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04
The Effects of Colors on Brand
Personality in Advertising
Soojin Kim, M.A., Doctoral Student
Department of Advertising
University of Florida
Yongjun Sung, Ph.D., Associate Professor*
Temerlin Advertising Institute
Southern Methodist University
*Corresponding author
E-mail address: gradysung@gmail.com
The Journal of Advertising and Promotion Research,
Vol.2. No. 2 (Autumn 2013), pp. 85-115
ISSN 2287-1063
http://dx.doi.org/10.14377/JAPR.2013.9.30.85
©2013 Korea Advertising Society. All rights reserved.
ABSTRACT
This explorative research investigates the impact of visual elements
in advertising, especially dominant colors, on brand personality.
An experimental study was conducted to suggest the links between colors
(red, yellow, green, blue, purple, and black; Munsell, 1966) and the
five brand personality dimensions (Sincerity, Excitement, Competence,
Sophistication, and Ruggedness; Aaker, 1997), and examine the effects
of colors on building brand personality. The results suggest that yellow
is strongly associated with both Sincerity and Excitement dimensions
of brand personality. In addition, the results show that red increases
competent, sophisticated, and rugged personality associations. The results
support the idea that certain dominant colors in advertisements lead to the
generation of a particular brand personality.
Keywords : brand personality, color effects, color hue, visual elements
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To this day, the symbolic meaning attributed to brands has received
considerable attention in marketing research. In particular, the concept of
with a brand” (Aaker, 1997, p. 347), has received increased attention from
both scholars and practitioners in the fields of advertising, marketing,
and consumer psychology. A number of empirical studies suggest that
the concept of brand personality is very important for marketing scholars
and practitioners as it can be a powerful and effective way for marketers
to persuade and to establish meaningful relationships with consumers
(e.g., Aaker, 1999; Biel, 1993; Plummer, 1985; Sirgy, 1982; Sung & Kim,
to consumers (Aaker, 1999; Sirgy, 1982). Consumers express their self-
concepts through the consumption of commercial brands and tend to
choose brands with personality characteristics that are matched to their own
personalities (Aaker, 1997; Escalas & Bettman, 2003; Sirgy, 1982; Sung &
Choi, 2012).
David Aaker (1996) suggests that a brand’s personality is created and
maintained by both product-related and non-product-related factors. For
example, brand personality can be determined by such product-related
factors as product category, name, logos, package design, price, and other
physical attributes as well as by non-product-related characteristics like
user imagery, employees or CEO image, celebrity endorsers, and culture.
More importantly, a brand personality can be created over time by the
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The Effects of Colors on Brand Personality in Advertising
entire mix of marketing communication variables such as advertising
(Aaker, 1996). Thus, it seems reasonable to suggest that every element of
advertising should be considered as a contribution to the brand personality
(Batra, Lehmann & Singh, 1993). These elements include verbal elements,
nonverbal elements, and the medium in which the ad is placed (Batra et al.,
1993).
Despite the importance of and the increased attention to the concept
of brand personality in advertising theory and practice, limited research
has been conducted to identify the antecedents of brand personality
(Aaker, 1997). In particular, very limited research has been conducted
to understand the extent to which the advertising variables influence
the creation and forming of the commercial brands’ personalities (Sung
& Kim, 2010). As suggested by David Ogilvy (1966, p. 178), “Every
advertisement must be considered as a contribution to the complex symbol
which is the brand image—as part of the long term investment in the
reputation of the brand.” Such elements include verbal elements (e.g., text
copy), nonverbal elements (e.g., typography, colors), and the medium in
which the ad is placed (Batra et al., 1993). Among the nonverbal elements,
color, which occupies more than 80% of visual elements (Walker, 1993), is
one of the most important visual and non-verbal elements of advertising in
the persuasion process (Johnson, 1992; Mahnke, 1996). Colors, which also
have a number of emotional perspectives, can convey a variety of symbolic
meanings that consumers attribute to a brand (McCracken, 1989). In
particular, color carries out one of the symbolic functions in advertisements
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(Lutz & Lutz, 1977; Tavassoli, 2001). Thus, color as a nonverbal element
in advertisements is one of the antecedents for building a brand personality,
which is an important symbolic brand association (Aaker, 1997).
Given color’s great potential value for advertisers and brand managers,
the purpose of this study is to investigate the roles of colors used in
advertising in determining brand personality and conceptualize color
as an important antecedent of brand personality. More specifically, by
employing the Munsell Color System (Munsell, 1966), the current research
(Sincerity, Excitement, Competence, Sophistication, and Ruggedness)
identified by Aaker (1997). Therefore, this research will interweave the
dimension of brand personality with the color framework.
The present study provides the chance to consider the nonverbal
elements as key variables, especially colors, with the brand personality and
focuses on color as a determinant variable in terms of building the brand
personality. The investigation of the impact of color on brand personality,
which has received attention but limited empirical testing, would provide
both theoretical and practical implications for advertising scholars and
practitioners. From a theoretical perspective, this study extends the
application of brand personality toward the more symbolic meaning
and shows the relationship between brand personality and color. From a
managerial perspective, it attempts to prove that color enables consumers to
evoke some perceptions and play a part in the role of building a particular
brand personality. The results allow advertisers to gain important practical
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The Effects of Colors on Brand Personality in Advertising
insights into the role of color in brand personality. Therefore, marketers
and brand managers consider color as a critical antecedent, which is
related to brand personality, and then employ colors to develop their brand
images and brand equity. As a result, we will better understand how and
which colors relate to a dimension of brand personality and, consequently,
THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
Brand Personality
The symbolic meaning that brands acquire is often called brand
personality (Aaker, 1997). Brand personality could be regarded as the
aggregation of human characteristics that are associated with a brand
(Aaker, 1997) and the transference of human personality to brand
constructs of brand personality (Plummer, 1985). Regardless of a product’s
own attributes, consumers may imbue a brand with human personalities
or certain anthropomorphic traits (Levy, 1985; Sung & Tinkham, 2005),
think of particular brands as they associate them with one’s own self
(Fournier, 1994, 1998), or use brands as a symbol. Consequently, brand
personality tends to serve a symbolic use for a brand, which interrelates to
a consumer’s personality (Escalas & Bettman, 2005).
Earlier researchers showed that the personality of brands enables
consumers to present themselves (Belk, 1988) and an individual’s ideal
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self (Malhotra, 1988) by using a specific brand. Therefore, advertisers
often make use of this brand personality to establish an effective strategy
for their targeted consumers. Marketing or brand managers also regard
brand personality as both a means of differentiating a brand (Vernadakis,
2000) and as a common attribute for their marketing activities across
cultures (Aaker, Benet-Martines, & Garolera, 2001; Sung & Tinkham,
2005). A well-established brand personality increases positive impressions
and the perception of being valuable to consumers (Biel, 1993; Sirgy,
1982). Consequently, it enhances the level of brand trust and brand affect,
thereby increasing brand loyalty and building long-term consumer-brand
relationships (Fournier, 1998; Sung & Kim, 2010; Sung & Tinkham, 2005).
Brand personality is considered as an effective way to build and enforce
the relationship between the brand and the consumer (Sung & Tinkham,
2005).
The development of a theoretical framework of brand personality (i.e.,
Big-Five brand personality dimensions; Aaker, 1997) offers a new way for
advertising researchers to empirically examine the symbolic meaning and
role of brands in consumer behavior. Aaker (1997) identified five brand
personality dimensions (Sincerity, Excitement, Competence, Sophistication,
and Ruggedness) and demonstrated that her five dimensions and 42
personality traits are generalizable, valid, and reliable by representing the
42-item brand personality scale with 15 facets (Aaker 1997).
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Antecedents of Brand Personality
A considerable number of studies corroborate that commercial brands
can be associated with human personality traits (e.g., Aaker, 1997; Escalas
& Bettman, 2005; Levy, 1959; Plummer, 1985). Even though brand
and is associated with them, the way they are created differs (Aaker,
1997; Sung & Tinkham, 2005). Researchers have suggested that a brand’s
personality is created and shaped by any direct and indirect contact that the
consumer experiences with the brand (McCracken, 1989; Plummer, 1985;
Shank & Langmeyer, 1994). Specifically, brand personality is created
primarily by the marketing mix (4P’s) such as marketing communications,
advertising, sponsorship, product placement, packaging, price, distribution,
logo, celebrity endorser, etc. (Batra et al., 1993). In addition, it can be
typical users of brands, word-of-mouth (WOM), and cultural background
(Aaker, 1997; Batra et al., 1993; Sung & Tinkham, 2005).
As Aaker (1996) suggested, advertising and its every element could
be substantial factors affecting a brand’s personality. For example,
spokespersons employed in advertisements can be antecedents which have
personalities of the brand. Over time, the personalities or the meanings
which the spokespersons convey are transferred to the brand. According to
McCracken’s (1989) model of meaning transfer, such symbolic meanings
generated by consumers will be transferred to brands through the mix of
marketing communications and the media (Escalas & Bettman, 2005).
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Advertising, which represents the brand’s meanings and the brand’s
claim, can help create the brand personality and help convey meanings
to consumers. Thus, it can be assumed that advertising and its elements
et al., 1993). In this light, there can be a question as to whether colors, as
personality, and as to how colors can be transferred to the brand with
personality.
Signicance of Color in Advertising
Research of nonverbal elements has a long history in both communications
and psychology. For example, Lutz and Lutz (1977) asserted that the recipients
than those not presented with an image. Thus, they contended that the use of a
picture or image in ads affects the recipients’ learning and memory. Similarly,
Rossiter and Percy (1980) provided empirical evidence that brand attitude
persuasive function of visual contents in advertisements is more critical than
verbal contents on attitude change and that the visual content is more effective
in creating a favorable attitude toward the brand than the verbal belief (Rossiter
& Percy, 1980).
All kinds of visual elements in advertising are important in creating
consumer response and persuasion as well as in cognitive and affective
processing (DeRosia, 2008; Meyers-Levy & Peracchio, 1995). In the visual
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The Effects of Colors on Brand Personality in Advertising
elements, there are shapes, colors, typography, materials, and symbols
(Lucas & Britt, 1950), which directly or subliminally create meanings
and convey brands’ values and personality traits to consumers (Orth &
Malkewitz, 2008). Successful usage of visual elements for a brand in
advertising can generate a memorable experience for the consumer (Aaker,
1996), build brand personality, and encourage brand recall (Lucas & Britt
1950; Kleinbard & Erdelyi, 1978; Tavassoli, 2001). Color helps products
get more attention from the consumer (Lucas & Britt, 1950; Meyers-
Levy & Peracchio, 1995; Sara, 1990; White, 1997), provides information
value (Lutz & Lutz 1977; Rossiter & Percy, 1980), increases motivation or
participation (White, 1997), and elicits brand recognition (Tavassoli, 2001;
White, 1997). For example, a study found that the impact of color is critical
to brand marketing as it increases brand recognition by up to 80% (Morton,
2005). In addition, Macklin (1996) suggested that packaging color could
since color can increase the perceived attractiveness of the products in
ads, consumers are likely to create more positive attitudes toward ads in
color rather than the same ads in only black and white (Meyers-Levy &
Peracchio, 1995).
Since colors create attitudes and perceptions, color can become an
additional language in advertising and in visual persuasion (Middlestadt,
1990). In terms of practical usages of color in advertising, researchers have
to color,” “realism through color,” and “emotional effect of color” (Lucas
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& Britt, 1950). The third role is the emotional stimulation and excitement
from colors. Furthermore, as the affective responses of colors are
subjective and are based on previous experiences of the consumer (Lucas
& Britt, 1950), consumers may add their own value to the color in the
advertisements and simultaneously get impressions from the advertising.
of advertisements (Meyers-Levy & Peracchio, 1995), the appropriate
usage and the suitability of color have a great effect on consumers’ emotion
or psychology for persuasion (Tavassoli, 2001), and can exert a strong
stimulus on a user’s perceptions (Lucas & Britt, 1950).
Accordingly, color can be important in self-expression and in impression
formation (Hemphill, 1996). People use colors to express themselves and
their emotions. For example, when people need to pick out a color for their
clothes or cars, they choose it based on the way they want to be shown to
others (Trinkaus, 1991) and, in this light, their personality traits also are
the CCI Color Institute for Color Research, when people subconsciously
evaluate a person, environment, or product, it takes only about 90 seconds
of initial viewing and between 62% and 90% of the evaluation depends on
color alone (Morton, 2005). As previous studies have suggested, colors can
be important factors that have an impact on brand attitude and advertising
attitude (Meyers-Levy & Peracchio, 1995; White, 1997). They have an
undeniable effect on consumers’ emotional perspectives and persuasion
(Lucas & Britt, 1950; Tavassoli, 2001).
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Framework for Color
The Munsell Color System, one of the numerous color systems that
2002). It was developed by Albert H. Munsell in 1905 and became the
Color System, each color has three basic attributes: hue, value (brightness),
and chroma (saturation), and can be identified with the numbers of hue,
value, and chroma such as 5R 5/14 (Munsell, 1966). Hue refers to simple
color tones such as red, blue, and yellow. Red, yellow, green, blue, and
Value (brightness) refers to the degree of darkness or lightness of the color,
extending from white to black. Chroma (saturation) of color describes the
degree of purity of the color; it is the amount of pigment in a color, and
it can be explained as the mixing of white with a color, which reduces
the saturation of color (Lucas & Britt, 1950; Ballast, 2002). For example,
a fairly saturated color generally called as red would be 5R 5/14 with
5R meaning the color in the middle of the red hue, 5 meaning medium
lightness, and a chroma of 14. The mixing of a color with white not only
raises the brightness but also reduces the saturation of the color. When a
color is mixed with black, it reduces the brightness as well as the saturation.
A large number of studies about perceptions of color have been
conducted (e.g., color-emotion associations; Ballast, 2002; Birren, 1978,
1980; Hemphill, 1996; Terwogt & Hoeksma, 2001; Wexner, 1982; color
preference; Guilford & Smith, 1959; Mahnke, 1996; Rosenbloom, 2006;
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Saito, 1996). Considering the effects of colors on emotional states, colors
may cause rather diverse reactions (Satio, 1996). For example, red is
described as passionate, exciting, fervid, stimulating, and active in its
objective impressions (Birren, 1980; Ballast, 2002; Davey, 1998), has
stimulating, strong, and powerful images in the agreeable associations,
and bloody, aggressive, disturbing, and sensuous images as unpleasant
associations (Birren, 1978, 1980).
Red symbolically is known as a dominant, arousing, and dynamic
color (Mahnke, 1996). Yellow has been described as sunny, incandescent,
expectant, expansive, and radiant in its general appearance, and as cheerful,
joyous, happy, optimistic, inspiring, sociable, friendly, vital, and celestial
in its objective impression (Birren, 1978, 1980). Green is associated with
a tender-soothing, relaxing impression, and with refreshment, naturalness,
tranquility, peacefulness, growth, health, stability, calm, and sincerity in its
objective impressions (Birren, 1980; Ballast, 2002). Blue is represented as
in its objective impressions (Birren, 1980) and represents the rationality,
logic, and serenity of humans (Birren, 1978; Lucas & Britt, 1950).
objective impressions (Birren, 1978, 1980), and is often associated with
nobility, royalty, wealth, wisdom, spirituality, nostalgia, ceremony, and
arrogance (Lucas & Britt, 1950). Black is perceived as powerful, strong,
and masterful (Valdez & Mehrabian, 1994), and it also has an agreeable
association of sophistication and modernity, but it also may be considered
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as an ominous, empty, and fatal color in unpleasant associations (Birren,
1978; Mahnke, 1996; Wexner, 1982). Each perception and image from a
color differs among individuals, generations, and cultures (Lucas & Britt,
1950). Nevertheless, colors generally share common perceptions and
emotions evoked by color (Lucas & Britt, 1950).
In spite of considerable interest in people’s reactions to color, it is a
and brand personality dimensions with reliable theories. However, the
research reviewed allows us to assume that some colors might induce a
particular brand personality with general patterns of color frameworks in
the minds of consumers. Therefore, this explorative research examines
whether there are any relationships between the colors (i.e., red, yellow,
blue, green, purple, and achromatic color: black) in advertisements and the
Ruggedness, and Sophistication) when controlling for other antecedents of
brand personality.
Research Questions
Based on the conceptual backgrounds already mentioned, those who
were exposed to an advertisement containing one dominant color would
have certain feelings or thoughts and the advertisement containing a
to brand personality. As previously mentioned regarding experimental
research of color, red and yellow elicit more arousing, active, exciting,
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and stimulating emotions than blue and green (Mehrabian, 1974; Valdez
& Mehrabiab, 1994; Wexner, 1982; Wilson, 1966), and red and yellow
have dominant and dynamic color associations (Mahnke, 1996). Red and
yellow are more associated with anxiety, displeasure, and high arousal
than are blue and green, whereas blue and green are more pleasant than red
and yellow (Guildford & Smith, 1959; Jacobs & Suess, 1975; Valdez &
Mehrabian, 1994; Wexner, 1982; Wilson, 1966). On the other hand, green
and blue comprise the highest preference, when brightness and saturation
are held constant (Guildford & Smith, 1959; Mehrabian, 1974; Valdez &
Mehrabiab, 1994). Therefore, the research questions of this study are: what
are the relationships between the color in advertisements and the brand
personality when controlling for other antecedents of brand personality,
and how do the colors that evoke consumers’ perceptions in advertisements
exert an impact on brand personality? Finally, the question remains—
Based on most early studies, it could be expected that the dominant
personality. Therefore, the current research empirically explores how the
reactions to the dominant color hue (e.g., red, yellow, blue, green, purple,
and black) in advertisements would have an impact on brand personality
dimensions.
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The Effects of Colors on Brand Personality in Advertising
METHOD
Product and Brand Selection
A watch was selected as the advertised product for the current study. The
selection of a watch seems appropriate for the current study because it is a
self-expressive product that tends to have a variety of brand personalities
fictitious brand name was not provided to the subjects. Prior research
suggests that consumers can infer the personalities of brands even with
very limited information (e.g., brand name) (Sung & Choi, 2012). To
control for such confounding effects, no brand name was provided in the
experiment stimuli of the study (i.e., advertisement). Instead, the watch
was introduced as a new brand being considered for introduction in the U.S.
market.
Stimuli
The five hue groups and one achromatic color from the standardized
Munsell Color System were adopted, but both brightness and saturation
of color were not considered for the current study. After choosing the
colors based on this Munsell Color System, six principal color hues were
transformed to the RGB color system. The rationale for this transformation
was that the current study was conducted online wherein the subjects were
exposed to the advertising stimuli through their computer monitors, and
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particular colors light of monitor. As a result, a total of six advertisements
were developed for the study (see Appendices for the two selected stimuli
dimensions of the Munsell Color System (i.e., red, yellow, blue, green,
and purple) as well as black. See Table 1 for the Munsell and RGB color
notations for the study.
Participants
A total of 138 college students from a large southeastern university
participated in the study. All participants were given extra course credit as
an incentive. The participants ranged from 18 to 31 in age (M = 20) and
were composed of 102 (73.9%) females and 36 (26.1%) males. Of the
total, 56.5% were Anglo American, 16.7% Hispanic American, 15.2%
Asian American, and 3.6% were African American.
Table 1. Munsell and RGB Color Notations
Color Hue Value/Chroma RGB
Red 5R 5/14 186. 38. 54
Blue 10B 6/10 0. 108. 141
Green 2.5G 5/10 10. 139. 98
Purple 5P 5/10 108. 45. 130
Yellow 7.5Y 9/10 255. 227. 0
Black N/1 N/A 255. 255. 255
Procedure
An experimental design was used to explore whether color indeed
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affects the perceptions of consumers in advertising and helps make a
certain personality of the advertised brand. Participants were fully exposed
to a color magazine ad through a Web survey site, after which the self-
that they were dealing with “opinions about the magazine advertisement
for a newly introduced wristwatch brand.” All participants were randomly
assigned to one of the six different conditions. After viewing the ad with
they were asked to identify the dominant color of the ads. All (100%) of
Measures
The current study utilized Aaker’s (1997) 15 (out of 42) personality traits
representing the five brand personality dimensions to measure personal-
ity of the advertised brand. Both Sincerity and Excitement were measured
with four traits, respectively (Sincerity: down-to-earth, honest, wholesome,
cheerful; = .73; Excitement: daring, spirited, imaginative, up-to-date; =
.83). In addition, Competence was measured with three traits (reliable, in-
telligent, and successful; = .84). Finally, two items were used to measure
Sophistication (upper class and charming; = .70) and Ruggedness (tough
and outdoorsy; = .44). These items were measured based on seven-point
ratings of agreement (1 = not at all descriptive, 7 = perfectly descriptive).
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RESULTS
To examine our study’s inquiry, a one-way analysis of variance
Sincerity
effect of colors on the Sincerity dimension: F (5, 132) = 2.88, p < .05. The
nature of this effect was further examined using a Tukey HSD pairwise
comparisons test. As shown in Table 2, the results indicate that the mean
score for the yellow color ad (M = 3.89, SD = 1.21) was significantly
higher than that of black (M = 2.93, SD = 0.98, p < .05). However, the
mean scores of the four colors were relatively similar: red ad, M = 3.74,
blue ad, M = 3.72, green ad, M = 3.51, and purple ad, M = 3.03. In sum, the
results suggest that the participants who were exposed to the advertisement
in yellow showed the highest mean scores for the Sincerity dimension.
Excitement. An ANOVA on the Excitement dimension yields a
2, individuals in the yellow condition showed the highest exciting feeling
(M = 5.13, SD = 1.02), followed by red (M = 5.10, SD = 0.81), green (M =
3.99, SD = 1.51), blue (M = 3.93, SD = 1.46), purple (M = 3.82, SD = 1.55),
and black (M = 3.80, SD = 1.38). The results of the Tukey HSD pairwise
comparisons test suggest that the mean score for the yellow ad (M = 5.13,
SD = 1.55, p < .05), the black ad (M = 3.80, SD = 1.38, p < .05), the blue
ad (M = 3.93, SD = 1.46, p < .05), and the green ad (M = 3.99, SD = 1.51,
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The Effects of Colors on Brand Personality in Advertising
p < .05). Similarly, the mean score for the red ad (M = 5.10, SD = 0.81)
.05), the black (M = 3.80, SD = 1.38, p < .05), and the blue ads (M = 3.93,
SD = 1.46, p < .05).
Competence. The results of the ANOVA suggest that there was a
p < .05. The results of the Tukey HSD test indicate that the mean score
that of the purple ad (M = 3.33, SD = 1.66, p < .05). Further, there was a
purple ad (M = 3.33, SD = 1.66, p < .05) (see Table 2). However, the mean
scores of the three colors were relatively similar: blue ad, M = 4.33; green
ad, M = 3.82; and yellow ad, M = 4.36 (see Figure 1). All considered, these
results suggest that the individuals who were exposed to the advertisement
in red showed the highest mean scores for the Competence dimension.
Figure 1. Competence Dimension
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Sophistication. An ANOVA on the Sophistication dimension does not
that the ads did not significantly differ on the Sophistication dimension.
The mean scores of the six colors were relatively similar: red ad, M = 4.22;
blue ad, M = 3.77; green ad, M = 3.46; purple ad, M = 3.33; yellow ad, M
= 3.96; and black ad, M = 4.10.
Ruggedness. The results of the ANOVA suggest that there was a
p < .01. The results of the Tukey HSD test indicate that the mean score
purple (M = 1.71, SD = 1.08, p < .01) and the mean score for the yellow (M
SD = 1.08, p < .01); the mean score for the green (M = 3.00, SD = 1.19)
However, the mean scores of the two colors were relatively similar: blue
the participants who were exposed to the advertisement in red showed the
highest mean scores for the Ruggedness dimension.
Overall, the results showed that different colors had differential effects
on the five brand personality dimensions, respectively. As a result,
four dimensions of brand personality had a significant effect from the
colors on the brand personality dimension at the p < .05 level except the
Sophistication dimension. Table 2 shows the means and standard deviations
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Table 2. Means and Standard Deviations for the Brand Personality Dimensions
Principal
Color
Mean (SD)
Sincerity Excitement Competence Sophistication Ruggedness
Red 3.74 (1.16) 5.10 (0.81) 4.70 (1.02) 4.22 (1.23) 3.09 (1.23)
Blue 3.72 (1.08) 3.93 (1.46) 4.33 (1.29) 3.77 (1.33) 2.71 (1.14)
Green 3.51 (0.89) 3.99 (1.51) 3.82 (1.26) 3.46 (1.45) 3.00 (1.19)
Purple 3.03 (1.31) 3.82 (1.55) 3.33 (1.66) 3.33 (1.82) 1.71 (1.08)
Yellow 3.89 (1.21) 5.13 (1.02) 4.36 (0.98) 3.96 (1.22) 3.08 (1.28)
Black 2.93 (0.98) 3.80 (1.38) 4.67 (1.29) 4.10 (1.30) 2.38 (1.05)
DISCUSSION
Visual elements such as layout, color, typography, and symbols in
advertising directly or subliminally convey the brands’ values, images,
and personality traits to consumers (Orth & Malkewitz, 2008). Advertisers
can generate an emotional connection, whether it is a positive or negative
impression, between brand and consumers through these visual elements
in advertising can generate a memorable experience for the consumer
(Aaker, 1996), build brand personality, and encourage brand recall (Lucas
& Britt, 1950; Kleinbard & Erdelyi, 1978; Tavassoli, 2001).
The purpose of the current study was to examine the effects of color
that color influences consumers’ perceptions of the brand or product in
the advertisements and helps create a certain personality in the advertised
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brand. Thus, this research provides some empirical evidence showing that
colors in advertising can be an important antecedent to brand personality.
The overall findings reveal that colors have significant effects on four
dimensions of the brand personality: Sincerity, Excitement, Competence,
and Ruggedness. That is, both the sincere and exciting brand personality
exciting color (Birren, 1978, 1980). Further, competent, sophisticated,
and rugged brand personality traits are strongly associated with the color
red, which is known as a passionate or dynamic color (Birren, 1980;
condition showed higher mean scores in the Ruggedness dimension of
brand personality than those in the black condition. One possible reason for
the result could be that the personality traits of the brand advertised in red
coincides with the red color perceptions of being dominant and dynamic
(Mahnke, 1996), and with its associated qualities of being passionate,
fervid, and active (Birren, 1978, 1980). Overall, the results of the study
by colors used in advertising.
As stated by Tavassoli (2001), colors can take on an important role in
positioning a brand and in building or reinforcing a brand personality as
a point of differentiation from competitors. Colors have both perceptive
and affective responses and this information could be useful when creating
a marketing or persuasion strategy. A certain color can create certain
perceptions for the consumer, and it can stimulate and develop a certain
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brand personality. From a theoretical perspective, this study tried to
investigate the brand personality construct in more affective and symbolic
meaning conditions and dealt with colors as the key variables related to
the building of brand personality. Considering the role of color as the
antecedent of brand personality in ads, this study shows that there is a
certain brand personalities. The results of the present research conceptualize
color as an important antecedent of brand personality and investigate the
predictive roles of color in formation of brand personality. Therefore, this
study expands the understanding of the antecedent of brand personality.
Colors often are selected arbitrarily in practical advertisements and
are employed without considering the consumers’ perceptions of a brand
intended by marketers (Singh, 2006; Tutssel, 2001). From a managerial
perspective, the current study attempts to prove that color enables
consumers to evoke some perception and can play an important role
in the building of a particular brand personality intended by marketers.
Consequently, marketers and brand managers can first consider color as
a critical variable which is related to the building of the brand personality
and then utilize the impact of color to develop the brand image or
to increase brand equity. The practical implication of this insight for
managers responsible for the marketing of brands or products is to have an
Several limitations of this study should be considered for future
research. First, the use of a college student sample may limit the ability
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study was 73.9% female. Prior research suggests that there are some gender
differences in color preferences (e.g., Birren, 1980). In addition, this study
relied on a single product category (wristwatch). Thus, further research
with a larger set of self-expressive product categories and a well-balanced,
representative sample in gender proportion is needed to increase the
validity of the results. More importantly, while color hue was manipulated
in the current study, neither brightness nor saturation was manipulated.
Furthermore, monitors used by subjects to participate in the current
study online were not controlled. That is, advertising colors presented in
their own computer monitors could vary depending upon their personal
color settings. Therefore, a more systematic and direct investigation into
combinations of hue, brightness, and saturation impacting brand personality
is necessary. Finally, the reliability of the Ruggedness dimension measures
(i.e., two items: tough and outdoorsy) was only .44. Additional studies
are warranted to address these reliability issues. Within the limits of the
personality have implications for the relationships between dominant color
and brand personality traits in ads and the consideration of colors as the
antecedents of brand personality.
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Appendix A
Advertisement Stimulus (Ad-1-R)
Advertisement Stimulus (Ad-1-Y)
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