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Measures of Temporal Perception as Predictive Factors for Individual Intelligence and Further Relationships Between Intelligence and Temporal Perception
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This paper explores the relationships between measures of intelligence and measures of temporal perception. A brief literature review is provided, as well as a prediction for the correlation between intelligence and speed of perceived time based upon prior literature. A study using four psychometric tests is conducted, gathering data on intelligence, speed of perceived time, reaction time, and number memory. Results indicate a strong negative correlation between intelligence and measures of speed of perceived time [r = -0.654, R2 = 0.428, p < .0001].
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Introduction About 120 years ago, Francis Galton, the father of psychometric, pointed out this theoretical or intuitive concept that there is relationship between the reaction time (RT) and Intelligence quotient (IQ). From then, based on relevant theories related to intelligence or reaction time, a lot of different or sometimes conflicting interpretations have been discussed in this area. These interpretations are mainly based on behavioral or cognitive interpretations of the subject areas. Reviewing these results, we are going to reveal different aspects of the relationship between intelligence and reaction time, so we can obtain a relatively clear answer for this relationship. Reaction time in psychology-also called latent time-is the time interval between the stimulus and the response of the organism to its presentation or the time required to start a pre-programmed response to a specific stimulus. Reaction time indicates the speed of decision making and performance. Furthermore, the definition of RT can be a representative of individual's cognitive processing speed. This structure is used to study sensory and intellectual processes, and in fact, it is considered as an important tool for understanding how information processing happens (stimulus identification, response selection, and response programming) that occurs in the human nervous system [1]. Types of reaction time Generally, there are two types of RT:simple and complex reaction times. Simple reaction time refers to the time
Hemispheric specialization (HS), or hemispheric dominance, is a nineteenth century concept that relates to the fact that a given hemisphere is the pilot of a given function such as, for example, the left hemisphere is dominant for language and for right-handedness. HS is grounded in both intra-hemispheric white matter connections, supported by associative bundles, and inter-hemispheric connections between cortical areas located in mirrored positions (homotopic), through the corpus callosum (CC) fiber tracts. Imaging investigations have measured anatomical and/or functional asymmetry, assessing HS at the voxelwise, regional, or hemispheric level. Comparison of these simple measures obtained with functional imaging during language tasks with results from the Wada test has validated that asymmetries do size up HS and pave the way for the investigation of HS in healthy humans. Anatomical asymmetries explain only a fraction of functional variability in lateralization, likely because structural and functional asymmetries develop at different periods of life. Anatomical asymmetries appear as early as the 26th week of gestation; at birth they are identical to those of adults. In contrast, functional neuroimaging investigations have revealed that inter-hemispheric connectivity appears at birth and is leftward asymmetrical in auditory areas, whereas in high-order language areas, this inter-hemispheric connectivity slowly shifts during development to a predominant intra-hemispheric connectivity in the adult. The precise timing and neural basis of this shift are still unknown, but it has been nevertheless shown that the connectivity is not yet in place at the age of seven and that it parallels an increase in leftward asymmetry during language tasks. Abnormal development of this asymmetry is observed in severe mental illnesses that exhibit language symptoms, such as schizophrenia and autism. In addition, after a dominant hemisphere lesion, good language capacities are associated with the recovery of a leftward asymmetry during language tasks. However, neuroimaging studies have shown that HS variability for language, up to rightward dominance, exists in healthy individuals and is partly explained by both behavioral (handedness) and anatomical (i.e., brain volume, size of the left planum temporale) factors, with these factors possibly interacting with one another. Knowledge of the setting up of language HS is still fractional and very little is known about right hemisphere dominance and complementary specialization of the two hemispheres. Considering the complexity of the question, progress will come from the acquisition and analysis of databases developed to answer those questions, such as the BIL&GIN, which includes a sample of 450 healthy volunteers balanced for handedness and gender. Each participant has been characterized for cognitive abilities, anatomy, resting state connectivity and activated networks during motor, language and visuospatial tasks.
Although language difficulties are common in children born prematurely, robust neuroanatomical correlates of these impairments remain to be established. This study investigated whether the greater prevalence of language problems in preterm (versus term-born) children might reflect injury to major intra- or interhemispheric white matter pathways connecting frontal and temporal language regions. To investigate this, we performed a comprehensive assessment of language and academic abilities in a group of adolescents born prematurely, some of whom had evidence of brain injury at birth (n = 50, mean age: 16 years, mean gestational age: 27 weeks) and compared them to a term-born control group (n = 30). Detailed structural magnetic resonance imaging and diffusion-tractography analyses of intrahemispheric and interhemispheric white matter bundles were performed. Analysis of intrahemispheric pathways included the arcuate fasciculus (dorsal language pathway) and uncinate fasciculus/extreme capsule (ventral language pathway). Analysis of interhemispheric pathways (in particular, connections between the temporal lobes) included the two major commissural bundles: the corpus callosum and anterior commissure. We found language impairment in 38% of adolescents born preterm. Language impairment was not related to abnormalities of the arcuate fasciculus (or its subsegments), but was associated with bilateral volume reductions in the ventral language pathway. However, the most significant volume reduction was detected in the posterior corpus callosum (splenium), which contains interhemispheric connections between the occipital, parietal and temporal lobes. Diffusion tractography showed that of the three groups of interhemispheric fibres within the splenium, only those connecting the temporal lobes were reduced. Crucially, we found that language impairment was only detectable if the anterior commissure (a second temporal lobe commissural pathway) was also small. Regression analyses showed that a combination of anatomical measures of temporal interhemispheric connectivity (through the splenium of the corpus callosum and anterior commissure) explained 57% of the variance in language abilities. This supports recent theories emphasizing the importance of interhemispheric connections for language, particularly in the developing brain.
The experienced speed of the passage of time is not constant as time can seem to fly or slow down depending on the circumstances we are in. Anecdotally accidents and other frightening events are extreme examples of the latter; people who have survived accidents often report altered phenomenology including how everything appeared to happen in slow motion. While the experienced phenomenology has been investigated, there are no explanations about how one can have these experiences. Instead, the only recently discussed explanation suggests that the anecdotal phenomenology is due to memory effects and hence not really experienced during the accidents. The purpose of this article is (i) to reintroduce the currently forgotten comprehensively altered phenomenology that some people experience during the accidents, (ii) to explain why the recent experiments fail to address the issue at hand, and (iii) to suggest a new framework to explain what happens when people report having experiences of time slowing down in these cases. According to the suggested framework, our cognitive processes become rapidly enhanced. As a result, the relation between the temporal properties of events in the external world and in internal states becomes distorted with the consequence of external world appearing to slow down. That is, the presented solution is a realist one in a sense that it maintains that sometimes people really do have experiences of time slowing down.
Performing mental subtractions affects time (duration) estimates, and making time estimates disrupts mental subtractions. This interaction has been attributed to the concurrent involvement of time estimation and arithmetic with general intelligence and working memory. Given the extant evidence of a relationship between time and number, here we test the stronger hypothesis that time estimation correlates specifically with mathematical intelligence, and not with general intelligence or working-memory capacity.
Participants performed a (prospective) time estimation experiment, completed several subtests of the WAIS intelligence test, and self-rated their mathematical skill. For five different durations, we found that time estimation correlated with both arithmetic ability and self-rated mathematical skill. Controlling for non-mathematical intelligence (including working memory capacity) did not change the results. Conversely, correlations between time estimation and non-mathematical intelligence either were nonsignificant, or disappeared after controlling for mathematical intelligence.
We conclude that time estimation specifically predicts mathematical intelligence. On the basis of the relevant literature, we furthermore conclude that the relationship between time estimation and mathematical intelligence is likely due to a common reliance on spatial ability.
Our aim was to determine the direction of interhemispheric communication in a phonological task in regions involved in different levels of processing. Effective connectivity analysis was conducted on functional magnetic resonance imaging data from 39 children (ages 9-15 years) performing rhyming judgment on spoken words. The results show interaction between hemispheres at multiple levels. First, there is unidirectional transfer of information from right to left at the sensory level of primary auditory cortex. Second, bidirectional connections between superior temporal gyri (STGs) suggest a reciprocal cooperation between hemispheres at the level of phonological and prosodic processing. Third, a direct connection from right STG to left inferior frontal gyrus suggest that information processed in the right STG is integrated into the final stages of phonological segmentation required for the rhyming decision. Intrahemispheric connectivity from primary auditory cortex to STG was stronger in the left compared to the right hemisphere. These results support a model of cooperation between hemispheres, with asymmetric interhemispheric and intrahemispheric connectivity consistent with the left hemisphere specialization for phonological processing. Finally, we found greater interhemispheric connectivity in girls compared to boys, consistent with the hypothesis of a more bilateral representation of language in females than males. However, interhemispheric communication was associated with slow performance and low verbal intelligent quotient within girls. We suggest that females may have the potential for greater interhemispheric cooperation, which may be an advantage in certain tasks. However, in other tasks too much communication between hemispheres may interfere with task performance.
Prospective (forward) temporal-spatial models are essential for both action and perception, but the literature on perceptual prediction has primarily been limited to the spatial domain. In this study we asked how the neural systems of perceptual prediction change, when change-over-time must be modeled. We used a naturalistic paradigm in which observers had to extrapolate the trajectory of an occluded moving object to make perceptual judgments based on the spatial (direction) or temporal-spatial (velocity) characteristics of object motion. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging we found that a region in posterior cerebellum (lobule VII crus 1) was engaged specifically when a temporal-spatial model was required (velocity judgment task), suggesting that circuitry involved in motor forward-modeling may also be engaged in perceptual prediction when a model of change-over-time is required. This cerebellar region appears to supply a temporal signal to cortical networks involved in spatial orienting: a frontal-parietal network associated with attentional orienting was engaged in both (spatial and temporal-spatial) tasks, but functional connectivity between these regions and the posterior cerebellum was enhanced in the temporal-spatial prediction task. In addition to the oculomotor spatial orienting network, regions involved in hand movements (aIP and PMv) were recruited in the temporal-spatial task, suggesting that the nature of perceptual prediction may bias the recruitment of sensory-motor networks in orienting. Finally, in temporal-spatial prediction, functional connectivity was enhanced between the cerebellum and the putamen, a structure which has been proposed to supply the brain's metric of time, in the temporal-spatial prediction task.
Humans’ unique cognitive abilities are usually attributed to a greatly expanded neocortex, which has been described as “the crowning achievement of evolution and the biological substrate of human mental prowess” [1
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This study reports the results of a large scale literature review of research studying the relationship between intelligence and speed of information-processing. Data from 172 studies, with a total of 53,542 participants, were analyzed to find the mean correlations between a variety of intelligence and mental speed measures. Additionally, effect sizes representing group differences on speeded measures were calculated, and multivariate behavioral genetic (BG) studies reporting genetic correlations between speed of processing and IQ were reviewed. The results indicate that measures of intelligence are significantly correlated with mental speed and that for some measures this relationship shows a trend toward strengthening as the complexity of the speeded tasks increase. Additionally, there are various group differences on mental speed tasks: females and males are quicker than one another on different speeded tasks, and younger adults have shorter (faster) reaction time latencies than older adults and children. Reports comparing whites and blacks on mental speed yield inconsistent results. Finally, BG studies indicate that phenotypic correlations between IQ and mental speed are substantially attributable to correlated genetic factors.
According to the temporal resolution power (TRP) hypothesis, individual differences in mental ability (MA) can be explained by differences in the neural oscillations of the central nervous system which find expression in the acuity of temporal information processing: Faster neural oscillations do not only lead to better temporal information processing but also to faster speed of information processing and to better coordinated mental operations which, in turn, lead to higher MA. Empirical evidence for this hypothesis is reviewed in this chapter. Also, critical findings challenging the TRP hypothesis are compiled. For example, it is not yet clear whether the relations of MA to temporal and non-temporal discrimination ability can be dissociated from each other. In addition, the role of attention as a possible underlying mechanism of the relation between TRP and MA needs further exploration.
The effects of 3 mg haloperidol and 125 mg Madopar on duration discrimination (DD) as well as reaction times were tested in a placebo-controlled, double-blind crossover study with 24 healthy male volunteers. Performance in DD was significantly impaired under haloperidol compared to placebo as well as to Madopar. No changes could be demonstrated for Madopar compared to placebo. Similar results were obtained for measures of reaction time. Significant negative correlations between individual changes in DD and measures of reaction time under each drug condition revealed that subjects with drug-induced impairment in DD also show an increase in reaction times. The nearly identical patterns of drug-induced changes in DD and measures of reaction time may be interpreted in terms of a common neural basis.
Relationships among 48 Ss' ages and IQs and their rates of subjective times (RST) were examined. A strong positive correlation was obtained between age and RST. In general the older the man, the faster was his RST. The strength of this relationship did depend, however, upon the interval of time S was required to estimate for the determination of his RST. In general, the shorter the interval the stronger was the relationship. No relationship was found between IQ and RST.
The ability to perceive and represent time is a fundamental but complex cognitive skill that allows us to perceive and organize sequences of events and actions, and to anticipate or predict when future events will occur. It is a multidimensional construct, and a variety of methods have been used to understand timing performance in ADHD samples, which makes it difficult to integrate findings across studies. While further replication is needed, growing evidence links ADHD to problems in several aspects of temporal information processing, including duration discrimination, duration reproduction, and finger tapping. Neuroimaging studies of ADHD have also implicated cerebellar, basal ganglia, and prefrontal regions of the brain, which are believed to subserve temporal information processing. This line of research implicates more basic cognitive mechanisms than previously linked with ADHD and challenges researchers to develop and utilize innovative, multidisciplinary, scientific methods to dissect the various components of temporal information processing. Recent advances in neuroimaging, such as magnetoencephalography in collaboration with structural magnetic resonance imaging, can discriminate temporal processing at the level of a millisecond. This approach can lay the groundwork to provide a more precise understanding of neural network activity during different aspects and stages of temporal information processing in ADHD.
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