Why students do not turn on their video cameras during online classes and an equitable and inclusive plan to encourage them to do so

Abstract

Enrollment in courses taught remotely in higher education has been on the rise, with a recent surge in response to a global pandemic. While adapting this form of teaching, instructors familiar with traditional face-to-face methods are now met with a new set of challenges, including students not turning on their cameras during synchronous class meetings held via videoconferencing. After transitioning to emergency remote instruction in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, our introductory biology course shifted all in-person laboratory sections into synchronous class meetings held via the Zoom videoconferencing program. Out of consideration for students, we established a policy that video camera use during class was optional, but encouraged. However, by the end of the semester, several of our instructors and students reported lower than desired camera use that diminished the educational experience. We surveyed students to better understand why they did not turn on their cameras. We confirmed several predicted reasons including the most frequently reported: being concerned about personal appearance. Other reasons included being concerned about other people and the physical location being seen in the background and having a weak internet connection, all of which our exploratory analyses suggest may disproportionately influence underrepresented minorities. Additionally, some students revealed to us that social norms also play a role in camera use. This information was used to develop strategies to encourage –without requiring– camera use while promoting equity and inclusion. Broadly, these strategies are to not require camera use, explicitly encourage usage while establishing norms, address potential distractions, engage students with active learning, and understand your students’ challenges through surveys. While the demographics and needs of students vary by course and institution, our recommendations will likely be directly helpful to many instructors and also serve as a model for gathering data to develop strategies more tailored for other student populations.

Full text

Ecology and Evolution. 2021;11:3565–3576.
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3565www.ecolevol.org
Received: 1 July 2020
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Revised: 7 Oc tober 2020
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Accepted: 26 November 2020
DOI: 10.1002/ece3.7123
ACADEMIC PRACTICE IN ECOLOGY AND EVOLUTION
Why students do not turn on their video cameras during online
classes and an equitable and inclusive plan to encourage them
to do so
Frank R. Castelli | Mark A. Sarvary
This is an op en access article under the ter ms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which pe rmits use, distribution and reproduction in any medium,
provide d the original wor k is properly cited.
© 2021 The Authors. Ecology and Evolution published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Investigative Biology Teaching Laboratories,
Depar tment of Neurobiology and Behavior,
Cornell Univer sity, Ithaca, NY, USA
Correspondence
Investigative Biology Teaching Laboratories,
Depar tment of Neurobiology and Behavior,
Cornell Univer sity, Ithaca, NY 14853, USA .
Email: frankcastelli@cornell.edu
Abstract
Enrollment in courses taught remotely in higher education has been on the rise, with
a recent surge in response to a global pandemic. While adapting this form of teaching,
instructors familiar with traditional face-to-face methods are now met with a new set
of challenges, including students not turning on their cameras during synchronous
class meetings held via videoconferencing. After transitioning to emergency remote
instruction in response to the COVID-19 pandemic, our introductory biology course
shifted all in-person laboratory sections into synchronous class meetings held via the
Zoom videoconferencing program. Out of consideration for students, we established
a policy that video camera use during class was optional, but encouraged. However,
by the end of the semester, several of our instructors and students reported lower
than desired camera use that diminished the educational experience. We surveyed
students to better understand why they did not turn on their cameras. We confirmed
several predicted reasons including the most frequently reported: being concerned
about personal appearance. Other reasons included being concerned about other
people and the physical location being seen in the background and having a weak in-
ternet connection, all of which our exploratory analyses suggest may disproportion-
ately influence underrepresented minorities. Additionally, some students revealed
to us that social norms also play a role in camera use. This information was used
to develop strategies to encourage—without requiring—camera use while promoting
equity and inclusion. Broadly, these strategies are to not require camera use, explic-
itly encourage usage while establishing norms, address potential distractions, engage
students with ac tive learning, and understand your students’ challenges through sur-
veys. While the demographics and needs of students vary by course and institution,
our recommendations will likely be directly helpful to many instructors and also serve
as a model for gathering data to develop strategies more tailored for other student
populations.

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1 | INTRODUCTION
Student enrollment in distance education courses in postsecondary
institutions has been on the rise (NCES, 2020; Palvia et al., 2018).
Some forms of distance learning utilize advances in technology that
allow for synchronous class meetings over the internet using video-
conferencing software (Al-Samarraie, 2019). Moreover, the ongoing
COVID-19 pandemic has led to a widespread need for instruction to
move online and for instructors to hold synchronous class meetings
using videoconferencing software to maintain social distancing and
prevent the spread of infection (The Chronicle of Higher Education,
2020; UNES CO, 2020 ; Yuan, 2020). Many educ ators now fin d th em-
selves teaching remotely for the first time and facing a new set of
challenges (e.g., Reich et al., 2020). One such challenge in the world
of remote instruction, and the focus of this study, is not being able
to see students during synchronous class meetings held via video-
conferencing software, because students do not have their video
cameras turned on.
Midway in the spring semester of 2020, like at many other in-
stitutions in the United States, courses at Cornell University made
an emergency shift to remote instruction due to the COVID-19
pandemic (Cornell University, 2020; Milman, 2020), and our intro-
ductory biology laboratory course, covering topics in ecology and
evolution, was among them. We desired to continue the course with
synchronous laboratory section meetings due to the many educa-
tional benefits for students of synchronous remote learning com-
pared to asynchronous.
Be nef its of sy n chr ono us rem ote le arn ing in clu de the fo llowin g:
opportunities for higher interactivity and engagement among stu-
dents, timely and constructive feedback, and real-time collabora-
tive learning (Racheva, 2018). Additionally, synchronous learning
helps to build a stronger sense of community that fosters inter-
actions, discussions, and the sharing of ideas (Lin & Gao, 2020),
something we valued to maintain after transitioning but is also
important in future semesters as new cohorts of students begin
classes remotely. Another benefit of synchronous learning is that
the increased social interaction that comes with it compared to
asynchronous learning is strongly related to greater remote learn-
ing enjoyment, improved effectiveness of remote learning, and a
higher likelihood of enrolling in another online class (Muilenburg
& Berge, 2005). Student performance in synchronous remote
courses also has the potential to be similar to performance in
face-to-face versions of the same course (e.g., Francescucci &
Rohani, 2019). Lastly, interactions from synchronous instruction
may help to counter the effects of social distancing policies that
can increase feelings of loneliness and result in negative cogni-
tive (Cacioppo & Hawkley, 2009) and other health consequences
(Aleman & Sommer, 2020).
Despite our desires to teach synchronously while remote for the
rest of the semester, we, and the rest of the course staff, endeavor
to practice inclusive pedagogy, which includes having a mind-set
that values course design and policies that do not exclude students
due to inequities (Gannon, 2018). Hence, we were initially concerned
about the “digital divide,” in that many of our students might not
have access to a reliable internet connection or to a computer with
a working webcam and microphone (Cullen, 2001). To find out if this
was the case, we sur ve ye d ou r student s du ri ng a pause in classes be-
fore remote instruction began. Fortunately, only a small percentage
of students indicated these problems (webcam: 2%; internet: 5%;
N = 301). Therefore, we felt it was not unreasonable to resume in-
struction for our laboratory sections in the form of live synchronous
class meetings held via Zoom (Zoom Video Communications), with
video recordings of meetings and asynchronous means for participa-
tion for those who could not attend synchronously. Students with-
out reliable access to the necessar y technologies were also referred
to university resources put in place in response to the pandemic.
After deciding that we would hold synchronous class meet-
ings, the next question became whether we should mandate that
students turn on their video cameras during class. The supervising
staff agreed that the best student-centered policy would be to not
require students to use cameras because they may not be comfort-
able doing so, particularly if they do not have access to a private
space or are embarrassed of their home environment (Costa, 2020).
Such concerns have been expressed by other educators (Reich
et al., 2020). The COVID-19 pandemic has already increased college
student anxiety and depression (Huckins et al., 2020), and a mandate
for camera use may add to that trauma (Costa, 2020). Furthermore,
students of some populations may be disproportionately affected
by stress from the pandemic (McGinty et al., 2020). For example,
national surveys of adults in the United States show that measures
of symptoms of psychological distress increased from about 4% to
14% from 2018 to April 2020 with the highest increases in adults
aged 18–29 (4%–24%), adults with household incomes of less than
$35,00 0/year (8%–19%), and Hispanic adults (4%–18%) (McGinty
et al., 2020). Thus, the negative effects of mandating that cameras
be kept on may also be disproportional to some student populations,
such as underrepresented minorities in STEM (Science, Technology,
Engineering, and Mathematics), and contribute to already high attri-
tion rates (PCAST, 2012).
There are several reasons that students having cameras on may
be beneficial for teaching and learning, justifying our encouragement
of their use, and we review some of them here. Perhaps the most
obvious benefit is the ability to communicate with nonverbal cues.
Instructors benefit from receiving nonverbal cues from their students
such as smiles, frowns, head nods, looks of confusion, and looks of
boredom, so that they can evaluate their teaching in real time and
KEY WORDS
distance learning, remote instruction, synchronous teaching, video cameras,
videoconferencing, Zoom

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adjust accordingly to improve student learning (Miller, 1988; Mottet
& Richmond, 2002). Instructors that perceive a higher amount of
nonverbal responsiveness also rate themselves as having been more
effective (Mottet, 2000). Students similarly benefit from being able
to see other students when collaboratively learning. Students with
video in addition to audio were more able than students with only
audio to tell how their other study group members were reacting to
things they said while remote lear ning (Olson et al., 1995). The inclu-
sion of video has also been suggested as a way to address the fact
that students in remote classes without video reported that a lack
of nonverbal communication “reduced their educational experience”
(McBrien et al., 2009).
In addition to improving instructor effectiveness, being able
to see students while teaching makes for a more positive affec-
tive experience. For example, instructors that perceived a higher
amount of nonverbal responsiveness reported higher satisfaction
and a higher preference for wanting to teach in a remote video class
(Mottet, 2000). Additionally, instructors of our course expressed
displeasure with a general feeling of “talking to yourself” that occurs
when students do not have their cameras on. This is consistent with
feedback from remote meeting participants who preferred video-
conferencing over audio-only conferencing because the former had
the advantage of “not talking into a void” (O'Conaill et al., 1993). If
instructors have a negative experience, they may do a poorer job
teaching, and poor teaching may lead students to switch out of sci-
ence, math, and engineering majors (Seymour & Hewitt, 1997).
Students having their cameras on also helps to build instruc-
tor-student and student–student relationships. Instructors that
perceived a higher amount of nonverbal responsiveness while
teaching remotely with video reported instructor–student interper-
sonal relationships that were warmer, closer, and more comfortable
(Mottet, 200 0). The majorit y of students of a virtual classroom indi-
cated that using videoconferencing helped build trust and rapport
with other students and helped them to develop a sense of identifi-
cation with others in their group, commenting that being able to hear
and see each other in real time helped construct a “more complete
picture” of their peers (Falloon, 2011). Moreover, building stronger
relationships via videoconferencing likely helps fend off loneliness
that may come with remote learning and social distancing, as video-
conferencing has been shown to decrease feelings of loneliness in
nursing home residents (Tsai et al., 2010).
Nevertheless, by the end of the semester, many students had
often chosen to leave their cameras off, as reported by our frus-
trated instructors. This attrition with camera use in online classes
has been reported elsewhere (Tonsmann, 2014). Given the poten-
tial benefits of students having their cameras on and the costs of
having their cameras off, we were wondering what strategies we
could use to encourage students to voluntarily turn on their cam-
eras during laboratory sections. To develop strategies informed by
data, we asked our students in an end-of-semester survey about why
they might have chosen to not turn on their video cameras during
class. In this paper, we present the results of that survey and the
strategies we developed based on those results in combination with
successful experiences of some of our instructors, conversations
with colleagues, suggestions from articles and social media, and a
review of the literature. We plan to try these strategies going for-
ward as the need for remote instruction continues for us as well as
many instructors across the globe during the COVID-19 pandemic
(UNESCO, 2020). While the demographics and needs of students
vary by course and institution, we believe that these strategies are
likely to be helpful to many instructors directly, or at least, serve as
a model for gathering data to develop strategies more tailored for
their students.
2 | METHODS AND MATERIALS
2.1 | Course description
The students surveyed were undergraduates enrolled in the
Investigative Biology Laboratory course at Cornell University (Ithaca,
NY, USA), a PhD-granting institution, in the spring semester of 2020.
This course is required for majors in the biological sciences and uses
an inquiry-based approach to teaching the scientific method within
two main topics: the evolution of antibiotic resistance in bacte-
ria and the ecological impact of limiting nutrients on algal growth.
Before the COVID-19 pandemic, this course was taught with one
50-min lecture and one 3-hr laboratory section per week. After the
switch to emergency remote instruction (Cornell University, 2020;
Milman, 2020), lectures were prerecorded for asynchronous view-
ing and sections were held synchronous via Zoom (Zoom Video
Communications) with recordings available for asynchronous view-
ing. We decided on this format after surveying our students before
remote instruction began in order to assess the challenges they
would be facing once they left campus, including differences in time
zones, distractions from family obligations, and access to technol-
ogy. Each of 12 graduate student laboratory instructors led two
sections, and most were assisted by one undergraduate teaching
assistant. Section enrollment was capped at 18 students. During
synchronous laboratory sections, instructors gave short presenta-
tions while screen-sharing a slideshow and incorporating active
learning techniques such as polling (Sarvary & Gifford, 2017) and
think-pair-share (Tanner, 2013). For several weeks, a portion of each
class meeting was devoted to students meeting with their long-term
groups to work on data analysis and a poster presentation using the
breakout room feature of Zoom. Instructors could move between
breakout rooms to help students. Students also presented their
group posters to the rest of the class and responded to questions
during the last synchronous class meeting.
2.2 | Student sample
Total enrollment for spring 2020 was 312 students. Ninety-one per-
cent of enrolled students took the end-of-semester survey (N = 283),
and seven respondents were excluded from analysis because they

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either did not attend any live synchronous remote class meetings or
skipped all the relevant questions, resulting in a final sample of 88%
(N = 276) of enrolled students.
Students were assigned demographic categories based on
self-reporting and had the option to skip demographic survey
questions or indicate that they choose not to disclose. Results
were broken down by gender based on male and female, as only
one respondent identified as nonbinary (N = 1). Students were
asked about their race and ethnicity (“How would you describe
yourself? Check all that apply.”), and their responses were used to
assign them an underrepresented minority (URM) in science and
engineering or a non-URM. URMs were defined as three racial or
ethnic minority groups: blacks or African Americans; Hispanics,
Latinx, or Spanish origin; and American Indians or Alaska Natives,
or a mix including one of these groups (NSF, 2019). Non-URMs
included: whites; Asians; Native Hawaiians or other Pacific
Islanders. URM status was unknown for 23 students. Freshman or
non-Freshman (Sophomore, Junior, or Senior) status was unknown
for ten students. Non-Freshman were combined due to relatively
small sample sizes (Freshmen, N = 215; Sophomores, N = 32;
Juniors, N = 14; Seniors, N = 5).
2.3 | End-of-semester survey
Students were administered an end-of-semester survey designed to
collect feedback on teaching, course design, and student experiences
within the course. The survey was administered with the Qualtrics
online survey tool (Qualtrics) during their last synchronous section
meeting of the semester. Laboratory instructors were directed to
email any absent student after class with a link to the survey and a
deadline of a few days. The survey was anonymous, most questions
were able to be skipped, and taking it was completely voluntary. No
credit was awarded for taking the survey.
The main sur vey question analyzed for the current study asked,
“If you ever left your video off during the live Zoom lab meetings,
why did you leave it off? (check all that apply).” Students could select
up to 12 reasons we hypothesized a priori or select “Not Applicable
– I always had my camera on.” When selecting “Other,” students also
had the option of typing a reason not listed. In order to be included
in analysis, students had to indicate that they attend at least some
of the synchronous class meetings (“Have you attended any of the
Zoom lab meetings as they occurred in real time?”). Additionally,
students indirectly offered insight into the phenomenon of leaving
cameras off during class when responding to other survey questions
that solicited feedback about the course, the emergency switch to
remote instruction, and the performance of laboratory instructors.
2.4 | Statistical analyses
For each of the 13 possible answer choices to the question: “If you
ever left your video off during the live Zoom lab meetings, why
did you leave it off? (check all that apply),” pairwise differences
between demographic categories (URM vs. non-URM, male vs. fe-
male, and Freshman vs. non-Freshman) were analyzed with two-
tailed Fisher's exact tests using the GraphPad QuickCalcs website
(GraphPad, 2020). The α level for this study was set at 0.05. We
chose not to correct for multiple comparisons by adjusting the sig-
nificance threshold, because we consider these analyses to be ex-
ploratory, with significant results requiring subsequent study for
confirmation (Bender & Lange, 2001).
3 | RESULTS
Th e vas t maj ori t y of st ude nts (N = 249, 90 %) ha d the ir vi deo came r as
off at least some of the time during remote synchronous class meet-
ings held via Zoom. Students indicated several reasons for doing so.
Table 1 summarizes the percentages of students selecting each rea-
son from a provided list, along with break downs by demographic
categories. The most frequently selected reason overall and across
all demographic categories was being concerned about appearance
(N = 113, 41% of students). The next most frequently selected rea-
son, a concern about other people being seen in the background,
was selected by substantially fewer students overall, but was still
quite common (N = 73, 26%). This reason was selected more fre-
quently than the related reason of not wanting their physical loca-
tion to be seen in the background. Of relatively moderate frequency
were concerns about distracting their classmates or instructor. Not
wanting to be seen walking away from the computer, not paying at-
tention, or doing other things while at the computer were relatively
infrequently selected overall and across demographic break downs.
As for reasons related to technology, a very small number of stu-
dents (N = 6, 2% of students) reported that their webcam was not
working, but a much larger number (N = 61, 22%) reported having a
weak internet connection.
URMs more than non-URMs selected “I was concerned about
other people being seen behind me” (URM: N = 25/66; non-URM:
N = 45/187; p = 0.0376) and “I was concerned about my phys-
ical location being seen behind me” (URM: N = 17/66; non-URM:
N = 24/187; p = 0.0194). For the same two reasons, females more
than males selected “I was concerned about other people being
seen behind me” (Male: N = 20/99; Female: N = 52/164; p = 0.0465)
and “I was concerned about my physical location being seen behind
me” (Male: N = 9/99; Female: N = 35/164; p = 0.0104). However,
URMs were not more likely to be females (Female URM: N = 45/161
[28%], Male URM: N = 21/91 [23%]; p = 0.4569). For “My internet
connection was weak,” females were significantly more likely than
males to select this reason (Male: N = 15/99; Female: N = 4 4/164;
p = 0.0326) and URMS only tended to select this reason more than
non-URMs (URM: N = 21/66; non-URM: N = 37/187; p = 0.0603).
A sizeable number of students selected “Other” from the list of
provided reasons (N = 53, 19%) and could then type in a reason.
One student did not state a reason, three gave two reasons each
and the rest each gave only one. The open-ended responses were

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emergently coded and placed into 15 categories summarized in
Table 2. By far, the most common categor y was “It was the norm,”
with just over half of the typed reasons falling in this category
(N = 28, 53%). Representative statements from this category in-
clude: “Everyone else had their camera off,” and, “[it] felt awkward
having it on if no one else did.” Although concern about appearance
was an option to select in the provided list of reasons, four students
used the “Other” option to elaborate, mentioning messy hair, wear-
ing pajamas, not having showered, and even crying (unrelated to the
course). Examples from “Not feeling a need to have the camera on”
include: “I did not see a need to turn on the video…,” and “…I felt like
it wasn't necessary for my learning.” An example of “Not wanting the
camera to be on or to be seen, in general” is: “I just didn't want my
video on.”
Students also provided additional feedback regarding video cam-
er as be in g on or of f du rin g synchr ono us cl ass meet in gs whe n provi d-
ing open-ended answers to other survey questions. Select quotes
are drawn into the discussion that follows.
4 | DISCUSSION
4.1 | Overview
By surveying our students to ask why they did not always turn on
their video cameras during synchronous class meetings, we gained
valuable information to help us to develop strategies for encourag-
ing students to turn on their video during class. With this informa-
tion, in combination with feedback from our course instructors as
well as conversations with colleagues, published research, and sug-
gestions from articles and social media, we developed the following
strategies for instructors to implement in remote instruction moving
forward, summarized in Table 3. In developing these strategies, we
took a student-centered approach, being mindful of equity, inclu-
sion, and the diversity of our students and the situations they find
themselves in while learning remotely. We encourage any instructor
to gather information about their own students to better tailor these
strategies.
TABLE 1 Reasons undergraduate students gave for not turning on their video cameras during synchronous online class meetings in a
survey given in an introductory biology laborator y course at a four-year PhD-granting institution at the end of the spring 2020 semester
Reasons for not turning on
camera All stu dents URM Non-URM Male Female Freshman
Non-
Freshman
I was concerned about my
appearance
41% 45% 38% 36% 43% 38% 49%
I was concerned about other
people being seen behind me
26% 38% 24% 20% 32% 28% 22%
My internet connection was weak 22% 32% 20% 15% 27% 23% 18%
Other [with space to enter text] 19% 15% 20% 18% 20% 18% 25%
I felt like everyone was looking at
me the whole time
17% 20% 17% 16% 18% 18% 14%
I was concerned about my
physical location being seen
behind me
17% 26% 13% 9% 21% 16% 20%
I was concerned about distracting
my classmates
17% 12% 21% 16% 19% 17 % 20%
I was concerned about distracting
my lab instructor
12% 14% 13% 14% 12% 13% 12%
Not Applicable - I always had my
camera on
10% 8% 11% 12% 9% 10% 10%
I didn't want to be seen not paying
attention
8% 8% 7% 9% 7% 7% 10%
I didn't want to be seen walking
away from my computer
7% 11% 6% 8% 7% 7% 10%
I didn't want to be seen doing
other things on my computer
7% 8% 7% 10% 5% 7% 10%
My webcam was not working. 2% 3% 2% 3% 2% 3% 0%
Number of students 276 66 187 99 164 215 51
Note: Each student that indicated they did not always have their camera on could select more than one reason. Reasons are broken down by
underrepresented minorities (URM) in science and engineering status, gender, and Freshman or non-Freshman (sophomores, juniors, and seniors) and
are sorted in descending order according to all student respondent s combined.

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4.2 | Do not require video cameras to be turned
on and do offer alternatives
By taking a student-centered approach, we make pedagogical de-
cisions based on what is best for the student's learning, not the
instructor's teaching per se. While some instructors may feel a
strong need to mandate that students turn on their video cameras
during class, we strongly advise ag ainst this. While we surveyed stu-
dent s to find bro ad reason s wh y th ey chose not to tur n on thei r cam-
eras, there are many more specific and very sensitive, reasons for
their not doing so. One of our surveyed students strongly captured
this point when asked about any challenges they have faced with
the transition to online learning: “I would like to mention that no one
should assume the living conditions of students when not on cam-
pus. Some students live in some of the worst conditions possible.”
This concern is consistent with those of educators reported else-
where (Reich et al., 2020). For example, one teacher told research-
ers that their students of working class families do not want to turn
on their cameras because they do not want their wealthy peers to
see inside their homes and another said they have students that lack
private spaces and end up connecting to Zoom from inside a closet
(Reich et al., 2020).
College student anxiety and depression have already been in-
creased by the COVID-19 pandemic (Huckins et al., 2020), and a
mandate for camera use may add to that trauma (Costa, 2020).
Furthermore, psychological distress due to the pandemic has dis-
proportionately affected adults 18–29 years old, adults from low
income homes, and Hispanic adults (McGinty et al., 2020). Thus, the
negative effects of mandating that cameras be kept on may also be
disproportional to some student populations, such as underrepre-
sented minorities in STEM, and contribute to already high attrition
rates (PCAST, 2012).
We will offer alternative means for students to participate and
communicate with the instructor and the rest of the class, such as
polling (Sarvar y & Gifford, 2017), discussion boards (Suler, 2004),
shared documents (e.g., Google Docs; Perron & Sellers, 2011), and
cooperative annotations (Zhu et al., 2020). Additionally, our instruc-
tors have had great success using the chat feature within Zoom.
Some of them reported that individuals that did not often speak
when class was in-person were suddenly more communicative when
using the chat feature online. We also found that our undergraduate
teaching assistants were helpful facilitating student participation in
several ways including monitoring the chat window during class, cre-
ating polls, and managing discussion boards (Asgari & Sarvary, 2020).
Having multiple avenues for participation should improve equity and
likely benefit all students, not just those that do not turn on their
camera. Our students appreciated this strategy. When asked, “What
are some of the positive aspects about how your lab instructor
taught specifically during the online Zoom meetings?” one surveyed
student wrote, “Using different ways to engage us because many
people were not comfor table with sharing their cameras.” Another
student wrote, “I thought [my instructor] did a good job allowing us
to be a part of the class without forcing any of us to speak or turn on
our videos when we were not comfortable.”
By not requiring camera use, it is inevitable that at some point
one or more students will turn off their video cameras, making it
more challenging to identify who is speaking or even present. In
this case, we have found it to be helpful to ask students to properly
TABLE 2 Additional reasons undergraduate students of a
biology class gave for not turning on their video cameras during
synchronous online class meetings
"Other" reasons given so rted into
categories Percent Count
It was the norm 52.8% 28
Being concerned about appearance
(elaborations for this concern)
7.5% 4
Wanting to improve the internet
connection/streaming smoothness
7.5% 4
Not feeling a need to have the
camera on
7.5% 4
Not wanting to diver t attention
from the instructor
5.7% 3
Not wanting the camera to be on or
to be seen, in general
5.7% 3
Not wanting to be seen eating 3.8% 2
Not wanting to be seen in bed 1.9% 1
Being distracted by seeing one's
own video feed
1.9% 1
Being more comfor table with the
camera off
1.9% 1
Having to talk to family members 1.9% 1
Leaving the computer to use the
bathroom
1.9% 1
Not having a webcam 1.9% 1
The default setting of the Zoom
program was to join without video
1.9% 1
No “other” reason given 1.9% 1
Note: Reasons were categorized from typed responses after choosing
“Other ” from a provided list of reasons. Percentages are of those
respondents choosing “Other.”
TABLE 3 Our proposed videoconferencing strategies for
instructors to encourage, but not require, students to turn on their
cameras during synchronous class meetings
Videoconferencing camera use strategies for instruc tors
Do NOT require video cameras to be turned on and do offer
alternatives
Explicitly encourage c amera use, explain why you are doing so, and
establish the norm
Address potential distractions and give breaks to help maintain
attention
Use active learning techniques to keep students engaged and
promote equity
Survey your students to understand their challenges

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for mat th eir name as it appears to others in the vid eo confe re ncing
program. The name displayed in Zoom, for example, is sometimes
a student's obscure university ID, merely their initials, or their
legal name instead of their preferred name. We also recommend
that students be encouraged to add a static image of their face
that will appear when their video is turned off. Furthermore, in-
structors could set a good example by followi ng the se sug ge st ions
themselves.
4.3 | Explicitly encourage camera use, explain why
you are doing so, and establish the norm
Instead of requiring video cameras to be turned on, we recommend
encouraging it while fostering an inclusive classroom environment.
We suspect that some students will not need much encouragement,
especially in an age of social distancing to fight the pandemic. For ex-
ample, one student wrote, “[My instructor] had her camera on [and
it] was nice to see another face during times like this [sic].” However,
others may need more encouragement.
An early step in encouraging students to use their cameras is to
explicitly request it. One of our students wrote, “…if asked to turn
my camera on I would have,” and another student indicated that they
left their camera off because that was the default set ting when con-
necting with Zoom. We plan to include our camera use policies in
the syllabus and have instructors communicate explicit encourage-
ment of camera use on the first day of class, repeating later in the
semester if necessary. In addition to communicating when cameras
are encouraged to be on, it is also important to explicitly communi-
cate when it would be appropriate to turn them off (and separately,
the microphone), like when being interrupted by a family member or
trying to improve a weak internet connection.
We also plan to explain to our students why we encourage cam-
era usage, as such transparency should build student buy-in (Seidel
& Tanner, 2013). For example, our instructors could mention some
of the many benefits for camera use in remote classes, as reviewed
in the introduction section, such as the value of nonverbal cues in
communication (Miller, 1988), improved instructor effectiveness
(Mottet, 2000), and building instructor–student and student–stu-
dent relationships (Falloon, 2011; Mot tet, 2000). We also think our
students would like to know that when we asked past students for
suggestions for improving the online Zoom lab meetings, several
suggested that cameras be turned on more often because it made
class feel “more interactive” and “more like a normal class,” for ex-
ample. Similar sentiments were reported by students in chemistry
classes (Kalman et al., 2020).
By explicitly encouraging camera usage and explaining why we
are doing so from the first day of class, we plan to establish video
sharing as the classroom norm. Our survey revealed how power ful
setting the norm can be. The most frequent “Other” reason students
provided for not having their video on was some form of if not being
the norm set in the online classroom. For example, “no one else
had it on so I shut mine off as well,” “[our class] kept ours off,” and
“everyone else had theirs off and I felt awkward having mine on.”
This suggests that unspoken social norms are at play and that some
portion of students experience the social pressure to follow what
their classmates are doing. Classroom interaction norms implicitly
set by student peers have been found to significantly shape partici-
pation, and it has been suggested that instructors have the power to
shape such norms (Fassinger, 1995, 1996).
We believe that the focus theor y of normative conduct (Cialdini
et al., 199 0, 1991) may help to exp lain ou r ob ser vat io ns and fo rm po-
tential solutions. Applying the theory, students not turning on their
cameras because of the perception that that is how most others are
behaving would be a “descriptive norm.” The more students that the
instructor can encourage to turn on their cameras, the greater the
student perception that having cameras on is the (descriptive) norm
and the more likely students will comply. Another type of norm de-
scribed by the theory is an “injunctive norm,” which guides a stu-
dent's behavior based on the perception of how most others ought to
behave, that is, how most others would approve or disapprove of the
behavior. Injunctive norms work even when most are not behaving
as desired. Instructors can help set the injunctive norm by explic-
itly stating that turning cameras on is valued by the instructor and
student peers. Theor y also posits that a student 's actions are more
likely to conform to the type of norm that is salient, or in focus, at
the time of behavior, so it is ideal if these norms are aligned. To avoid
misalignment, we suggest that on the first day of class instructors do
not describe the issue of cameras being turned off as unfortunately
frequent while they encourage cameras to be on as this would set up
contradictory descriptive and injunctive norms. Moreover, aligning
norm types makes persuasive messages more likely to be effective
(Cialdini, 2003).
We would also like to note that when influencing the injunctive
norm, an instructor must be careful to not create the perception that
having a camera off is disapproved so much as having a camera on
is approved. Part of the classroom norms should be that it is okay to
choose not to have your camera on (Stanford Universit y, 2020). An
analogy to this would be the injunctive norm that stopping to make
a donation (e.g., at a Salvation Army charity kettle) is a behavior that
most would approve of, but continuing to walk past is a behavior that
most would not likely disapprove of.
Instructors can seek to set the norm of having cameras turned on
early on so that students who are willing and able to turn their video
on are more comfortable doing so. For example, on the first day of
class instructors can devote time for students to introduce them-
selves to the rest of the class with icebreaker activities like show-
and-tell. Subsequent classes could begin by checking-in with each
student, asking them to at least briefly turn on their cameras if they
are comfortable doing so, and asking fun short questions like “what
was your favorite cartoon growing up?” In larger classes where this
is not practical, students could dress according to rotating themes
like “funny hat day” or “show your school pride day.” While setting
the norms for the class, we will be mindful that no student should
be made to feel uncomfortable for choosing to leave their video
off. Offering alternative methods for participation and building an

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inclusive classroom should help with not causing any student to feel
excluded.
Setting the norm that camera usage is encouraged should also
help to address the most frequently cited reason our students gave
for not turning on their camera: concern about their personal ap-
pearance. If student s anticipate that they will likely want to have
their camera on during class, they are probably more likely to pre-
pare their appearance by, for example, brushing their hair and not
wearing pajamas. It may be also helpful to tell them that a com-
mon tip from people whose careers involve working from home is
to maintain a routine that often includes get ting dressed and good
personal hygiene (Knowlton, 2020; Limón, 2020; Rivkind, 2012). We
should also note that the Zoom program currently offers a feature
to “Touch up my appearance,” which airbrushes a user's face in real
time, although we do not promote its use as we suspect it contrib-
utes to the negative effects of unrealistic beauty ideals despite being
an obvious manipulation (MacCallum & Widdows, 2018).
A state of public self-awareness, when individuals focus their at-
tention on aspects of the self that are able to be perceived by others,
has been shown to be induced by the presence of an audience or
even only a video camera (Davies, 2005; Froming et al., 1982; Govern
& Marsch, 20 01; Myllyneva & Hietanen, 2016). More similar to vid-
eoconferencing, the presence of a camera and seeing one's own
video image was shown to heighten public self-awareness in pairs of
strangers that were engaged in video chatting (Miller et al., 2017). It
stands to reason that a videoconference like those of a Zoom meet-
ing would also increase public self-awareness.
Increasing public self-awareness may increase concern about
one's personal appearance as that is one aspect of the self that is
visible to the public. The level of concern that a student has for their
appearance may be due to a number of different psychological and
social factors that are beyond the control of the instructor, including
aspects of personality (Johnson et al., 2007), culture, gender, and
relationship status (Aune & Aune, 1994). As all these factors can-
not possibly be addressed by an instructor, we speculate that if stu-
dents are expecting to turn on their cameras, they will more likely
prepare their appearance in a manner that assuages their individual
concerns about being seen. While enhanced public self-awareness
is an antecedent to social anxiet y, it does not necessarily lead to it
(Fenigstein et al., 1975). Never theless, instructors should be aware
that cameras may trigger such anxiety in student s and so this is an-
other reason not to mandate camera use.
To help maintain the norm of camera use throughout the semes-
ter and combat a potential decline in usage (e.g., Tonsmann, 2014), we
plan to individually reach out to those students that regularly do not
turn on their cameras. We will let them know that we have noticed
their camera has been off and to ask whether there is anything we
can do to help them feel more comfortable with turning it on. When
doing so, we will be mindful of student–teacher power dynamics and
seek to avoid pressuring a student into doing something they are not
comfortable doing. We will also reiterate that camera use will not
affect their grade and remind them of the alternative ways to partic-
ipate in class and to communicate with instructors. Reaching out to
students creates the opportunity to make them feel more welcomed
and to gain a better understanding of the challenges they face while
learning remotely. Knowledge of these challenges may allow us to
provide solutions or direct students to helpful resources.
4.4 | Address potential distractions and give breaks
to help maintain attention
While a sizeable number of our students selected concerns about
distracting their classmates and their instructor as reasons for not
leaving on their video during class, we suggest ways to minimize
these distractions while encouraging general camera use.
Students may be assuming that sharing their video feed while
the instructor is presenting distracts from the instructor and is thus
disrespectful. For example, one student wrote, “I left my video off
when [my instructor] would present his slides out of respect so that
all the attention would be on him.” Instructors who actually prefer
students’ cameras to be on may not realize that some students as-
sume their preference to be the opposite. Obviously, explicitly com-
municating camera polices that include when it is inappropriate to
have cameras on would help.
If students find themselves distracted by the video feeds of
their classmates while the instructor is presenting, they can likely
alter their personal viewing settings in the videoconferencing pro-
gram being used. For example, Zoom has a “speaker view” which
automatically focuses on the person speaking and an option to pin
the instructor's video so that it remains in focus (for an instruc-
ti o n al vide o see Fin io, 20 20). If, as the res ult s of ou r sur vey su g g e st ,
som e students may be pre occu pied by th e though t that their class-
mates are “looking at them the whole time,” it may be comfor ting
to briefly inform students about the “spotlight effect ,” which is the
tendency of people to overestimate how much they are watched
and evaluated by others (Gilovich & Savitsk y, 1999). If students are
distracted by their own video feed, which is consistent with the
findings that mirrors have been shown to increase self-awareness
(Froming et al., 1982; Govern & Marsch, 2001), they should look
to see if the videoconferencing software being used has an option
to hide it, as Zoom does (Zoom, 2020). Alternatively, students can
place a sticky note on the portion of their screen that shows their
own video.
The second most frequent reason given for not turning on their
camera was concern about other people being seen in the background.
Ther e ar e severa l re asons why this may be conc er ning to stude nts such
as protecting the privacy of their family or roommates. Regardless of
why, students may be distracted by the possibility of someone else
coming into view. Similarly, students were concerned about their phys-
ical location being seen behind them. Students can be provided sug-
gestions to deal with these concerns, including communicating with
roommates and family members about when they have class and ask
not to be dist urb ed, find ing a priva te area of th ei r hom e wh ere the y can
connect with minimal distractions (Basile & Beauregard, 2016), staging
their back ground to look more presentable, using a virtual background

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in the videoco nferencin g soft ware if their computer allows it, or simply
sitting with their back against a wall.
However, we must be mindful that not everyone will have access
to a private space, as one of our students pointed out, “It has been
difficult to stay focused for long periods of time because there is a
lot of commotion in my house, and I have nowhere quiet to go work.”
Furthermore, our results suggest that URM students may be dispro-
portionately more concerned about their physical location and other
people being seen behind them than non-URM students. Again, we
recommend against requiring cameras be turned on and instead to
look for other ways to promote inclusion.
To help maintain attention, we also encourage giving students
breaks, especially with longer classes. Students can use that time to
go to the bathroom, get something to eat, and relax while fighting
off “Zoom fatigue” (Jiang, 2020; Morris, 2020). They will then also
be less likely to turn off their video and take a break during class
anyway. When students return from break, it is potentially a good
time to encourage cameras to be turned on again by facilitating an
activity that makes use of them.
4.5 | Use active learning techniques to keep
students engaged and promote equity
Several of our colleagues at Cornell and other institutions have ex-
pressed concern that students sometimes leave their video turned
off in order to not be seen being inattentive or doing other things.
Indeed, this does seem possible based on our students having se-
lected as reasons for leaving their video off: not wanting to be seen
not paying attention, walking away from the computer, and doing
other things on their computer. Student s may be bored or falling vic-
tim to the perils of multitasking (Klemm, 2016; Mokhtari et al., 2015).
To capture student attention, while also improving student learn-
ing, we suggest regularly employing active learning techniques
which have been shown to increase persistence in STEM, improve
academic performance, and lower failure rates (Braxton et al., 2008;
Fre ema n et al., 2014). Fur the rmore , act ive lea rning was found to nar-
row achievement gaps between students from overrepresented and
underrepresented groups by improving examination scores and pass-
ing rates for all student groups, but disproportionately so for those
from underrepresented minorities (Theobald et al., 2020). However,
it should be noted that active learning does not guaranty equity and
instructors should be vigilant of inequity due to a number of factors
including small group dynamics (e.g., Reinholz & Shah, 2018) or po-
tential hidden biases (e.g., Ernest et al., 2019).
By establishing engaging activities such as polling or typing into
the chat window as a regular part of class, students should be less
tempted to do other things during class and thus less likely to turn
off their video in order to conceal themselves. Using the think-pair-
share/listen-think-pair-share technique (Lyman, 1981; Tanner, 2013)
along wit h Zo om's breako ut roo m fe at ure may be a par ticula rly help-
ful in this regard. Based on feedback from our instructors and stu-
dents, some students seem to be more willing to turn on their video
when the class is split up into smaller breakout rooms within Zoom.
This pattern has also been reported by our colleagues at Cornell and
other universities. We also recommend incentivizing students with
a participation grade while promoting equity by providing multiple
ways to participate in active learning that does not require sharing
video, mentioned above. Keeping students actively engaged may
also have the added bonus of decreasing the likelihood that they feel
like everyone is looking at them the whole time.
4.6 | Survey your students to
understand their challenges
Our end-of-semester survey has given us information we have used
to plan for the fall semester as the COVID-19 pandemic continues.
We have shared our data-driven recommendations for encouraging
camera use here but caution other instructors to consider that the
challenges facing their student population may differ and require
different solutions.
In addition to an end-of-semester survey, we surveyed our stu-
dents multiple times to better understand the challenges they were
facing in the switch to emergency remote instruction, and what we
learned influenced our teaching practices. For example, we were ini-
tially concerned about the “digital divide” (Cullen, 2001) in that many of
our students would not have access to a reliable internet connection or
to a com pu ter wit h a working webcam and microphone. However, on ly
a small percentage of students indic ated these prob le ms (webca m: 2%;
internet: 5%; N = 301) in a survey we gave during a break in classes
before remote instruction began. This partly informed our conclusion
that it was not unreasonable to hold live synchronous class meetings
that encouraged the us e of webcams while also offering asynchron ous
learning opportunities to those that could not attend. Those students
without reliable access to the necessary technologies were also re-
ferred to university resources set up in response to the pandemic.
5 | CONCLUSIONS
Our end-of-semester survey of students revealed insights into
why students might have chosen not to turn on their video cam-
eras during online synchronous class meetings held via Zoom. This
information has helped us to develop a plan for encouraging—but
not requiring—camera use as we continue remote instruction during
the COVID-19 pandemic. While the demographics and needs of stu-
dents vary by course and institution, we believe that these strategies
are likely to be helpful to many instructors. Our data-driven plan also
provides a model for other instructors to gather information about
their own student population to develop more tailored strategies
that also promote equity and inclusion.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was considered exempt from review by the institutional
review board of Cornell University and was supported by Cornell's

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College of Agriculture and Life Sciences Active Learning Initiative
Grants Program. We thank the students and laboratory instructors
for providing information on this important topic. We also thank
colleagues at Cornell and attendees of the Summer Institutes on
Scientific Teaching remote happy hours for discussing this topic
and sharing ideas. Lastly, we thank Robert Castelli, BOCP, BOCO,
and Stephanie J. Kleine, CPA for their input while developing survey
questions.
CONFLICT OF INTEREST
None declared.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
Frank R . Castelli: Conceptualization (lead); data curation (lead); for-
mal analysis (lead); investigation (equal); methodology (lead); visu-
alization (lead); writing – original draf t (lead); writing – review and
editing (equal). Mark A . Sarvary: Funding acquisition (lead); investi-
gation (equal); methodology (supporting); writing – review and edit-
ing (equal).
DATA AVA ILAB ILITY STATE MEN T
In order to best protect student privacy, we decline to share data
beyond what is reported in the manuscript.
ORCID
Frank R. Castelli https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4517-8315
Mark A. Sarvary https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2973-3107
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equitable and inclusive plan to encourage them to do so. Ecol
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