and pod scarification by 18.33 and 15.00 per cent respectively.
The compatibility and synergy in efficacy of the termiticide fipronil with a biocontrol agent Metarhizium anisopliae, alone or in combination, against the subterranean termite, Coptotermes curvignathus were investigated. Sublethal doses of fipronil were found relatively less detrimental to fungal growth of M. anisopliae local isolates in a compatibility test. The fungus–insecticide bait formulation showed the greatest synergistic effect that increased termite mortality as well as reduced the lethal time at a sublethal dose of 0.05 mg a.i./l fipronil with conidia concentrations of 107 conidia/g bait (χ2 = 48.80) at LT50 value of 6.46 days, followed by 108 conidia/g bait (χ2 = 5.09) at LT50 value of 4.89 days compared to the use of these control agents alone. The insecticidal stress caused by sublethal fipronil in the formulated bait may weaken the termites and reduce their defence mechanism, which facilitates fungus infection on termites. The observed synergism treatments show the potential for integrated fungus–insecticide control method and need to be further investigated on termite infested oil palm trees. © 2015, Czech Academy of Agricultural Sciences. All rights reserved.
Most insects are unable to use plant cell walls as their main food sources, but some insects subsist on lignocellulosic biomass from agricultural crops to forest woody substrates as their only foods, such as in the case of termites (all seven families), wood-feeding roaches (Blattidae, Cryptoceridae), beetles (Anobiidae, Buprestidae, Cerambycidae, Scarabaeidae), wood wasps (Siricidae), leaf-shredding aquatic insects (Pteronarcidae, Limnephilidae, Tipulidae), silver fish (Lepismatidae), leaf-cutting ants (Formicidae), etc. Cellulose digestion has been demonstrated in more than 20 families representing ten distinct insect orders, e. g. Thysanura, Plecoptera, Dictyoptera, Orthoptera, Isoptera, Coleoptera, Trichoptera, Hymenoptera, Phasmida, and Diptera. The ability of these insects to feed on wood, foliage and detritus has recently stimulated extensive investigations into the mechanisms of how these insects digest the structural and recalcitrant lignocellulose in their foods. With these studies, scientists would possibly advance biofuel technologies with the discovery of novel lignocellulolytic enzymes and a better understanding of the bioconversion mechanisms that breakdown plant cell walls inside the insect’s gut. Producing monomeric sugars from cellulose or hemicellulose with high yields and low cost is far more difficult than deriving them from sugar- or starch-containing crops. This difficulty is primarily due to a lack of efficient and economic lignocellulolytic enzymes that convert rigid plant cell walls to their monomeric pentose and hexose sugar subunits. However, termites, especially wood-feeding termites (including lower and higher termites), are a unique group of lignocellulose-feeding insects exhibiting incredible wood degradation capabilities, which accomplish lignocellulose digestion using specialized gut physiology, endogenously produced digestive enzymes, and via their specialized association with prokaryotic and eukaryotic gut symbionts. It is believed that the guts of these lignocellulosefeeding insects harbor diverse symbiotic microbes and endogenous enzymes that could be used as a rich source of lignocellulases as well as functional gene resources for improving the conversion of wood or waste plant biomass to valuable biofuels. Recent studies showed that lignocellulose-feeding insects and their symbionts have not only cellulolytic or lignin decomposition activity, but also aromatic hydrocarbon degradation. Thus, as an emerged new area of entomological science, utilization of lignocellulose-feeding insects would be very valuable for viable biofuels production made from lignocellulosic biomass. Clearly, understanding the mechanisms of the biomass digestion in these insect guts could potentially shed light on efficient, low cost, lignocellulose-based biofuel production systems. This review addresses various lignocellulolytic systems, the potential values, various challenges, and opportunities that exist for investigating lignocellulose-feeding insects in biofuels production, as well as possible future research directions.
The termite, Microtermes mycophagus D., is an economically important species causing damage to wooden structures and agricultural crops in Pakistan. Toxicities of six new chemical insecticides were evaluated to determine the lethal concentration (LC50) against M. mycophagus collected from four locations (tree plantation, untreated building, treated building, agriculture area) of Multan, Pakistan. The population collected from agricultural area was more tolerant to all insecticides compared to those of other three locations. The order of average toxicity of insecticides from highest to lowest was: chlorfenapyr > spinosad > thiamethoxam > fipronil > indoxacarb > imidacloprid. The study provides an opportunity to compare the toxicities of some new chemical insecticides and to use them effectively in the termite management programme.
A laboratory bioassay was developed to test the toxicity, repellency and tunneling behavior of imidacloprid against Microtermes obesi (Holmgren). In this study >90% of termites died after 96 h exposure to 100 μg mL-1 of imidacloprid and after 168 h all the termites died at all the tested concentrations. When tested for persistence (exposure to soil aged one month after treatment), >90% mortality was observed in soil treated with 100 μg mL-1, 50 μg mL-1 and 25 μg mL-1 after 120 h exposure. Repellency test results proved imidacloprid to be a non-repellent insecticide at all tested concentrations (i.e., 100 μg mL-1, 50 μg mL-1, 25 μg mL-1, 12.5 μg mL-1, 6.25 μg mL-1, 3.125 μg mL-1 and 1.562 μg mL-1). When tested for F-1 (0.97) toxicity, it was also evident that it took more than 8 h to give 97% mortality. Tunneling behavior was also studied for cumulative tunnel distance, maximum tunnel height and number of tunnels. At higher concentrations, not only was there more mortality, but also less cumulative tunnel distance and a reduced number of tunnels.
Pest problems are an inevitable part of modern day agriculture. They occur because agro-ecosystems have created less stable natural ecosystems which otherwise govern ecological forces that regulate potential pest species in natural ecosystems. Raising crops in a monoculture thus provides a food resource cycle that allows pest populations to achieve far higher densities than they would in natural environments. A certain cultivation practice can also make the physico-chemical environment more favourable for pest activity, for example, through irrigation or the warm conditions found in glasshouses. New cultivars or new crops introduced into a certain area or country may provide food resources for potential pests. Also, the use of broad spectrum insecticides can destroy natural predators that help keep pests under control. In these scenarios, new pest problems arise or existing pests become more serious and cause significant damage to crops, biodiversity and landscape valued at billions of dollars per annum. New strains of plant insect-pests may arise to overcome varietal resistance in crops.
African mahogany (Khaya spp.) has attracted the interest of the timber market in Brazil because of the quality of the wood and the similarity to the highly demanded, Brazilian mahogany (S. macrophylla King). The goal of this study was to examine natural resistance of plantation-grown African mahogany (Khaya spp.) to decay fungi and termite feeding, in order to better evaluate the potential use of this material as a suitable replacement for Brazilian mahogany wood. Heartwood and sapwood of two African mahogany species, Khaya ivorensis and Khaya senegalensis, were evaluated for resistance to decay by five wood-rot fungi as well as to feeding by subterranean termites in laboratory tests. In addition, density values were evaluated and examined for correlation to the observed natural durability properties. Overall, results showed heartwood of both species to be more resistant than sapwood to all fungi tested. K. senegalensis sapwood showed the lowest resistance to decay fungi, while K. senegalensis heartwood had the highest resistance to both brown- and white-rot fungi as well as to the dry-rot fungus tested. Both wood species showed some resistance to feeding by subterranean termites, with significantly higher resistance in heartwood compared to sapwood. In fungal and termite tests, durability was not found to be correlated to density values for either Khaya spp. tested. Results from this study suggest plantation-grown African mahogany exhibits similar natural durability properties as Brazilian mahogany, supporting the potential for its use as a suitable substitute to better meet the demands of the wood products industry.
Laboratory studies were carried out at bioassay lab, Institute of Pesticide Formulation Technology, Gurgaon to incur the repellent efficacy of Crotalaria burhia Buch.-Ham and Anacardium occidentale L. against Odontotermes obesus (Rambur). Aqueous root extracts of C.burhia at different concentrations, viz. 0.5%, 1%, 2.5%, 5%, 10% and 20% and powdered leaf dusts of A. occidentale at 0.5%, 1%, 2.5%, 5%, 7.5% and 10% concentrations were prepared and tested for their repellent action against O. obesus, Chlorpyrifos 20% EC was maintained as standard check. An area of preference test described by Landani et al. (1955) and Mc Donald et al. (1970) was followed and the results unveiled that root extracts of C. burhia at concentration of 10% and 20% gave a mean repellency of 66.66% and 70%, whereas 5% and 7.5% powdered leaf dust of A. occidentale gave a mean repellent efficacy of 56.66% and 60%. The lower doses of C. burhia and A. occidentale were not much effective in repelling away O. obesus. The standard check chlorpyrifos 20% EC resulted in 96.66 % and 100% repellency in both the studies. Thus higher doses of root extracts of C. burhia and powdered leaf dust of A. occidentale can be further tested for their repellent efficacy in field against O. obesus and can be included in IPM for termites, as botanicals in IPM are gaining accent as they are environmentally safe.
Termites are constantly exposed to many pathogens when they nest and forage in the field, so they employ various immune strategies to defend against pathogenic infections. Here, we demonstrate that the subterranean termite Reticulitermes chinensis employs active immunization to defend against the entomopathogen Metarhizium anisopliae. Our results showed that allogrooming frequency increased significantly between fungus-treated termites and their nestmates. Through active social contact, previously healthy nestmates only received small numbers of conidia from fungus-treated individuals. These nestmates experienced low-level fungal infections, resulting in low mortality and apparently improved antifungal defences. Moreover, infected nestmates promoted the activity of two antioxidant enzymes (SOD and CAT) and upregulated the expression of three immune genes (phenoloxidase, transferrin, and termicin). We found 20 differentially expressed proteins associated with active immunization in R. chinensis through iTRAQ proteomics, including 12 stress response proteins, six immune signalling proteins, and two immune effector molecules. Subsequently, two significantly upregulated (60S ribosomal protein L23 and isocitrate dehydrogenase) and three significantly downregulated (glutathione S-transferase D1, cuticle protein 19, and ubiquitin conjugating enzyme) candidate immune proteins were validated by MRM assays. These findings suggest that active immunization in termites may be regulated by different immune proteins.
Coptotermes Wasmann (Isoptera: Rhinotermitidae) is one of the most economically important subterranean termite genera and some species are successful invaders. However, despite its important pest status, the taxonomic validity of many named Coptotermes species remains unclear. In this study, we reviewed
all named species within the genus and investigated evidence supporting the validity of each named species. Species were systematically scrutinized according to the region of their original description: Southeast Asia, India, China, Africa, the Neotropics, and Australia. We estimate that of the currently 69 named species described by accepted nomenclatural rules, only 21 taxa have solid evidence for validity, 44 names have uncertain status, and the remaining species names should be synonymized or were made unavailable. Species with high degrees of invasiveness may be known under additional junior synonyms due to independent parochial descriptions. Molecular data for a vast majority of species are scarce and significant effort is needed to complete the taxonomic and phylogenetic revision of the genus. Because of the wide distribution of Coptotermes, we advocate for an integrative taxonomic effort to establish the distribution of each putative species, provide specimens and corresponding molecular data, check original descriptions and
type specimens (if available), and provide evidence for a more robust phylogenetic position of each species. This study embodies both consensus and contention of those studying Coptotermes and thus pinpoints the current uncertainty of many species. This project is intended to be a roadmap for identifying those
Coptotermes species names that need to be more thoroughly investigated, as an incentive to complete a necessary revision process.
Bamboo has been a building material for centuries in Indonesia and Japan. Traditional buildings use bamboo to support walls or as an interior material. Recent changes in people's lifestyles and in architectural design have resulted in decreased use of bamboo. However, new housing materials made from bamboo have been developed and new building methods have also been proposed. This study was conducted to evaluate the potential for termite attack against five bamboo species, Gigantochloa apus, G.atroviolacea, G.atter, Dendrocalamus asper, and Bambusa vulgaris. The objectives of the study were to measure the chemical components of these five species in central Java and determine whether they deter attack by the subterranean termite Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki. A factorial experiment with asplit plot design was applied with three replications. Tests of the five bamboo species indicated that extractive soluble in cold water was 5.91%; hot water was 7.70%–10.22%; toluenewas 1.99%–7.49%; holocellulose was 73.54%–80.69%; ash rate was 1.47%–4.21%; solubility in NaOH 1% was 20.93%–29.47%. Cellulosein Bambusa vulgaris (53.34%) and nitrogen content of G.apus (0.33%) were higher than those of G.atrolviolascea, G.atter, and D.asper. The highest lignin content was found in G.atter bamboo (27.33%). Termite damage was related to the chemical composition of the different bamboo species. The correlation between chemical component and termite activity test is also discussed.
Termites are very devastating insect pests of agricultural, ornamental crops and dry wood. They are social insect having strong inter-communication, due to which they are very active pests, with both positive and negative effects on the environment. They are found in every type of soil in the world, and have a broad range of species. Management of termites has been approached with a number of different strategies, especially chemical pesticides, which have other environmental site impacts. Microbial biological control is defined as the use, and proper adjustment, of natural enemies via microbial organisms, such as; fungi, virus, bacteria, and with the aim of suppression and management of insect populations. A broad range of species, from different groups of microbial organisms, have strong association with termites, and some have been recorded as parasites. Some species are currently used as commercial biological control agents of termites.
Significance
Termite mounds are the result of the collective behavior of termites working to modify their physical environment, which in turn affects their behavior. During mound construction, environmental factors such as heat flow and gas exchange affect the building behavior of termites, and the resulting change in mound geometry in turn modifies the response of the internal mound environment to external thermal oscillations. Our study highlights the principles of self-organized animal architecture driven by the coupling of environmental physics to organismal behavior and might serve as a natural inspiration for the design of sustainable human architectures.
In common with other parts of Africa, Uganda has found that termites are the main obstacle to the successful establishment of Eucalyptus plantations in the drier areas. This paper outlines the problem as it affects Uganda, examines the factors affecting the incidence of attack, and gives an account of the research into termite control, both chemical and silvicultural, which has been carried out. The lack of knowledge regarding the basic factors underlying termite attack is stressed and proposals made for future lines of research.
Sustainable agriculture and agro-ecology justify the need to study and understand the role played by ecological processes, and soil biodiversity in particular, in agro-ecosystem functioning. A large number of studies have focused on earthworms in temperate and humid tropical ecosystems and have demonstrated their importance for improving soil biological, physical, and chemical properties in agro-ecosystems. Their “success” is so essential that earthworms are widely considered key species and relevant indicators of soil health in temperate ecosystems. In arid and sub-arid ecosystems, the role of “soil engineer” is usually attributed to termites, and especially fungus-growing termites in Africa and Asia. However, despite this recognition, significant effort is spent eradicating them in plantations because of their pest status. In this review, we discuss the status of termites (“pests” vs. “soil engineers”) and question whether termites play similar roles to earthworms in arid- and sub-arid agroecosystems, with a focus on their influence on nutrient cycling and water dynamics. We argue that the dream of controlling natural interactions and ridding plantations of termites remains a costly legacy of the green revolution. We review the agricultural practices that have been used to reduce termite damage in plantations by restoring refuges to predators or by reorienting termite foraging activity towards organic amendments. Then, we show that the stimulation of termite activity can be used to improve key ecological functions in agro-ecosystems, such as increasing water availability to plants or producing fertility hot-spots. Finally, we suggest that more research on how termites can be used for improving ecosystem services, as is actually done with earthworms in temperate and humid tropical countries, could lead to a paradigm shift in our understanding of the impact of termites in tropical agro-ecosytems.
The book is a new compendium in which leading termite scientists review the advances of the last 30 years in our understanding of phylogeny, fossil records, relationships with cockroaches, social evolution, nesting, behaviour, mutualisms with archaea, protists, bacteria and fungi, nutrition, energy metabolism,population and community ecology, soil conditioning, greenhouse gas production and pest status.
Being important pests of temperate and tropical regions, termites are responsible for massive losses to agricultural crops and wooden structures. Chemical control is the most popular and effective method of management. However, the deleterious effect of continuous usage of chemical termiticides is of serious concern, and researchers throughout the world are actually searching for alternative approaches. This chapter encompasses the various non-chemical strategies developed so far. Physical methods of control are also discussed. Focus has been given on biological means of management with major emphasis drawn on fungi, bacteria, nematodes and plant-derived natural products (botanicals). Botanical pesticides are sustainable, biodegradable and easily available, with no effect on nontarget species, and do not cause pest resistance. Furthermore, the bioactive components present in the botanicals can be isolated, characterized, formulated and used as commercial termiticides.
Crop damage by termite is known to be severe in degraded soils. However, the role of organic inputs in reducing crop damage by termite has not been systematically studied in Ethiopia. Therefore, the objectives of this study were to quantify (i) the influence of integrated use of manure and NP fertilizer on termite damage and pod yields of hot pepper (Capsicum frutescence L.), (ii) the optimum rate of manure and NP fertilizer for hot pepper production for the study area, and (iii) the association between different rates of nitrogen (N) fertilizer and plant damage by termite. Two separate experiments were conducted for three consecutive seasons on degraded soils that were hotspots of termite activity. The treatments in experiment 1 consisted of different rates of well-composted manure applied in combination with NP fertilizer, whereas experiment 2 consisted of different rates of N fertilizer with basal application of 44 kg P ha⁻¹. In experiment 1, the combined application of manure and NP fertilizer significantly (P < 0.05) reduced plant damage but increased pod yields compared with the control treatment and the recommended NP fertilizer. Plant damage by termites decreased from 29% in the first season to 11% in the third season, while pod yield increased from 378 kg ha⁻¹ in the first season to 2339 kg ha⁻¹ in the third season. The results of the repeated measures data analysis also indicated significant (P < 0.0001) differences among the seasons in plant damage by termite and pod yield. In experiment 2, continuous application of the different rates of N fertilizer did not significantly reduced plant damage by termite while the N effect lacked consistency on pod yield. However, the application of N at rates ≥75 and >100 kg ha⁻¹ increased termite damages to hot pepper in the first and second seasons, respectively. Overall, the application of one-fourth of the recommended NP fertilizer (25/11 kg N/P ha⁻¹) along with 10 t manure ha⁻¹ was found to be optimum for hot pepper production for the study area and similar agroecosystem. Therefore, we recommend adoption of the integrated use of manure and NP fertilizer to prevent soil degradation and reduce termite damage in western Ethiopia.
Background:
In experiments with Formosan Subterranean Termites (Coptotermes formosanus Shirakii), myo-inositol-2-monophosphate as the di-cyclohexylammonium salt was tested among other sugar derivatives, and was found to be toxic to C. formosanus when added to a moistened filter paper food source in plastic petri dishes.
Results:
Curiously, over a 9 day period, the moniliform (beaded) antennae of C. formosanus deteriorated in a stepwise fashion with the most distal pseudosegment (bead) turning brown and falling off, followed by the penultimate pseudosegment, sequentially until 7-9 days when only a stub of the antennae remained. Termites became increasingly moribund with the loss of antennae, and quit normal behavior including consuming cellulose food, and died. sn-L-glycerol-3-phosphate as the di-cyclohexylammonium salt also gave the same results. Dicyclohexylammonium hydrogenphosphate and monocyclohexylammonium dihydrogenphosphate were synthesized, to find a low cost form for application to baits, both of which also showed similar toxicity. In a trial with Fibonacci series dilutions of neat cyclohexylamine, the antennae-effecting activity became apparent in the LD30 (14 days) to LD70 range of concentrations. At the higher concentrations, darkening of the most distal parts of leg extremities were noticed.
Conclusion:
Cyclohexylamine appears to be a novel termiticide with a previously unreported mechanism of toxicity. It's hydrogen phosphate salts retain the toxic effect and are inexpensive and easily synthesized.
I Development in the Egg.- References.- II The Integument.- Properties of the cuticle.- Formation and shedding of the cuticle.- References.- III Growth.- Moulting.- Metamorphosis.- Determination of characters during post-embryonic development.- Regeneration.- Diapause.- References.- IV Muscular System and Locomotion.- Anatomy and histology.- Physiological properties of insect muscles.- Locomotion.- References.- V Nervous and Endocrine Systems.- Nervous system.- Visceral nervous system.- Endocrine system.- References.- VI Sense Organs: Vision.- Compound eye.- Simple eyes.- References.- VII Sense Organs: Mechanical and Chemical Senses.- Mechanical senses.- Hearing.- Chemical senses.- Temperature and humidity.- References.- VIII Behaviour.- Kinesis and related phenomena.- Orientation.- Co-ordinated behaviour.- References.- IX Respiration.- Tracheal system.- Development of the tracheal system.- Transport of oxygen to the tracheal endings.- Elimination of carbon dioxide.- Respiration of aquatic insects.- Respiration of endoparasitic insects.- Respiratory function of the blood.- Regulation of respiratory movements.- References.- X The Circulatory System and Associated Tissues.- Circulatory system.- Haemolymph.- Haemocytes.- Pericardial cells and so-called 'nephrocytes'.- Fat body.- Oenocytes.- Light-producing organs.- References.- XI Digestion and Nutrition.- Fore-gut.- Peritrophic membrane.- Mid-gut.- Hind-gut.- Secretions of the alimentary canal.- Digestion of some skeletal and other substances of plants and animals.- The role of lower organisms in digestion.- Nutrition.- References.- XII Excretion.- Urine.- Intermediary nitrogen metabolism.- Malpighian tubes.- Histophysiology of the Malpighian tubes.- Accessory functions of Malpighian tubes.- Malpighian tubes during moulting and metamorphosis.- Cephalic excretory organs and intestinal excretion.- Storage excretion.- References.- XIII Metabolism.- Chemical transformations.- Some chemical products of insects.- Pigment metabolism.- Respiratory metabolism.- References.- XIV Water and Temperature.- Water relations.- Temperature relations.- References.- XV Reproductive System.- Female reproductive system.- Male reproductive system.- Mating, impregnation and fertilization.- Some factors controlling fertility and fecundity.- Special modes of reproduction.- Sex determination.- Transmission of symbiotic micro-organisms.- References.- Index of Authors.- General Index.
Social insect colonies have evolved many collectively performed adaptations that reduce the impact of infectious disease and maximize their fitness. This colony-level protection is termed social immunity and enhances the health and survival of colony. In this review, we address how social immunity emerges from its mechanistic components to produce colony-level disease avoidance, resistance and tolerance. To understand the evolutionary causes and consequences of social immunity, we highlight the need for studies evaluating the effects of social immunity on colony fitness. We discuss the role of host life history and ecology on predicted eco-evolutionary dynamics, which differ between the social insect lineages. Throughout the review we highlight current gaps in our knowledge and promising avenues for future research, which we hope will bring us closer to an integrated understanding of socio-eco-evo-immunology.
Eavesdropping has evolved in many predator–prey relationships. Communication signals of social
species may be particularly vulnerable to eavesdropping, such as pheromones produced by ants,
which are predators of termites. Termites communicate mostly by way of substrate-borne vibrations,
which suggest they may be able to eavesdrop, using two possible mechanisms: ant chemicals
or ant vibrations. We observed termites foraging within millimetres of ants in the field, suggesting
the evolution of specialised detection behaviours. We found the termite Coptotermes acinaciformis
detected their major predator, the ant Iridomyrmex purpureus, through thin wood using only
vibrational cues from walking, and not chemical signals. Comparison of 16 termite and ant species
found the ants-walking signals were up to 100 times higher than those of termites. Eavesdropping
on passive walking signals explains the predator detection and foraging behaviours in this ancient
relationship, which may be applicable to many other predator–prey relationships.
In this status paper, impact of termites as serious
structural insect-pests is highlighted with relevant information
in Indian context. Worldwide, more than $40 billion
was estimated towards the termite damage. Study
revealed at least thirteen species of termites belonging to
three families are closely associated with structural damage
in India. Heterotermes indicola (Rhinotermitidae: Isoptera)
was discussed as the key termite species causing structural
damage with substantial impact (even with astounding
cases of abandoning houses by victimized villagers).
Swarming, the most important sign of termite infestation in
and around buildings/structures is discussed. A nation-wide
scenario of termite damage in various buildings, public
places, dams and dykes, agri-horticultural constructions
and timber-in-service are presented. Sustainable termite
control in the light of present and upcoming eco-technologies
is identified as the major focal point. Use of termiticides
as recognized and recommended by Indian
Standards, Insecticide Act (1968) and United Nation
Environment Program for management of termites in preand
post-construction stages of various buildings and other
structures are recorded with relevance of application and
dose. Termite management technologies like use of borate,
bait and barrier (3B) are briefed; with pest-control industry-
invented devices such as termatrac are brought into
focus along with indigenous traditional knowledge of termite
control. Status of termite R&D in India is discussed in
various institutional and web-based levels along with recognizing
research gaps. The present study is a pioneer
approach in its kind which can be a platform to formulate
compact eco-friendly, environmentally sustainable and
economic module of termite control interventions indoor.
In this study, Lawsonia inermis stem bark and leaf extracts compounds were quantitatively determined using Spectrophoto-metric and Forlin-Ciocalteu methods. The wood protection abilities of the leaf extract (LILE) against termites and fungi were investigated on Triplochiton scleroxylon and Vitex doniana woods. Sample woods were treated with four different formulations (5%–20%) of LILE in 70% ethanol for three days. The treated wood block samples including control as reference were exposed to termites under field conditions and two fungi (white rot, Ganoderma lucidum and brown rot, Sclerotium rolfsii) under laboratory (RH = 65%, Temperature = 27 °C) conditions for six months. The leaf extract yield was 5.7%. The stem bark of L. inermis contained 273.16 ± 0.25 mg/g total alkaloids, 6.81 ± 0.10 mg/g total flavonoids, 51.39 ± 0.28 mg/g total phenol, 47.98 ± 0.27 mg/g total saponins and 54.22 ± 0.30 mg/g total tannins while the leaf contained 236.60 ± 1.32 mg/g total alkaloids, 4.43 ± 0.05 mg/g total flavonoids, 30.96 ± 1.15 mg/g total phenol, 21.41 ± 0.44 mg/g total saponins and 37.44 ± 0.24 mg/g total tannins. The results showed that the extractives compounds from L. inermis had significant biocide actions against both termite attack and fungi decay, and conclusively rendering the study findings promising for the future use as protective agent for wood.
A preliminary survey was conducted by transect method throughout the instructional farm area of the College of Horticulture, Vellanikkara and the soldier castes of termites were sampled from a unit area of 200 sq. m each from various crop environments. The collected samples were preserved and identified based on taxonomic keys with reference to their characteristics of head capsule, mandibles and pronotum. A total of nine genera under two families were identified; out of which seven genera viz., Odontotermes, Procapritermes, Dicuspiditermes, Homallotermes, Microtermes, Microcerotermes and Nasutitermes were under the family Termitidae and Heterotermes and Coptotermes were of the family Rhinotermitidae. Odontotermes was found to be the most dominant in all the crop environments accounting for about 62.03%. The least occuring was Coptotermes which constituted only 1.27%.
Spinosyn products, spinosad and spinetoram, are widely used to control various agricultural pests. Spinosad has been tested on Kalotermitidae and Termitidae but not on Rhinotermitidae, the most destructive of termite families. In this study, we tested the effect of spinosad and spinetoram on Coptotermes formosanus Shiraki. Both no-choice and choice tests were conducted using three concentrations, 1 ppm, 25 ppm, and 50 ppm, of the spinosyn products Entrust, Tracer, and Radiant on three substrates, sand, soil, and filter paper. In the no-choice test in sand, >85% mortality was observed at 25 and 50 ppm after 1 d of exposure followed by 100% mortality at 7 d. Similarly, after 7 d at 25 and 50 ppm in soil and filter paper, 100% mortality was observed, but compared to sand at 1 d, mortality was low. In the two-choice test, observations before the onset of termite mortality showed that none of the products or concentrations was repellent. Likewise, in the multiple-choice test, there was no repellency or preference of termites among 1 ppm, 25 ppm, 50 ppm, control, and release chamber at all three concentrations, and the tunnel area in the control and treated choices were not significantly different. These findings support the nonrepellent attribute of spinosyns on C. formosanus.
Pseudomonas fluorescens CHA0 has been shown to suppress the growth of a wide range of microbial plant pathogens as well as invertebrate pests such as root nematodes. Hydrogen cyanide, a secondary metabolite produced by the bacterium, has been credited as being one of the determinants of its biocontrol ability. The use of biocontrol agents against social insect pests such as termite Odontotermes obesus has limitations because of behavioural adaptations that include (1) removal of the pathogen when grooming by the termites and (2) isolation of infested members of the colony. In this study, we show that cyanide of bacterial origin may inhibit cytochrome c oxidase (CCO) of the termite respiratory chain and demonstrate that HCN-producing bacteria such as P. fluorescens can actually kill a macroscopic insect pest by cyanide poisoning. This ability of pseudomonad metabolites such as cyanide, which can bring about pest death by blocking respiration through inhibition of CCO rather than infection or predation, can potentially overcome the behavioural adaptations of social insect pests such as termites and represents an attractive option for insect pest management.
The Objectives of this research were to evaluate the effect of gravel sands as a physical barrier against Coptotermes formosanus and Reticulitermes flaviceps under laboratory and field conditions. First, laboratory tests indicated that C. formosanus and R. flaviceps all penetrated the 7.0 cm thickness of soil layer as the controls after 2 and 3 days, respectively. Among the different particle diameters of gravel sands, the mean distance tunneled by C. formosanus was from 0.3 +/- 0.1 cm to 2.8 +/- 2.0 cm after 6 days. The distances tunneled by this termite in 1.36 similar to 1.98 mm and 1.36 similar to 2.58 mm gravel sands were significantly different compared with the control and the 1.10 similar to 1.21 mm gravel sands (P<0.05). Meanwhile, the result showed that a particle size of 1.36 similar to 2.58 mm was effective as a barrier against C. formosanus invasion. The distances tunneled by R. flaviceps in tested particle sizes of gravel sands (0.2 +/- 0.2 cm similar to 0.6 +/- 0.4 cm) were similar and did not have significant differences among them, but had significant differences when compared with the control (P<0.05). Moreover, the tunneling distance by this termite in the particle sizes of 1.10 similar to 1.21 mm, 1.21 similar to 1.36 mm and 1.36 similar to 1.61 mm were the shortest. The results from field tests indicated that 1.36 similar to 2.58 mm particle diameter gravel sands could be used as barrier materials for retarding invasion of C. formosanus and R. flaviceps. This research demonstrates proper thickness and particle sizes of gravel sands can effectively prevent C. formosanus and R. flaviceps from entering homes and buildings.
Isoptera (termites) is a small order of insects containing about 2650 species. The oldest fossil is found in limestone deposits of 130 million years ago (Cretaceous). Termites consume cellulose, the most abundant organic matter on the earth, and are superabundant in tropical regions. Then termites are one of the most prosperous animals on the earth from the viewpoint of history length and abundance. This chapter presents the global diversification process of termites with special reference to their social evolution and digestive symbiosis with microorganisms.
In India termites are widely distributed in red, sandy loams, lateritic and red loam soils. They are known to damage major field crops such as wheat, maize, sugarcane, cotton, groundnut, pulses, and forest plantation trees such as Eucalyptus, Silver oak, Casuarina and all kinds of timber in buildings. Termites attack the roots of crops at all stages of plant development, seed sets, newly planted seedlings, tree trunks and also wooden logs. In natural ecosystems, termites feed an organic matter too. They are responsible for reducing soil fertility by removing both plant and animal debris and locking them in their underground nests thus making them unavailable for plant growth. They are also litter consumers in forest ecosystems and contribute to the break down of dead wood and decomposition of organic matter on the forest floor. Losses due to termites run to several millions of rupees in agricultural crops alone. About 10-25 per cent loss is estimated in most field and forest crops. Severe loss in different regions of India has been recorded on highly susceptible crops such as wheat and sugarcane in northern India, maize, groundnuts, sunflower and sugarcane in southern India, tea in north eastern India and cotton in western India. Out of 300 species of termites known so far from India, about 35 species have been reported as damaging agricultural crops and timber in buildings. The majority of the pest species are soil inhabiting, either as mound builders or as subterranean nest builders. The major mound building species are Odontotermes obesus, O. redemanni and O. wallonensis. The major subterranean species are Heterotermes indicola, Coptotermes ceylonicus, C. heimi, Odontotermes horni, Microtermes obesi, Trinervitermes biformis and Microcerotermes beesoni. Termite abundance, distribution, nesting, pest status etc., under Indian conditions is discussed.