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Organic Farming in
Plantation Crops
— Editors —
V. Krishnakumar
P. Chowdappa
2017
Daya Publishing House®
A Division of
Astral International Pvt. Ltd.
New Delhi – 110 002
iv
© 2017 EDITORS
ISBN: 978-93-5124-832-3 (Hardbound)
ISBN: 978-93-86071-70-5 (International Edition)
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Foreword
Worldover,agriculturehasmademany technological advances, increasing
itslevelofproductivityofvariouscropsandotherrelatedenterprises,however,
thesuccessfulgrowthofthesectorhasbeenaccompaniedbywidespreadconcerns
overfoodsafetyissues,damagetosoilhealth,environmentalissuesandtheloss
ofbiodiversityfromintensiedagriculture.Thishaspavedthewayforthinking
differentlyandadoptionoffarmingpractices,whichpromoteandenhanceagro-
ecosystemhealth;enhancebiodiversity,biologicalcycleandsoilbiologicalactivity.
Organicfarming, beinga unique production management system, is the best
choicethatwecan make for our environment,animalsandour own health. As
organicfarmingisassuminggreatersignicancebothindevelopedanddeveloping
countries,and areaisalsoincreasing,one ofthemajorchallengesinthe organic
farmingistodevelopthepackage,whichdonotsacricetheyieldgainsandatthe
sametimeutilizesnaturalresourcesfruitfully.
Plantationcrops are high value commercial crops that play a vital role in
improvingeconomy,employmentgenerationandpovertyalleviationofmillions
ofpeople,especiallyintheruralsector.Thesecropsmeetawidevarietyofhuman
needssuchasfood,fuel,oil,industrialrawmaterials,beveragesandconfectionary
items.Thegrowthhabitandpotentialforsupplyoflargequantitiesofrecyclable
biomassfromtheplantationcropsmakesitpossibletoadoptorganiccultivation
practices.Adoptionoforganicfarmingofferssolutions,andtotakeadvantageof
vi
them,itisnecessarytokeepthefarmers,whoadoptsuchpractices,informedabout
theimpactitcancreateonsaferenvironmentsandfoodsthattheyproduce.Inthis
contextthebookon“OrganicFarminginPlantationCrops”isbeingbroughtout.
ThisbookprovidesvaluableinformationontheStatusofOrganicFarminginthe
world,besides chapters on Organic Plant Protection Technologies,Field Level
ScenarioandFutureStrategies,QualityControlStandardsandOrganicCertication
aswellasTransitiontowardsOrganicFarming:Policies,ProblemsandProspects.
Theother chapters cover variousagro management practices to be adopted for
organicfarming,inputmanagementandbiomassrecycling,soilhealthmanagement,
planthealthmanagement,etc.ofimportantplantationcropsviz.,coconut,arecanut,
cocoa,cashew,coffee,tea,spices,andoilpalm.
Icomplimenteditorsincompilingandeditingthis book.Iam surethatthis
bookwillbeofimmenseusetoallthoseinterestedinorganicfarmingofvarious
plantationcrops.
Dr. T. Mohapatra
Secretary,DAREandDirectorGeneral,
ICAR, New Delhi
Preface
Theincreaseindemandandconsumptionoforganicfoodshasmainlybeen
duetoanincreasingnumberofconsumers,bothinthedevelopedanddeveloping
countries, associating signicant environmental, biodiversity, ethical and food
qualityandsafetybenetswithorganicand/ororganicfoodproductionsystem.
Organicfarminghasreceivedwideracceptanceamongdiversecategoriesoffarmers
operatingindifferentpartsoftheworldundervariedagro-ecologicalandnancial
conditions.Currently,organicagricultureisbeingpracticedin172countriesinan
areaof43.7millionhectaresduring2014withOceanialeadingthelistfollowedby
Europe,Latin America,Asia,NorthAmericaand Africa.Thepremiumprice for
theorganicfoodsintheinternationalmarketenablesthefarmerstorealizehigher
returnsfromorganicproductionsystems,whichshowsannualaveragegrowthrate
of20-25percent.Inthepastthreedecades,standardshavebeensetbydifferent
countries for organic production, (a process certication and not the product
certication),which needs careful understanding,and supervision for adoption
oforganic farming. However, the farmers had to face several problems while
convertingtheirfarmsfromconventionaltoorganicfarming,someofwhichinclude
non-availabilityofqualityorganicinputs,lackofstorageandmarketingfacility.
Since,manyoftheplantationcropsareconsumedeitherdirectly(e.g.coconut,
cocoa,coffee,tea,spices,cashew,oilpalm)orusedforindustrialpurposes(e.g.
coconutoilandpalmoil),organicproductiontomeetconsumer’sneedsisbecoming
imperative.Inordertoadoptorganicfarming,itisnecessarythatsuchtechnologies
withoutthe use of any inorganic fertilizers and plant protection chemicals are
madeavailabletothefarmers.Manytechnologieshavebeengeneratedbut,there
continuestobeconsiderablegapbetweentheneedsandavailability.Inthiscontext,
the available information is being brought together for the benet of farming
community.This book on “Organic Farming in Plantation Crops” contains 13
chapterscovering the organic farming practices of importantplantation crops
suchascoconut,arecanut,cocoa,cashew,coffee,tea,oilpalmandvariousspices.
viii
Besides,chaptersonGlobalandIndianScenarioofOrganicFarming;OrganicPlant
ProtectionTechnologies; Field Level Scenario and Future Strategies of Organic
FarmingPractices in Palms andCocoa; Quality Control Standardsand Organic
CerticationforPlantationCropsandTransitiontowardsOrganicFarming:Policies,
ProblemsandProspectsarealsoincluded.
Theeditorsaregratefultoallthecontributorstothebookforprovidinglatest
informationon diverse aspects of organic farming in various plantation crops.
Wehopethatthis book will prove tobea valuable source of informationtoall
thoseinvolvedinorganicfarmingincludingscientists,developmentalpersonnel,
policymakers,NGOsandfarmers.Itishopedthatthiscomprehensivetreatisewill
stimulateandmotivatemoreintensiedresearch,acceleratedevelopmentalefforts,
favourablepolicyinitiativesandspreadoforganicfarmingofplantationcropsat
thegrassrootslevelfortheproductionofsafefoodunderhealthyenvironmental
conditions.
V. Krishnakumar
P. Chowdappa
Contents
Foreword v
Preface vii
List of Contributors xv
1. Organic Farming: Global Scenario 1
1. Introduction; 2. Organic Agriculture: World-wide; 3. Global Market for
Organic Produce; 4. Plantation Crops; 5. Denitions and Principles of Organic
Agriculture; 5.1. IFOAM Definition; 5.2. US Definition; 5.3. CODEX
Denition; 6. Principles of Organic Farming (IFOAM); 6.1. Principle of Health;
6.2. Principle of Ecology; 6.3. Principle of Fairness; 6.4. Principle of Care;
7. Conversion to Organic Farming; 8. Length of the Conversion Period; 9. Issues
in Organic Farming; 10. Benets of Organic Farming; 10.1. High Premium
for the Produce; 10.2. Low Investment; 10.3. Synergy with Life Forms; 10.4.
Traditional Knowledge; 11. Biodiversity and Organic Farming; 12. Plantation
Crops and Organic Farming; Selected References.
V. Krishnakumar and P. Chowdappa
2. Organic Farming in Coconut 17
1. Introduction; 2. Production Scenario; 2.1. Global Scenario; 2.2. Indian
Scenario; 3. Tall and Dwarf Varieties; 4. Amenability of Coconut to Organic
Farming; 5. Climatic Requirements; 5.1. Geographical Position; 5.2. Temperature;
5.3. Rainfall; 5.4. Impact of Drought; 6. Soil Requirement; 7. Environmental
Services of Coconut; 8. Production of Planting Materials; 8.1. Mother Palm
Selection; 8.2. Collection of Seed Nuts and Sowing; 8.3. Raising Nursery; 8.4.
x
Selection of Seedlings; 8.5. Poly Bag Nursery; 8.6. Bio-Priming of Seedlings; 9.
Planting and After Care; 9.1. Preparation of Land and Planting; 9.2. Spacing;
9.3. Time of Planting; 9.4. Care of Young Palms; 9.5. Irrigation; 9.6. Weeding;
9.7. Nutrient Management for Palms in the early Growth Phase; 9.8. Soil and
Water Conservation under Rainfed Situations; 10. Nutritional Management; 10.1.
Cultivation of Legumes (Green manures or deep-rooted plants); 10.2. Glyricidia
sepium as Green Manure; 10.3. Biofertilizers in Organic Cultivation; 10.4. On
Farm Biomass Recycling; 10.5. Vermicomposting for on Farm Waste Recycling;
10.6. Vermicomposting in the Coconut Basin; 10.7. Vermicomposting in Trenches;
10.8. Vermicomposting in Tanks; 10.9. Multiplication of Eudrilus eugeniae
CPCRI Strain; 10.10. Production of Vermiwash; 10.11. Vermicomposting of
Coir Pith; 11. Biochar; 12. Coconut-based Cropping System; 13. Coconut-based
Multi-storey Cropping System; 14. Coconut-based Mixed Farming System; 15.
Plant Protection; 15.1. Pests and their Management; 15.2. Diseases and their
Management; 16. Harvesting and Post-harvest Management; 16.1. Harvesting;
16.2. Post-harvest Management; Selected References.
P. Subramanian, Murali Gopal, Alka Gupta, George V. Thomas,
V. Krishnakumar and P. Chowdappa
3. Organic Farming in Arecanut 67
1. Introduction; 2. Production Scenario; 2.1. Global Scenario; 2.2. Indian Scenario;
3. Climatic Requirements; 3.1. Geographical Position; 3.2. Temperature; 3.3.
Rainfall; 3.4. Relative Humidity; 4. Soil Requirements; 5. Varieties; 6. Production
of Planting Materials and Nursery Management; 6.1. Selection of Mother Palms;
6.2. Selection of Seed Nut; 6.3. Raising of Seedlings; 6.4. Selection of Seedlings; 7.
Planting and after Care; 7.1. Site Selection and Layout; 7.2. Spacing; 7.3. Depth
of Planting; 7.4. Season of Planting; 7.5. Drainage; 7.6. Shading; 7.7. Irrigation
Water Management; 8. Arecanut Based Cropping/Farming System; 9. Nutritional
Management; 9.1. Green Manure Crops; 9.2. Organic Matter Recycling; 9.3.
Utilization of Organic Wastes as Vermicompost; 10. Plant Protection; 10.1. Pests
and their Management; 10.2. Diseases and their Management; 11. Harvesting
and Post-harvest Management; 11.1. Harvest; 11.2. Post-harvest Management;
Selected References.
Ravi Bhat, S. Sujatha and P. Chowdappa
4. Organic Farming in Cocoa 87
1. Introduction; 2. Production Scenario; 2.1. Global Scenario; 2.2. Organic
Cocoa; 2.3. Indian Scenario; 3. Environmental Benets; 4. Botany of Cocoa;
5. Varieties of Cocoa; 5.1. Criollo; 5.2. Forastero; 5.3. Trinitario; 6. Climatic
Requirements; 6.1. Geographical Position; 6.2. Temperature; 6.3. Rainfall; 6.4.
Relative Humidity; 7. Soil Requirements; 8. Conversion of Old Cocoa Farms
into Organic; 9. Establishment of New Cocoa Plantation; 9.1. Time of Planting;
9.2. Land Preparation; 9.3. Preparation of Good Quality Planting Materials;
9.4. Spacing; 9.5. Planting; 9.6. Shade Requirement; 9.7. Weed Management;
9.8. Irrigation; 10. Cocoa as an Intercrop; 11. Nutritional Management; 11.1.
xi
Nutrient Recycling in Cocoa Garden; 12. Maintenance of Mature Cocoa Farms;
12.1. Pruning; 13. Plant Protection; 13.1. Pests and their Management; 13.2.
Diseases and their Management; 14. Harvesting; 15. Post-harvest Management;
15.1. Fermentation; 15.2. Drying; 15.3. Bagging of Dried Beans; 15.4. Storage;
Selected References.
Ravi Bhat, S. Sujatha, V. Krishnakumar and P. Chowdappa
5. Organic Farming in Cashew 123
1. Introduction; 2. Production Scenario; 2.1. Global Scenario; 2.2. Indian
Scenario; 3. Botany of Cashew; 4. Varieties of Cashew; Commercial Varieties
of Cashew; 5. Climatic Requirements; 5.1. Geographical Position; 5.2. Rainfall;
5.3. Temperature; 6. Soil Requirement; 7. Production of Planting Materials;
8. Preparation of Land and Planting; 8.1. Land Preparation; 8.2. Season for
Planting; 8.3. P it Size; 8.4. Spacing; 8.5. High-Density Planting; 9.
Management of Cashew Plantations; 9.1. Training and Pruning; 9.2. Cover
Cropping; 9.3. Mulching; 9.4. Weed Management; 9.5. Irrigation and Drainage;
9.6. Soil and Water Conservation Methods; 10. Inter/Mixed Cropping; 11. Top
Working; 12. Nutritional Management; 13. Plant Protection; 13.1. Pests and
their Management; 13.2. Diseases and their Management; 14. Harvesting; 15.
Processing of Cashew; 16. Grading and Packing; 17. Utilization of Cashew Apple;
18. Environmental Service; Selected References.
P.B. Pushpalatha
6. Organic Farming in Coffee 159
1. Introduction; 2. Production Scenario; 2.1. Global Scenario; 2.2. Organic
Coffee; 2.3. Indian Scenario; 3. Botany and Varieties of Coffee; 3.1. Botany; 3.2.
Varieties; 4. Climatic Requirements; 5. Soil Requirements; 6. Organic Production
Technologies; 6.1. Establishing New Organic Plantations; 6.2. Conversion and
Isolation; 7. Field Planting of Coffee; 7.1. Selection of Site; 7.2. Choice of Varieties;
7.3. Raising a Nursery; 7.4. Land Preparation; 7.5. Soil Conservation; 7.6.
Preparations for Planting; 7.7. Planting of Shade Trees; 7.8. Planting of Coffee and
Aftercare; 7.9. Weed Control; 7.10. Nutrient Management; 7.11. Plant Training
and Pruning; 8. Conversion of Established Plantations and their Management;
8.1. Conversion Plan; 8.2. Conversion Period; 8.3. Soil Conservation Measures;
8.4. Shade Management; 8.5. Nutrition Management; 8.6. Weed Management;
8.7. Pruning of Coffee Bushes; 9. Soil Microbial Ecology in Organic Coffee; 10.
Plant Protection; 10.1. Pests and Disease Management in New Plantations;
10.2. Pest Management in Established Plantations; 10.3. Disease Management
in Established Plantations; 11. Cropping Systems for Organic Coffee; 12. Harvest
and Post-harvest Management; 12.1. Processing at Estate Level; 12.2. Processing
at Curing Factories; 13. Storage and Transport; 14. Value Addition with Respect
to Organic Coffee; 15. Quality Control and Organic Certication Standards; 15.1.
Harmonization of Standards; 16. Developing Sustainable Market Chain; 16.1.
Organic Produce Organizations (OPO); 16.2. Emerging Markets for Organic
xii
Coffee; 17. Policy Issues with Respect to Organic Coffee; 18. Success Stories of
Organic Coffee; 19. Environmental Benets of Organic Coffee; 20. Conclusion
and Future Strategies for Organic Coffee; Selected References.
Y. Raghuramulu and S. Kamala Bai
7. Organic Farming in Tea 189
1. Introduction; 2. Production Scenario; 2.1. Global Scenario; 2.2. Indian Scenario;
3. Organic Tea Market Potential; 3.1. Domestic Market; 3.2. Export Market; 4.
Botany of Tea; 4.1. China Variety; 4.2. Assam Variety; 4.3. Cambod Variety; 4.4.
United Planters Association of Southern Indian Varieties; 5. Climatic and Soil
Requirements; 5.1. Temperature; 5.2. Rainfall; 5.3. Relative Humidity; 5.4. Wind;
6. Production of Planting Materials and Nursery Management; 7. Conversion
Period; 8. Planting and Aftercare; 8.1. Selection of Site; 8.2. Spacing; 8.3. Soil
and Water Conservation Measures; 8.4. Weed Management; 8.5. Bringing up of
Young Tea Plantation; 9. Nutritional Management; 9.1. Nutrient Requirements;
9.2. Organic Nutrition Management; 9.3. Pruned Fields/Fields Recovering from
Pruning; 9.4. Fields under Regular Plucking; 10. Training of Young Tea Plants;
11. Pruning; 12. Shade Tree Management; 13. Plant Protection; 13.1. Pests and
their Management; 13.2. Diseases and their Management; 14. Harvesting and
Post-harvest Treatment; 14.1. Harvesting; 14.2. Post-harvest Management; 15.
Economics of Organic Tea Production; Selected References.
B. Radhakrishnan and J. Durairaj
8. Organic Farming in Spices 215
1. Introduction; 2. Black Pepper; 2.1. Conversion Period and Isolation; 2.2.
Climatic and Soil Requirements; 2.3. Planting and after Care; 2.4. Nutrient
Management; 2.5. Cropping System; 2.6. Plant Protection; 2.7. Harvest and
Post-harvest Operations; 3. Small Cardamom; 3.1. Conversion Period and
Isolation; 3.2. Climatic and Soil Requirements; 3.3. Site Selection and Shade
Requirement; 3.4. Planting and after Care; 3.5. Cropping System; 3.6. Nutritional
Management; 3.7 Plant Protection; 3.8 Harvesting and Post-harvest Operations;
4. Nutmeg; 4.1. Conversion Period and Isolation; 4.2. Varieties; 4.3. Climate and
Soil Requirements; 4.4. Source and Type of Planting Material; 4.6. Nutrient
Management; 4.7. Plant Protection; 4.8. Harvest and Post-harvest Operations;
5. Clove; 5.1. Climate and Soil Requirements; 5.2. Varieties and Planting
Material; 5.3. Nursery Practices; 5.4. Site Selection and Planting; 5.5.Nutritional
Management; 5.6. Plant Protection; 5.7. Harvesting and Post-harvest Operations;
6. Garcinia (Kudampuli); 6.1. Production of Planting Materials; 6.2. Planting and
Aftercare; 6.3. Nutritional Management; 6.4. Plant Protection; 6.5. Harvesting
and Post-harvest Operations; 7. Cinnamon; 7.1. Climate and Soil Requirements;
7.2. Propagation; 7.3. Planting and after Care; 7.4. Coppicing; 7.5 Nutritional
Management; 7.6. Harvest and Post-harvest Operations; 8. Organic Certication
for Spices; Selected References.
C.K. Thankamani, V. Srinivasan and S. Hamza
xiii
9. Organic Farming in Oil Palm 249
1. Introduction; 2. Production Scenario; 2.1. Global Scenario; 2.2. International
Trade: Exports and Imports; 2.3. Organic Palm Oil; 2.4. Indian Scenario;
3. Climatic Requirements; 3.1. Geographical Position; 3.2. Temperature; 3.3.
Rainfall; 3.4. Solar Radiation; 4. Soil Requirements; 5. Botany; 6. Nursery
Management; 6.1. Single Stage Nursery; 6.2. Double Stage Nursery; 6.3. Use
of Advanced Planting Material; 6.4. Culling in the Nursery; 6.5. Selection
of Seedlings for Planting; 7. Land Preparation and Planting; 7.1. Time of
Transplanting; 7.2. Palm Density; 7.3. Leguminous Cover Crops; 7.4. Inter
Cropping; 7.5. Irrigation; 7.6. Weed Control; 7.7. Soil Conservation; 7.8. Pruning
of Fronds; 7.9. Pollination; 7.10. Ablation; 7.11. Zero Burning; 8. Nutrient
Management; 8.1. Organic Waste Recycling; 9. Plant Protection; 9.1. Pests and
their Management; 9.2. Diseases and their Management; 10. Harvesting; 11.
Utilization and Use; 11.1. Palm Oil; 11.2. Palm Kernel Oil; 11.3. Palm Wine;
11.4. Biodiesel; 12. Site Specic Management Practices; 13. Environmental
Issues; Selected References.
P. Murugesan and V. Krishnakumar
10. Organic Plant Protection Technologies 283
1. Introduction; 2. Pest Management Concept in Organic Farming; 2.1. Biological
Pest Suppression; 2.2. Entomopathogens; 2.3. Limitations of Biocontrol Methods;
2.4. Botanical Pesticides; 2.5. Semiochemicals; 2.6. Light Traps or Attractant
Traps; 2.7. Agronomic Practices; 2.8. Pest Surveillance; 3. Ecological Engineering
for Pests Management; 4. Future Thrusts in Pest Management; 5. Conclusion;
Selected References.
Chandrika Mohan and A. Josephrajkumar
11. Organic Farming Practices in Palms and Cocoa:
Field Level Scenario and Future Strategies 305
1. Introduction; 2. Socio-economic and Farming Details; 3. Adoption of Organic
Farming Practices; 4. Knowledge on Organic Farming Practices; 5. Constraints
in Organic Farming; 6. SWOT Analysis of Organic Farming; 6.1. Farmers’
Perspective; 6.2 .Institutional Perspective; 7. Strategies for Promotion of Organic
Farming; 8. Conclusions; Selected References.
D. Jaganathan, C. Thamban, S. Jayasekhar, C.T. Jose,
V. Krishnakumar, P. Anithakumari and K.P. Chandran
12. QualityControlStandardsandOrganicCerticationfor
Plantation Crops 317
1. Introduction; 2. Certied Organic Products; 3. Organic Quality Control;
3.1. Standards for Organic Agriculture; 3.2. Accreditation; 3.3. Inspection; 3.4.
Certication; 4. Conversion Requirements; 5. Duration of Conversion Period; 6.
Choice of Crops and Varieties; 7. Diversity in Crop Production and Management
xiv
Plan; 8. Nutrient Management; 9. Pest, Disease and Weed Management; 10.
Contamination Control; 11. Soil and Water Conservation; 12. Labeling; 13.
Organic Certication Mark; 13.1. India Organic Logo; 13.2. Other Logos.
Mathew Sebastian and M.P. Sajitha
13. Transition towards Organic Farming:
Policies, Problems and Prospects 333
1. Introduction; 2. Organic Agriculture: The World Scenario; 3. Organic
Agriculture: The Indian Scenario; 4. Organic Agriculture: The Kerala Scenario;
5. Looming Perplexity and Need for in-depth Studies; 6. Farmer’s Perception and
Field Level Reections; 7. Conclusion; Selected References.
S. Jayasekhar, C. Thamban, K.P. Chandran and D. Jaganathan
Index 341
Colour Plates 367
Chapter 11
Organic Farming Practices in
Palms and Cocoa: Field Level Scenario
and Future Strategies
P D. Jaganathan, C. Thamban, S. Jayasekhar, C.T. Jose,
V. Krishnakumar, P. Anithakumari and K.P. Chandran
1. Introduction
Plantationcropslikecoconut,arecanut,cocoa,coffee,teaandrubberplayan
importantroleinsocial,culturalandeconomiclife of people in India. Coconut,
arecanutandcocoaaretheimportantperennialcropswhicharelargelygrownin
southIndiaespeciallyinthestatesviz.,Kerala,Karnataka,TamilNaduandAndhra
Pradesh.Indiaisoneofthemajorproducersofcoconutintheworldandabout12
millionpeoplearedependenton coconut farming and its alliedactivities.India
hasproduced21,665millionnutsintheyear2014fromanareaof2.14millionha
withaproductivityof10,122nutsperhectare.Kerala,Karnataka,TamilNaduand
AndhraPradesharethefourmajorstateswhichaccountfor88.8percentofarea
and91.2percentofIndia’sproduction(CDB,2015).Arecanutisgrowninpartsof
Karnataka,Kerala, Assam,Meghalaya,WestBengal, TamilNaduandAndaman
andNicobarIslands.Indiaisthelargestproducingcountrywithaproductionof
7.46lakh tonnes from an area of 4.50 lakh ha (DASD, 2014). Karnataka, Kerala
andTamilNaduarethemajorsouthernstateswherearecanutiscultivatedinan
areaof3.20lakhhawithaproductionof5.97lakhtonnes.(DASD,2014).Cocoais
consideredtobethefoodofGodandisnativetoAmazonregionofSouthAmerica.
CocoawasintroducedinIndiaasamixedcrop/intercropincoconutandarecanut
plantationsduring1970s.Atpresent,itiscultivatedin65,500hectaresinIndiaas
Organic Farming in Plantation Crops
306
componentcropincoconut,arecanutandoilpalmplantationswithaproduction
of13,400tonnes(DCCD,2014).Itismainlycultivatedinfoursouthernstatesviz.,
Karnataka,Kerala,TamilNaduandAndhraPradesh.Thereisatremendousscope
forareaexpansionincocoabecauseofheavydemandinIndianchocolateindustry
andconfectionarieswhichisportrayedas60,000mtfortheyear2025.
Researchoncoconut, arecanut and cocoastartedinIndiaduring1916,1956
and1970, respectively which resulted in generation of large number of viable
technologiesviz.,improvedvarieties/hybrids,agrotechniques,cropping/farming
system, pest and disease management, processing and value addition. Diverse
productionsystemshadbeenpracticedbyfarmersduetodiverseagro-climaticand
socioeconomicconditionsacrossdifferentpartsofthecountry.Organicfarming
isgetting prominence in various parts of Indiasince 1990s, but no systematic
andinstitutionalworkhadhappenedtill2000.NationalProgrammeforOrganic
Production(NPOP)waslaunchedinMay,2000bythegovernmentwiththeobjective
ofpromotingorganicfarminginIndia.Sincethen,Indiaisshowingrapidprogress
inorganic sector. In 2010-11, 6.0 lakh hectares of cultivated land were under
certiedorganicandanother1.75lakh hectares were under conversion (NCOF,
2011).InIndia,NationalSteeringCommitteecomprisingofMinistryofCommerce,
Ministryof Agriculture, Agricultural and Processed Food Export Development
Authority(APEDA),commodityboardsandvariousothergovernmentandprivate
organizations associated with the organic movement is monitoring the overall
organicactivitiesundertheNationalProgrammeforOrganicProduction.APEDA
isthecoordinatingagencyfororganicfoodproductionandexportunderthebrand
name“India Organic”.Thestepsinvolvedincerticationare, registrationofthe
producersandprocessing industries, provisionofbasicinformationonthe crop
andfarm,inspectionandvericationoftheeldandprocessingunit,inspectionof
productionmethodsandpracticesbytheinspectorofthecertifyingagency.
Realizingthepotentialoforganicfarming,NationalProjectonOrganicFarming
wasstartedintheyear2004.InIndia,thedemandfororganicproduceincreasesyear
afteryearparticularlyininternationaltrademarket.Organicproductsproduced
inIndiaaretea,spices, fruits and vegetables, rice, coffee, cashew nuts, oilseeds,
wheat,pulses,cottonandherbalextracts.Productswithpotentialinthedomestic
marketare fruits, vegetables, rice and wheat, while those in the export market
aretea,rice,fruitsandvegetables,cotton,wheatandspices.Organicfarmingisa
uniqueproductionmanagementsystemwhichpromotesandenhancesagroeco-
systemhealth,includingbio-diversity,biologicalcyclesandsoilbiologicalactivity
andthisisaccomplishedbyusingon-farmagronomic,biologicalandmechanical
methodsinexclusionofallsyntheticoff-farminputs(FAO,1993).Organicfarming
practicesaregainingimportanceamongfarmers,trainers,entrepreneurs,policy
makers,agriculturalscientists,processorsandextensionpersonnelforvariedreasons
suchasitminimizesthedependenceofexternalinputs,thus,notonlyreducesthe
costofcultivationbutalsosafeguardaswellaspreservequalityofresourcesand
environment.ICARinstitutes,StateAgriculturalUniversities(SAUs),KrishiVigyan
Kendras(KVKs),NonGovernmentalOrganizations(NGOs),StateDepartmentof
Horticulture/Agricultureandothergovernmentandprivateagencieshavestarted
Organic Farming Practices in Palms and Cocoa: Field Level Scenario and Future Strategies 307
advocatingorganic farming practices in horticultural crops including coconut,
arecanutandcocoa.
Inthiscontext,systematicresearchforevolvingorganicpackageofpractices
forcoconut,arecanutandcocoahasstartedrecentlyatICAR-CPCRIanddifferent
centresoftheAllIndiaCoordinatedResearchProjectonPalmskeepinginviewthe
sustainabilityaspectsandotherbenets.Manyfarmerscultivatingcoconut,arecanut
andcocoahavestartedadoptingorganicfarmingpracticesduetovarioussocio-
economicandotherrelatedfactors.Inthischapter,eldlevelscenariooforganic
farmingpracticesinthesecropsadoptedbysuchfarmersisdiscussedindetailand
futurestrategiesforpromotionoforganicfarmingareoutlined.
2. Socio-economic and Farming Details
AnanalysisoforganicfarmingpracticesincoconutinsouthIndiaconductedby
Jaganathanet al. (2013)revealedthataround67percentofthefarmershadlessthan
twoha,withnearly80percenthavingmorethan15yearsofexperienceincoconut
cultivation.Around63 per centfarmersmaintainedanylivestockcomponentin
theirfarm,whichisan integral part of organic farming. Only12percentofthe
cultivatorsmaintainedanyfarmrecords,whereas,23percentoffarmerscarried
outsoiltestingasa basisfornutrientmanagementandorganiccerticationwas
adoptedbylessthan3percentofthefarmersincludedinthestudy.Inthecaseof
arecanut(Jaganathan et al., 2014),58percentpercentofthefarmershadlessthan
twohaareacultivatedwitharecanutwith80percenthavingmorethan15years
ofexperienceincultivation.Around67percentmaintainedlivestockcomponent
intheirfarms,whileabout30percentofthefarmerswerefoundtomaintainfarm
records.Soilfertilityevaluationwasdoneby28percentofthefarmers.Certication
fororganicfarmingwastakenuponly3percentofthefarmerssurveyed.Majority
ofcocoafarmers(>60percent)hadlessthantwohaareaunderthecropandmore
thanthreefourthoffarmershadlivestockcomponentintheirfarms.Itwasnoticed
that30percentoffarmersmaintainedfarmrecordsandsoiltestingwasdoneby
aroundsamepercentageoffarmers.Organiccerticationwastakenupbyveper
cent(Jaganathan et al., 2015)ofthefarmerssurveyed.
3. Adoption of Organic Farming Practices
Intheconventionalfarming,thefarmersdependedheavilyonexternalagencies
forinputslikeplantingmaterials,fertilizers,pesticidesetc.Moreovertheyhadto
waitforlongtimeforgettingtheinputsforuseintheirfarms.Farmersarebecoming
moreawareabouttheilleffectsofchemicalfarmingonthehealthofhumanbeings.
Theindiscriminateuseofchemicalsnotonlypollutedthesoil,waterandairbut
alsoaffected the health of human beings. Thischanged their mindset to go for
organicfarmingpracticesandmadethemconsciousof‘concernforhumanhealth’.
Theanalysisofdifferentreasonsforadoptingorganicfarmingpractices,ingeneral,
revealedsoilandhumanhealth,economicaswellassocialissuesasthemajorones.
Mostofthefarmerssurveyedfeltthat‘maintenanceofsoilfertility’wasverymuch
necessary.Concernforhumanhealth,minimizingtheenvironmentalpollution,use
oftraditionalfarmingpractices,minimizingtheuseofexternalinputs,reducingthe
Organic Farming in Plantation Crops
308
Figure 11.1: Mixed Cropping in Coconut Garden.
Figure 11.2: Growing Leguminous Crop in Coconut Garden.
productioncost,efcientuseoflocallyavailableresources,inuenceofinstitutions
andotherfarmers were some oftheother aspects considered bythefarmers to
changeintoorganicfarming.Growingofvariousintercropsformaintainingcrop
diversityandyearroundincomegeneration,growingofgreenmanurecropsand,
Organic Farming Practices in Palms and Cocoa: Field Level Scenario and Future Strategies 309
Figure 11.3: Mixed Cropping in Arecanut Garden.
Figure 11.4: Mulching using Cocoa Leaves.
useof green leaf manure for increasing soilfertility, mulching the plant basins
andgrowingofcovercropsforsoilandmoistureconservationetc.werethemajor
agronomicpracticesadoptedbythefarmerswhoswitchedovertoorganicfarming.
Intercropslikecocoa,nutmeg,bananaandblackpepperweremostlyadopted
byfarmersofCoimbatoredistrict(TamilNadustate)andKozhikodedistrict(Kerala
state)becauseof suitable agro climatic andsocioeconomic factors. Tuber crops
andvegetablesweremostlyfoundinThiruvananthapuramdistrict(Keralastate).
Organic Farming in Plantation Crops
310
Foddercrops,lemonetc.werefoundinTumkurdistrict(Karnatakastate).Majority
offarmersinThanjavurdistrict(TamilNadustate)didnotcultivateanyintercrop
asthey felt interculturaloperations would be difcult. Mulching was practiced
usingresiduesofcoconut,banana,cocoaetc.toconservethesoilandwater.Green
manurecropslikesunhemp(Crotalaria juncea)andKolinji(Tephrosia purpurea) were
raisedbythefarmersforenrichingthesoilfertility.Greenleafmanurecropslike
glyricidia,neemleaves,calotropisetc.werealsousedbyfarmers.Leguminouscrops
likeStylosanthes gracilis, Calopogonium mucunoides, Vigna unguiculata etc. were used
ascovercropstopreventsoilerosionandforenrichingthesoilfertility.
Inordertomaintainorimprovesoilfertility,useoforganicinputsproduced/
preparedatthefarmitselfwasresortedtobythefarmers.Variouscropresidues,
farmyardmanure,cowdungslurry,vermicompost,ashandpoultrymanurewere
foundtobethemajororganicinputsinorganiccultivation.Cropresiduesofcoconut,
banana,cocoaandotherweedswereusedasorganicmatterforenrichingthesoil
fertility.Organic inputs viz., neem cake, neem based insecticides, biofertilizers,
poultrymanure,sheepmanureetc.werethemajorinputswhichwerepurchased
fromexternalsourcesforuseincropproductionintheorganicfarms.
4. Knowledge on Organic Farming Practices
Knowledgereferstotheextentofinformationpossessedbythefarmersabout
organicfarming.Itisanimportantvariablewhichwillinuencetheadoptionof
organicfarmingpractices.Majorityoffarmerscultivatingcoconut(68percent),
arecanut(78 per cent) andcocoa (68 per cent) had medium levelof knowledge
aboutorganic farming practices. The knowledgelevel of farmers on green
manures, oil cakes, intercropping, mulching and vermicomposting was fairly
Figure 11.5: Pruning of Cocoa Plants.
Organic Farming Practices in Palms and Cocoa: Field Level Scenario and Future Strategies 311
highwhencomparedtotheknowledgeonbio-controlagents,botanicalpesticides
andbio-fertilizers. This warrants for conducting capacity buildingprogrammes
viz.,trainings, exposure visits, method demonstration with respect to botanical
pesticides,bio-fertilizersandbio-controlagentsinordertoimprovetheknowhow
offarmerswhichwillresultinbetteradoption.
5. Constraints in Organic Farming
Nonavailabilityoflabour, nonavailabilityofqualityorganicinputs,lackof
knowledgeaboutorganicfarmingpractices,highcostfortransportingorganicinputs
fromoutsidethefarm,lackofspecializedmarketsfororganicproduces,highlabour
wages,lowyieldandprotduringconversionperiod,lackoffarmers’cooperatives
formarketing,lackofstandardpackageofpracticesfororganicfarming,lackoflocal
certicationagencies,andinadequatesubsidiesarethemajorconstraintsexpressed
bythefarmersinadoptingorganicfarming.Conventionally,prophylacticmethods
ratherthancurativemethodswereadoptedformanagementofpestsanddiseases.
Organicfarmingdemandshightechnicalknow-howespeciallyforpestsanddiseases
management.Amongthetechnical/extensionconstraints,difcultyincontrolling
pestsanddiseasesbyorganicmethodswasexpressedbymajorityoffarmers.High
costfortransportingorganicinputswasthemajoroneundereconomicconstraints.
Fortransportinginputslikefarmyardandpoultrymanures,etc.vehiclesaretobe
hiredandthecosttobeincurredfortheirapplicationwasalsohigh.Farmersalso
feltthatlabourwagesforweeding,andotherculturaloperations,irrigationetc. was
alsohigh,buttheeconomicreturnfortheproducesremainedmoreorthelessduring
differentyears.Lowyieldandprotduringconversionperiodwasfeltbyfarmers.
6. SWOT Analysis of Organic Farming
Anattemptwasmadetoanalyzethestrength,weaknesses,opportunitiesand
threats(SWOT) in terms of farmers’ and institutional perspective for adopting
organicfarmingincoconut,arecanutandcocoa.
6.1. Farmers’ Perspective
Strengths Weaknesses
P Easy to adopt since it is often close to existing practice P Labour intensive especially in initial
P Closely related to risk averse strategies of farmers phase
P Helps in developing local and traditional knowledge P Inadequate extension services
systems P Non availability of specialized
P Local resources can effectively be used markets
P Recycling and utilization of farm wastes P No demand and no premium price for
P Free from risk of pesticides residues organic produce
P Less dependency for external inputs which reduces
the debt of farmers
P Participatory farming
P Build up of predators, natural enemies in the
perennial system
Organic Farming in Plantation Crops
312
Opportunities Threats
P Possibility for sustainable agriculture P Belief in modernization
P Creation of new on-farm income generating P Peer group ridicule
opportunities P Subsidy for inorganic farming
P Possibility for premium prices in future if certified
P Opportunities for greater social contacts through
meetings, training etc.
6.2.Institutional Perspective
Strengths Weaknesses
P Donor agencies attracted to organic farming projects P Lack of package of practices for different
P Organic farming is to reduce the poverty among small agro ecological regions
and marginal farmers P Demands time
P Government is encouraging organic farming under P Less published and peer reviewed data
Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture to support organic movements, claims
(MIDH) by establishing model organic plots at that organic farming increases sustain-
farmers’ gardens. ability
P Lack of supportive policy framework
P Lack of indigenous certification agencies
Opportunities Threats
P Organic farming can make substantial contributions P Organic farming poses threat to
to sustainable environmental resource use established agribusiness interests
P Possibility for group movement by trained farmers for P Lack of adequate extension services
practicing organic farming and research capacity
P High potential for women’s participation in organic
farming
P Opportunity for tying organic farming with other goals
notably with respect to biodiversity, gender inequalities
and potentially global warming
7. Strategies for Promotion of Organic Farming
Itiswellknownfactthatorganicfarmingpracticesis suitableforsmall and
marginalfarmersespeciallyfortheirlivelihoodsecurityandfreefromdebttrap.
Sustainableresourcebase,sustainedcropyieldswithoutoverrelianceoncostly
externalinputs,protectionoftheenvironmentandbio-diversityetc.areothermajor
benets.Sustainedeffortsfromresearchinstitutes,developmentalorganizations,
progressivefarmers,inputsdealers,processorsandotherstakeholdersarewarranted
forbetteradoptionoforganicfarminginplantationcrops.Basedonthediscussion
withscientists,experts,farmersandotherstakeholders,thefollowingstrategies
havebeenformulated for promotion of organicfarminginplantationcropslike
coconut,arecanutandcocoa:
1. Promotionof research on organic agronomic practices, bio-controlof
diseasesandpests,bio-fertilizersetc.
2. Developmentofpackageoforganicfarmingpracticesforcoconut,arecanut
andcocoasuitedtodifferentagroecologicalregionsofthecountry.
Organic Farming Practices in Palms and Cocoa: Field Level Scenario and Future Strategies 313
3. Organizeseminars,workshops,symposiumetc.forbetterinteractionof
thefarmerswiththescientists,extensionworkers,governmentofcials
forfurtherupgradationofthetechnologies.
4. Organizeorganicfarmers’networktoexchangeideas,technologiesetc
5. Supplyofbio-fertilizers,bio-agents,bio-pesticidesandotherorganicinputs
tosmallandmarginalfarmersinsufcientquantitiesatreasonableprice
aswellasnancialsupportbystateandcentralgovernmentstopromote
organicfarming.
6. Farmers’participatoryresearchforreningorganictechnologiesforbetter
adoption.
7. Establishmentofmodelorganicfarmingplotsindifferentagroecological
regions.
8. Maintenanceofdatabaseatblock/districtlevelonarea,productionand
productivityofdifferentcropsaswellasorganicnutrientresourcesand
othermaterialsneededfororganicfarming.
9. Simplication of certication processes, which are acceptable to small
resourcepoorfarmers.
10. Establishmentofpublicwarehouseforstorageoforganicfarmproducesas
wellasspecialmarketingzonesfororganicproductstopromotedomestic
sales/export.
8. Conclusion
Itisapparent from the resultsthatthe farmers who have implementedthe
organicfarming practices do reect the concern for sustainable agriculture. It
becomesmuch more evident from the apprehensions expressed by the farmers
regardingsoilfertility,environmentalimpactandhealthhazards.Strikinglyfarmers
alsorevealedtheexibilityandfreedomtheymightenjoybyminimaldependence
onexternalagenciesasanincentiveofpracticingorganicfarming.Itisnoteworthy
thatmostofthefarmersdonothaveawarenessandexpertiseonadvancedorganic
farmingpracticessuchasapplication of bio pesticides and bio fertilizers, which
couldbeapointofinterventionfromtheresearcherfront.
Asamatteroffact,theorganicfarmingcultureinourcountryisexperiencing
atransitionregime andyettobeevolvedas an organizedpractice,especiallyin
thecaseofperennialcropslikecoconut,arecanutandcocoa.Lackofgoodquality
organicinputs,timelyavailabilityoftheinputsandhighertransactioncosts,etc. are
theimportantmattersofconcernfromthefarmerfront.Possibilityofoccurrence
ofnutrient deciencies/pestsanddiseasesdueto organicfarmingpracticesand
appropriatemanagementapproachesisanotherareaofconcern.Whileproposing
shifttoorganicfarming,itisimperativetorecommendacomprehensivepackage.
Therefore,thelackoforganizedsetupandinadequateinfrastructurewithmeagre
policysupport might hamper the interest of thosewho are seriouslypracticing
organicfarming.
Organic Farming in Plantation Crops
314
Farmersaremoreconfrontedwithmarket-relateddifcultiessuchaslowand
highlyuctuatingpricesanditisachallengetondfavourablemarketoutletsforthe
products.Torealizethehigherpricesfororganicproduceitisimperativetoobtain
organiclabeling fortheproduct.Organiccerticationiscertainly acumbersome
procedureand to materialize this, organic producers should join togetheras
anOrganic Producer’s Society. The certification may beattempted through
ParticipatoryGuaranteeSystems(PGS)whicharelocallyfocusedqualityassurance
systems.They certify producers based on active participation of stakeholders
andarebuiltonafoundationoftrust,socialnetworksandknowledgeexchange.
Moreover,theGovernmentofIndiasupportsPGSthroughtheNationalCentreof
OrganicFarming(NCOF).
Fromthepolicyfrontitisofparamountimportancetosetupseparatemarketing
facilitiesfor organic produce through the existing channels of marketing of
agricultureproductssuchastheAmul/Milma,SupplycoandHorti-corp.Fromthe
researcher’spointofviewthevitalchallengeistobridgetheinformationasymmetry
existingbetweenfarmersandthepolicymakers.Nevertheless,theconcertedefforts
fromstakeholdersoforganicfarmingwouldensurethesustainablecultivationand
wouldalsoattracteconomicbenet.Aboveall,Productlabeling(organic)followed
bybrandingcan open up apossibleniche- international market fortheorganic
productinthelongrun.
Selected References
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Nadu. Ph.D., thesis, IndianAgriculturalResearchInstitute,NewDelhi.
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Plantation Crops. 41(1): 71-89)
Jaganathan,D.,Thamban,C.,Jose,C.T.,Jayasekhar,S.andChandran,K.P.(2014).
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Abstracts. NationalconferenceonSustainabilityofcoconut,arecanutandcocoa
farming– Technological advances and way forward. 22-23rd August, 2014,
CPCRI,Kasaragod,p.112.
Jaganathan, D., Thamban, C., Jose, C.T., Jayasekhar, S., Chandran, K.P. and
Muralidharan,K. (2015). Analysis of organic farming practices in cocoa in
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John,F.(2000). Prospects for conventional farmers adopting organicproduction
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future prospects including an assessment of research needs.MinistryofAgriculture
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NCOF.(2011).National Project on Organic Farming. Annual report (2010-2011). National
CentreofOrganicFarming,Ghaziabad,88p.(www.dacnet.nic.in/ncof)
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