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The Changing Institutional and Legislative Planning Framework of Zambia and Zimbabwe: Nuances for Urban Development
Abstract
In order for urban development to take place, there is need for policies, institutional and statutory frameworks that guide it. These frameworks provide way forward and direction to be followed to achieve the set goals. The paper aims to review the different policies adopted by Zimbabwean and Zambian governments, institutional frameworks and statutory frameworks that guide their urban development. The data used for this study was obtained through document review and analysis of secondary data. The paper established that both Zimbabwe and Zambia adopted the British institutional and statutory frameworks. These frameworks had been guiding development of their urban areas in both pre-independence and post-independence era. The post-independence governments sought to redress urban development inequalities created before independence. However, in addressing the imbalances, both nations seek to use the colonial institutional and statutory frameworks that seems difficulty to shake off. Minor changes were done by Zambian government when they reviewed their planning legislation in 2015. Zimbabwe and Zambia attempt to address their current urban development challenges using their colonial statutory framework. Few structural changes were made after independence, showing a change in administration but with continuity of colonial statutory framework for urban development.
... Urban planning was introduced in European cities during the nineteenth century industrialization period (Scott 1971;Chigudu 2021). Prior to the industrialization, the development of cities used to be chaotic. ...
... However, it was affected by the population increase in major cities. The change in modes of urban transport led to advanced growth of cities. Modes of urban transportation changed from horses and horse-drawn carriages to automobile (Mabogunje 2015;Chigudu 2021). ...
... The industrialization era stirred the need to develop standard housing, industries, and road infrastructure in expectation of increase in population, speculation of profit, and growth of unrestricted business enterprises in cities (Kraftchik 1990;Chigudu and Chirisa 2020;Chigudu 2021). This resulted in the swift population growth in major cities, coupled with sprawling cities and several forms of physical damages to the urban environment. ...
This chapter examines the future of urban planning on the growth and development of cities. Urban planning has become increasingly important due to changes occurring in the rapid expansion of cities in countries in developing world. This chapter seeks to explore the significance of planning law in the growth and development of sustainable cities. Particular emphasis was given to major cities in developing world. Urban planning strives to create sustainable towns and cities. Excessive growth of cities has brought with it challenges that most developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa are not equipped to handle. There has been rapid urbanization both in terms of the increase in population in cities and the spread of developments outside city boundaries. This has been accompanied by problems such as infill developments, overcrowding, pressure on amenities, and the growth of slum settlements. The anticipated 60% increase in the urban population by 2050 has revealed the importance of urban planning in catering for the growing population. Data for this chapter were collected from primary and secondary sources such as population statistics, reports, journals, and the planning legislations. Some data was obtained through interviews from practicing urban planners and observations from present infrastructure in cities in developing countries. Results reveal that most African cities are failing to adapt to rapid growth of capital cities and associated challenges. The embracing of some aspects of the urban planning system is possible, but it is not feasible in other cities since the realities and challenges require different ways of dealing with them. It is critical for cities in developing countries to seriously consider the review of urban planning legislation to come up with policies and plans that are sustainable to current and future challenges.
... This has led to increasing pressure on urban amenities due to the resultant excessive population. Informal settlements and slum developments have begun to emerge, since the existing housing delivery system has failed to adequately respond to excess demands for urban accommodation (Chigudu 2021). The Regional Town and Country Planning Act (RTCPA) of 1976 had minor revisions made to it in 1996 so as to accommodate the indigenous names of local authorities (GoZ 1996;Chigara et al. 2013;Chigudu 2021), but no attention was given to spatial planning and the development of rural areas. ...
... Informal settlements and slum developments have begun to emerge, since the existing housing delivery system has failed to adequately respond to excess demands for urban accommodation (Chigudu 2021). The Regional Town and Country Planning Act (RTCPA) of 1976 had minor revisions made to it in 1996 so as to accommodate the indigenous names of local authorities (GoZ 1996;Chigara et al. 2013;Chigudu 2021), but no attention was given to spatial planning and the development of rural areas. ...
... Where Zambia is concerned, upon the attainment of independence in 1964, the country adopted the colonial spatial planning system. The spatial planning legislation implanted in post-independent Zambia took the form of the TCPA (Chapter 283 of the Laws of Zambia) (Mutale 2017;Chigudu 2021). The government of Zambia introduced changes in their spatial planning legislation in 1974. ...
This paper examines the effects of urbanisation in the capital cities of Zimbabwe and Zambia with specific reference to their inherited spatial planning systems. Many cities around the world are faced with urbanisation challenges, owing largely to population growth caused rural-urban migration. Most of this urbanisation occurs as people search for favourable economic opportunities and a better life. The paper analyses the colonial spatial planning legacy of the two countries, highlighting how inherited spatial planning practices in Zimbabwe and Zambia has continued to influence urban development in the rapidly urbanising cities of Harare and Lusaka. Data was obtained from document reviews and the analysis of secondary data. Some data was acquired through interviews from expert planners and observations. The results revealed that urbanisation is an enduring phenomenon in these capital cities, and the growth of slums and informal settlements is very pronounced there. Although efforts have been made to address challenges associated with urbanisation, these have not been sufficient. Moreover, although Harare and Lusaka are experiencing rapid urbanisation, minimal priority is given to deliberately reviewing their spatial planning systems and addressing their urbanisation challenges. Noteworthy attempts have been made to control urbanisation in Harare and Lusaka, but these have largely been inadequate due to the lack of will to review the adopted colonial spatial planning frameworks in Zimbabwe and Zambia. There is need, therefore, for strong spatial planning institutions and sustainable statutory frameworks that address contemporary urbanisation problems in these Third World cities.
... Van Leeuwen (2014) emphasises the importance of local politics, power relations and authority in defining, legitimizing and enforcing claims to land use and engendering both tenure security and insecurity (See also Sikor and Lund, 2009). However, this study shows an emphasis on the strengthening of chiefs as a form of co-option tactic deployed for the convenience of national state actors (Bae, 2021;Chigudu, 2021). The government continues to court chiefs as allies in development and land governance in rural areas where state institutions are weak or non -existent. ...
This paper explores mechanisms that render different state actors capable of exerting customary land pressures, land grabbing or facilitating conditions for doing so. Specifically, the paper examines provisions state actors rely upon in the acquisition of rural customary land and implications. Using the test case of a rural district of Mafinga in eastern Zambia, we collect qualitative data from policy analysis, multi-level semi-structured interviews, and group discussions with local actors. Results show that land conversion has been heightened by creation of new districts across the country, which has advanced an urgent need to open up rural lands. Whereas chiefs have been co-opted into councils as agents of development, winners are not always local. Land acquisition processes reveal state actors are active 'land grabbers,' all calculating, and all-seeing in acquiring and converting customary land to statutory land, drawing on multi-dimensional and multi-level elements to exert pressure on customary land spheres. Several policy and legal tools, formal and informal processes enable and are increasing relied upon by state actors to grab land-processes framed as development. Ultimately, this effectively shifts risks and burdens of neoliberal framings of development to rural customary spheres. Overall, this paper sets us to think about state's power, influence and authority in driving land conversions and in fracturing tenure systems, which raise the need to strengthen informal capacities at local level.
... In Zimbabwe, economic development is halted by various factors, including high levels of greenhouse gas emissions, which have led to climate change, and a series of weather hazards, such as tropical cyclones. The country also experienced a recession between 2020 and 2021, stopping economic development, and the country's living standards continued to fall (Moyo & Besada, 2008;Chigudu, 2021). Less attention is being paid to the green economy to foster economic development, although various researchers have shown that green technology fosters economic development. ...
Environmental pollution is one of the major problems that has become an increasing area of concern globally, leading to the emergence of green energy technology. Research has been conducted on green technology adoption mainly in developed countries. However, there is noticeably limited knowledge about technology adoption and energy consumption in developing countries, for example, Zimbabwe. Thus, this paper seeks to analyze the impact of green technology adoption on energy sector performance in Zimbabwe. The results established that green technology adoption, energy pricing, energy sector investment, and capital structure significantly influence energy consumption efficiency. These results showed a positive relationship between green technology adoption and energy consumption efficiency based on the argument of the substitution possibility effect between green technology and energy demand. The study recommends adopting and identifying the type of green technology to utilize and the timing of investment in green technology. In addition, alternative estimation methods can be adopted to test the robustness of the findings.
... This is against the background that urban and rural places are transforming, through the dual processes of urbanization and rural transformation, raising questions about the adequacy and capacity of the current spatial planning systems and practices. Spatial planning systems and practices in the country remain confined in the old system of doing things (Chigudu 2021;Chigudu and Chirisa 2020;Chirisa and Dumba 2012) despite the changing planning environment in both rural and urban spaces. The rate of urbanization has increased and is expected to increase (McGranahan and Satterthwaite 2014;Zhang 2016). ...
... The challenges of rapid urbanisation in the 1990s were further exacerbated by a series of events in the policy environment. The failure of the Economic Structural Adjustment from 1991 to 1995 caused a civil service contraction, the breakdown of the domestic industrial sector, vast layoffs, and the subsequent commencement of the Fast Track Land Reform Programme (Chigudu 2021;. As part of this programme, Africans, who were largely inexperienced, were provided with land which experienced white commercial farmers had previously owned, while cash handouts were provided to appease grievances of war veterans in 1997. ...
This chapter concludes the debates and discussions in this book, A Housing and Technology Nexus for Zimbabwe. The discussion in the chapter focuses on the way forward regarding policy formulation and implementation to guide housing development, and the introduction of technology in such. Case studies are provided, showing the best practices that have been adopted in different contexts, including the funding mechanism applied in Mexico to spur housing delivery and support low-income households. Next, the case of Ethiopia is presented, outlining the need for housing development and technological innovations to integrate cultural dimensions with the view to ensuring sustainable housing development. The chapter also discusses how traditional knowledge systems have been central in Tajikistan’s housing development, and the role of innovative technologies.KeywordsHousing policySustainable housingTechnologyCulture
... The challenges of rapid urbanisation in the 1990s were further exacerbated by a series of events in the policy environment. The failure of the Economic Structural Adjustment from 1991 to 1995 caused a civil service contraction, the breakdown of the domestic industrial sector, vast layoffs, and the subsequent commencement of the Fast Track Land Reform Programme (Chigudu 2021;. As part of this programme, Africans, who were largely inexperienced, were provided with land which experienced white commercial farmers had previously owned, while cash handouts were provided to appease grievances of war veterans in 1997. ...
This chapter focuses on the housing delivery and management process in light of different typologies of technology that can be applied at various stages of the housing development process. The key issue for the chapter is the conceptualization of housing as a process. Five stages in the housing delivery process guide the chapter, viz. preparation, production, interaction, maintenance and disposal. It is shown that the use of technology in the respective stages enhances the efficient use of resources while also speeding up housing delivery. This is especially important in the African context where project management is critical, mainly for government projects where resource use can be monitored while also cutting costs when technology is used. Provision of basic services is critical. The chapter discusses how technology is employed to facilitate the provision of services, which include water, sanitation, waste management, and energy, to enhance the liveability of the housing units. Beyond the preparation and production of the housing, the chapter acknowledges the inherent need to ensure that the dwellings are sustained. This is through the use of particular technologies that help preserve the housing quality so that its lifespan is prolonged. Therefore, maintenance becomes key in the housing delivery process.KeywordsHousing delivery processBasic servicesHousing managementInnovative technology
... The challenges of rapid urbanisation in the 1990s were further exacerbated by a series of events in the policy environment. The failure of the Economic Structural Adjustment from 1991 to 1995 caused a civil service contraction, the breakdown of the domestic industrial sector, vast layoffs, and the subsequent commencement of the Fast Track Land Reform Programme (Chigudu 2021;. As part of this programme, Africans, who were largely inexperienced, were provided with land which experienced white commercial farmers had previously owned, while cash handouts were provided to appease grievances of war veterans in 1997. ...
Housing is a critical resource that has been on the top of government agendas worldwide. The increasing focus on housingHousing results from multiple factors, including globalization and urbanization, which have increased the need for adequate housingHousing among global citizens. Meeting this growing housingHousing demand is not always easy, as several factors stifle the housingHousing supply. TechnologyTechnology is thus identified as the panacea to housingHousing supply. This chapter provides the introduction to the book by conceptualizing housingHousing and then technologyTechnology. The different conceptions and perspectives on housingHousing are articulated, together with technologyTechnology. These are the two pillars of this book, which uses the case of ZimbabweZimbabwe to understand how housingHousing and technologyTechnology issues are at play. Beyond the conceptualization of housingHousing and technologyTechnology, the chapter also provides an overview of Zimbabwe’s socio-economic and political landscape, which is crucial to orient readers to the case study context.
... The challenges of rapid urbanisation in the 1990s were further exacerbated by a series of events in the policy environment. The failure of the Economic Structural Adjustment from 1991 to 1995 caused a civil service contraction, the breakdown of the domestic industrial sector, vast layoffs, and the subsequent commencement of the Fast Track Land Reform Programme (Chigudu 2021;. As part of this programme, Africans, who were largely inexperienced, were provided with land which experienced white commercial farmers had previously owned, while cash handouts were provided to appease grievances of war veterans in 1997. ...
This chapter examines the context in which housingHousing is viewed in ZimbabweZimbabwe. This is vital in providing a localised understanding of Zimbabwe’s housingHousing, which thus enables the establishment of localised solutions. The initial focus is on ZimbabweZimbabwe’s housingHousing timeline, exploring what housingHousing looked like in pre-colonial, colonialColoniality and post-colonial times. An exploration of the growth in housingHousing technologies reveals that the evolution of housingHousingtechnologyTechnology in ZimbabweZimbabwe is evident as housingHousing materials develop from local raw materials to the importation of manufactured bricks. With the growth in product inputs, the “gates of the city” are flung open, which brings about rapid rural-urban migration. Urbanisation has had a significant impact on the country. This chapter analyses this impact, revealing that the effects are tangible in the housingHousing sector, with growth opportunities and constraints. The discussion is further expanded to peri-urban and rural spheres so as to ascertain a holistic view of Zimbabwe's housingHousing context.
... The challenges of rapid urbanisation in the 1990s were further exacerbated by a series of events in the policy environment. The failure of the Economic Structural Adjustment from 1991 to 1995 caused a civil service contraction, the breakdown of the domestic industrial sector, vast layoffs, and the subsequent commencement of the Fast Track Land Reform Programme (Chigudu 2021;. As part of this programme, Africans, who were largely inexperienced, were provided with land which experienced white commercial farmers had previously owned, while cash handouts were provided to appease grievances of war veterans in 1997. ...
Housing looks and functions differently in different households, societies, locations, and economies; these factors greatly influence the technologies applied to housingHousing. One cannot expect a millionaire's house to have the same function as a low-income citizen’s house, yet both need to benefit from the innovationsInnovations and developments of technologyTechnology. However, this is often not the case, as technologyTechnology is usually reserved as a luxury for the social or financial elite. An analysis is conducted in this section to establish the socio-cultural and economic factors influencing technologyTechnology innovation and distribution. This chapter further explores how technologyTechnology affects each facet, weighing the pros and cons in the housingHousing sector. Understanding these relationships builds a basis for implementing innovative housingHousing projects and policies.
... The challenges of rapid urbanisation in the 1990s were further exacerbated by a series of events in the policy environment. The failure of the Economic Structural Adjustment from 1991 to 1995 caused a civil service contraction, the breakdown of the domestic industrial sector, vast layoffs, and the subsequent commencement of the Fast Track Land Reform Programme (Chigudu 2021;. As part of this programme, Africans, who were largely inexperienced, were provided with land which experienced white commercial farmers had previously owned, while cash handouts were provided to appease grievances of war veterans in 1997. ...
The world we live in is ever-changing, and if housingHousing is to remain relevant in providing for the needs of consumers, it is essential that the housingHousing sector remains adaptable. Adequately adapting to and adopting technological advancements is the best way to ensure that housingHousing remains relevant. New technologies need to be explored in every spectrum of the housingHousing sector to ensure constant renewal. Numerous technologiesTechnology can be applied to housingHousing; as such, it is crucial that they are explored in isolation? To decrease redundancy while increasing the efficiency of the technologiesTechnology and the sustainability of the housingHousing sector. As we explore the different typologies of housingHousingtechnologyHousing technology, it is essential to recognise the golden thread of alignment within the various technologiesTechnology, as they ought to function seamlessly within the same sector.
... The challenges of rapid urbanisation in the 1990s were further exacerbated by a series of events in the policy environment. The failure of the Economic Structural Adjustment from 1991 to 1995 caused a civil service contraction, the breakdown of the domestic industrial sector, vast layoffs, and the subsequent commencement of the Fast Track Land Reform Programme (Chigudu 2021;. As part of this programme, Africans, who were largely inexperienced, were provided with land which experienced white commercial farmers had previously owned, while cash handouts were provided to appease grievances of war veterans in 1997. ...
The housing and human settlement sector is fast changing, and technology is making it more complex than ever before.
With reference to Zimbabwe, a developing country in Southern Africa, the essence of this book is to bring out housing as an issue within the technology debate and practice.
The following themes emerge from the 6 chapters in the book: * The characterisation and conceptualisation of housing and technology and the nexus of both * The complexity of housing challenges and the problems governments face in providing adequate housing, especially for the poor* Diverse practices in housing construction through the application of different typologies of technology* Assessment of the feasibility of technologies in housing development in Zimbabwe by mirroring them against global experiences. * Discussion of alternative policy approaches that may guide technology integration in housing development.
This book will excite scholars and practitioners in urban and development studies, construction project management, urban sociology, geography, real estate together with policymakers and government officials.
... Yet, when it comes to implementation, there is little or no evidence of collaboration. Similar cases are reported in Zambia and Zimbabwe (Chigudu 2021), Cameroon (Njoh 2017), Uganda, South Africa and Nigeria (Agbola and Falola 2016). Recent planning efforts in Kigali (Rwanda) (Ilberg 2008) stand out among a few exceptions. ...
The world is experiencing the impacts of COVID-19 pandemic – from lockdown restrictions to economic uncertainty. Though troubling, the COVID-19 crisis presents an opportunity to galvanize support to strengthen urban planning's capacity in Africa. This paper draws on the global response to the pandemic to proffer three lessons that can bolster planning action to respond to health, spatial and socio-economic challenges confronting African cities: (i) recognition of urban planning as an urgent public health activity; (ii) emphasizing urban planning's innate capacity to address health crises; and (iii) citizen engagement to accept planning measures. These lessons are likely to improve urban planning action.
... Butsch and Heinkel (2020) stated that urban areas worldwide are faced by severe challenges as a result of unprecedented metropolitan growth, most evident in peri-urban areas. Similarly, ineffective spatial planning and development control leads to spatial disorganization owing to rapid physical, social and economic transformations (Chigudu, 2021). United Nations (2020) indicated that expanding urban areas was attributed to increasing population in the developing countries. ...
Rapid growth and conversion of rural lands into urban places and urban growth management becomes
indispensable, especially the need to control the amount, type, extent, rate, and quality of resultant places. In other words, the
need to manage how much growth occurs, its character, where it occurs, how fast it happens, and with what impacts; are
all-important. Therefore, the study sought to evaluate the effectiveness of planning tools in managing the peri-urban land use
change process towards achieving spatial stability. Particularly, it investigated turnaround time for development applications,
criteria for development approvals, site visits and inspection of developments, criteria for approval of building plans,
application for development permission, and issuance of notice of approval/deferment/refusal. The research was guided by
the Theory of Change (ToC) and was informed by a cross-sectional survey research design. Data was collected through
questionnaire administration, focused group discussions and interviews. The research hypothesized that there is no
significant association in the compliance levels between prescribed and applied physical planning standards. This was tested
by use of Chi-square test which demonstrated that despite there being a clear manifest variance in the difference between
prescribed standards and applied standards of development compliance, there was no significant association in the categories
of low-density developments (chi-31.640, p-value 0.000) and the medium density residential development category
(chi-20.347, p-value 0.000). However, in the high-density residential category (chi-4.903, p-value 0.297), the test results
indicated a strong association hence, the null hypothesis was rejected. Further, the study found that urban development plans
have not been effective instruments for control and guidance of the development of peri-urban places. This necessitates the
rethinking of urban planning concepts that have shaped the understanding of the peri-urban development. This study argues
that the land use change and the spatial restructuring of peri-urban places will be the most critical because there is no planning
system or institutional frameworks to manage the transformational processes towards spatial stability.
Keywords Spatial Stability, Planning Tools, Peri-urban Areas
This book presents ways of shaping the built environment sciences and practices for steering the New Urban Agenda in Zimbabwe. Attention to the built environment disciplines and practice is important because of their centrality to economic dynamism and sustainability of urban services. The reverse relationship is also true, because through provision of norms, aspirations, and guidelines; the New Urban Agenda helps in steering the built environment disciplines and practice. The book begins by exploring theoretical and conceptual material on the built environment concept. It recognizes that sub-Saharan African countries and Zimbabwe in particular are operating in a changing environment of rapid urbanization, unemployment, and inequality. Its premise is that the built environment sciences and practice can make a contribution to addressing sustainable development challenges through the introduction of innovations in infrastructure, institutions, and processes that enhance socio-economic growth and development. The book brings together scholarship from various disciplines in the built environment and presents sector initiatives such as those relating to curricula, smart technologies, and cutting-edge innovations in steering sustainable urban development.
The major contribution of architecture to urbanism is in the provision of a framework for housing, being a set of infrastructure and services that cater for human needs. In Zimbabwe, the lack of collaboration between architects and other built environment professions has reduced the capacity of architecture to contribute meaningfully in steering the New Urban Agenda. This chapter explores opportunities in education and practice for enhancing architects’ contribution in realising the New Urban Agenda in Zimbabwe. It is based on a desk review and structured interviews with architects in academia and practising institutions, with the data subjected to textual analysis to derive meaning and interpretation. The results show that the architecture profession in Zimbabwe does not provide adequate scope for collaborating with other built environment professionals thereby sub-optimising architecture contribution to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals. The role of the architect has been confined to the design and supervision of building construction at the expense of other important duties like the carrying out of feasibility studies, environmental impact assessment, economic analysis and project management. Enhancement of the contribution of architecture to the achievement of the Sustainable Development Goals requires legal reform towards its teaching and practice as an interdisciplinary profession. The interdisciplinary approach will ensure that the creation of new cities, neighbourhoods and housing areas will not be left to discrete professions but will be done through collaborative and interdisciplinary efforts. The interdisciplinary approach will deliver more affordable, inclusive and sustainable housing thereby driving communities towards the achievement of Sustainable Development Goals.
The New Urban Agenda (NUA) seeks to ensure a better and inclusive future by balancing out economic, social and environmental sustainability. The agenda acknowledges the complexity of urban environments as myriad land uses; housing, industrial, recreational, institutional, and commercial. Such a mixture of land uses poses sustainability challenges. One of the pillars of the NUA speaks to the importance of urban legislation and regulations in fulfilling, protecting and respecting private and public interests. Urban development takes place in the context of procedures clearly outlined in policies, statutory plans, acts of parliament and statutory instruments. Some sections of literature have labelled current legislation and policies as outdated and not keeping pace with changing realities. If the context, policy and institutional framework for achieving sustainable cities in Zimbabwe is not properly structured, analysed and understood, smooth urban management systems will remain a dream in the pipeline. This chapter provides a prescriptive analysis of institutions and laws that impinge on the NUA with the view of exposing policy and practical bearings by different stakeholders. It largely relies on secondary data. Documentary analysis informed by analytical rationality was used to skim, collate, and reorder data from a sizeable number of sources. Examples drawn from urban informality, urban economics, technological factors, environmental conservation, planning process and governance quality were used to show how a diverse range of forces ‘push and pull’ the NUA from different angles. The chapter recommends enactment and adoption of stimulating laws and policies towards promoting sustainable cities.
This book analyses urban planning in Anglophone, Francophone, and Lusophone Africa, exploring its history and advocating for new approaches. In a climate changing world, cities need to be reimagined and designed to be more sustainable, but despite being one of the fastest urbanising continents, Africa has generally weak urban planning systems. The chapters adopt multi-disciplinary and transdisciplinary approaches, combining insights from urban studies and policy sciences, emphasising existing gaps, particularly in decision-making, planning practice and inclusiveness, to offer an in-depth analysis of urban planning in Africa. The authors advocate for the reimagination of urban planning, debating new institutionalism, digital infrastructure, climate urbanism, gated communities, and smart mobility. The chapters provide both theoretical and practical contributions, and advance thinking, policymaking, and implementation of sustainable urban planning approaches in Africa, thus making the book indispensable for advanced students, researchers, and practitioners alike.
This chapter examines the future of urban planning on the growth and development of cities. Urban planning has become increasingly important due to changes occurring in the rapid expansion of cities in countries in developing world. This chapter seeks to explore the significance of planning law in the growth and development of sustainable cities. Particular emphasis was given to major cities in developing world. Urban planning strives to create sustainable towns and cities. Excessive growth of cities has brought with it challenges that most developing countries in sub-Saharan Africa are not equipped to handle. There has been rapid urbanization both in terms of the increase in population in cities and the spread of developments outside city boundaries. This has been accompanied by problems such as infill developments, overcrowding, pressure on amenities, and the growth of slum settlements. The anticipated 60% increase in the urban population by 2050 has revealed the importance of urban planning in catering for the growing population. Data for this chapter were collected from primary and secondary sources such as population statistics, reports, journals, and the planning legislations. Some data was obtained through interviews from practicing urban planners and observations from present infrastructure in cities in developing countries. Results reveal that most African cities are failing to adapt to rapid growth of capital cities and associated challenges. The embracing of some aspects of the urban planning system is possible, but it is not feasible in other cities since the realities and challenges require different ways of dealing with them. It is critical for cities in developing countries to seriously consider the review of urban planning legislation to come up with policies and plans that are sustainable to current and future challenges.
Zimbabwe is a dynamic country that has undergone several socio-economic and political changes over the last four decades. The urban areas have been significantly transformed as a result of these changes which is the focus of this book that focuses on the urban geography of Zimbabwe. Specifically, the post-independence context is considered where the various issues pertaining to the evolution, development and planning of the cities are explored. The chapter thus introduces and provides a background of the post-independence socio-economic and political context of urban Zimbabwe. This background context is given in relation to the postcolonial theory which is the lens through which the book has been developed. The paradigms and perspectives of urban geography for Zimbabwe are spelt out followed by the structure of the book which provides a roadmap of the book.
In Zimbabwe, the first traces of urban development by modern standards date back to the time of colonization. Colonial powers developed urban centres as administrative, economic and political centres to strengthen a capitalist system of production. Apart from the racial segregationist policies of the colonial administrators that restricted black urbanization, general population increase in these urban centres culminated in the institutionalization of urban planning to achieve order, harmony, economy, efficiency and city beauty. Regardless of the multiplicity of town planning regulatory frameworks passed from pre and post independence Zimbabwe, piecemeal planning guide urban development in most towns and cities. This research uses case-study analysis to explore the effects of piecemeal planning on development of Plumtree. Extensive desk review was done to collect data on historical development of planning in Zimbabwe, while interviews were held with key personnel in Plumtree Town Council and the Department of Physical Planning to ascertain the effects of piecemeal planning on urban development. Amongst its key findings, the research observed that; apart from being incremental in nature, piecemeal planning is not a sustainable tool for development planning, for example, its concern with the immediate problems facilitated skewed urban development in Plumtree, disorderly cityscape, and production numerous micro-designs/layouts with concomitant management challenges. On the other hand, capacity constraints, cumbersome planning procedures, lack of effective commitment and political pressure are among the noted drivers of piecemeal planning in Plumtree. In that regard, review of the Regional, Town and Country Planning Act to make preparation of spatial development plans mandatory, flexible, responsive and less bureaucratic, and sufficient budgetary support to the Department of Physical Planning will help to ease the situation. In addition, occasional seminars particularly for local authority policy makers, on development planning may help to demystify the place of development planning in fostering sustainable growth of their urban centres.
The evaluation of spatial planning results, or outcomes, has been rather neglected by scholars and practitioners. The causes of this neglect are linked to the characteristics of the planning systems in use or difficulties in quantifying results. To advance the state of the art of outcome evaluation, this paper focuses on assessing the implementation of national spatial planning objectives in urban landscapes through the use of an evaluation framework, which makes use of spatially explicit information. The framework is built around four dimensions, which reflect the main domains of spatial planning: efficient built-up development, conservation of agricultural land, landscape preservation and human perception. Indicators that are capable of capturing landscape changes in both time and space are used to verify the degree of conformance between adopted objectives and actual development patterns. We make use of spatially explicit data, as well as assess whether and where landscape changes occurred, by integrating the framework into a multi-criteria analysis. In the present study, the framework is tested in two study areas located in Switzerland and Romania, while the results are interpreted from the perspective of spatial planning approaches in the two countries. The efficiency and utility of the framework are demonstrated by the ability to provide valuable information that facilitates improvement in the performance of planning processes, such as identifying where the implementation of objectives is less effective, and the domains of affected spatial planning. Our findings indicate that the distance between objectives and outcomes can be attributed to differences in countries’ spatial planning approaches, which should also be placed into the wider economic, institutional and legislative context. Our study provides valuable insights for the integration of time series of spatial data into the evaluation procedure.
The concept of smart transportation systems is increasingly becoming critical in addressing the challenges posed by an increasing number of mega cities in both developed and developing regions in maintaining safety, smooth traffic flow, and an environmentally friendly and sustainable urban environment. The Government of Zimbabwe deregulated its transport sector in the early 1990s. This development ushered in the informal public transport operators, locally referred to as 'kombis'. Major cities such as Harare are characterised by a disjointed and chaotic urban public transport system. The major problems are the impacts this has on the quality of the environment. Currently, the urban public transport system is contributing greatly to both air and noise pollution within the confines of the city, especially in the Central Business Districts. The problem is further exacerbated by the massive importation of used vehicles from outside the country. These developments have resulted in high emission rates of major air pollutants resulting in a deterioration of the ambient air quality especially in the major cities such as Harare. Transportation is a major source of air pollutants. Vehicles are probably the largest single source
This paper draws on review of current literature to explore the relationship between rural institutions and rural development while reflecting on the linkages of smallholder farmers and donor contribution. The results presented are of qualitative data analysis from previous and current literature. The paper provides a detailed overview of nomenclaturizing rural development as a critical result of improvements in education, health, agriculture, small and medium enterprises (SMEs) as part of rural industrialization in rural Zimbabwe. Improving health by investing in increased awareness and access to information sharing among communities, policy development, program planning and service delivery fosters rural development. As the world belatedly turns its attention to the pressing issues of environmental degradation and climate change, the concept of sustainability takes its rightful place at centre stage in discussions about agriculture and rural development. Improving education through promoting information and technology dissemination for learning and access to information, coordination of major sources of funding for education, policy on education for rural areas, conducting research and development as well as the total number of rural farmers assisted.
Climate change challenges established development planning in Zambia: floods and drought are expected to have a serious impact on the country’s development. However, climatic effects are not only felt through concrete effects, but also through discursive effects where the perception of climate change influences strongly the elaboration of development policies.
The purpose of this study is to understand how discourses of climate change, such as adaptation and ecological modernisation, affects development policies. Using a discourse analysis method on five policy documents, the themes of development, climate change, water and energy have been investigated. The results indicate that climate change is framed as a threat to development and to a lesser extent as an opportunity to access more funding. Zambia’s market-led approach to development is found to have a moderating effect on climate change integration.
This paper examines the implications of Zimbabwe's 2013 harmonised elections on the opposition's continued deployment of the rightsbased discourse to make moral and political claims against and demands of the state. Since 2000, two polarising strands of the human rights discourse - 1) the right to self-determination and 2) civil and political rights - were deployed by the state and the opposition, respectively, in order to challenge extant relations and structures of power. The acutely strained state-society relations in post-2000 Zimbabwe emanated from human rights violations by the state as it responded to challenges to its political power and legitimacy. However, the relative improvement in the human rights situation in the country since the 2009 coalition government came into office, and during and since the recently concluded peaceful 2013 elections - the flawed electoral process itself notwithstanding - suggests a need for alternative new ways to make moral and political demands of the state in the future.
For the first time, South Africa has a single national piece of legislation, the Spatial Planning and Land Use Management Act, 2013, that creates an overarching framework for spatial planning, policy and land use management for the entire country, including rural and informal settlements. Spatial plans linked to zoning schemes are at the heart of this planning system. However, zoning as a land use management tool has been intensely criticised as being exclusionary and socially, economically and environmentally unsustainable. Given that the purpose of the new legislation is to create equitable and sustainable development, this paper questions whether zoning is indeed the most suitable land use management tool in South Africa. The paper briefly outlines the requirements of the new act and then evaluates the usefulness of various forms of land use management such as land use zoning, performance zoning, form-based control and discretionary systems in the South African context. Drawing on the strengths of some of the alternative land use management systems, proposals are made for a more suitable land use management system for South Africa that could have applicability in other countries with a similar colonial history.
Assessment of groundwater quality in Lusaka district to determine its safety
The project CityMobil2 has carried out a forward-looking exercise to investigate alternative cybermobility scenarios, including both niche and large-market innovations, and their impacts on European cities and their transport systems.
The objective of this study was to assess the effect of siting boreholes and septic tanks in the same area on the quality of groundwater in St. Bonaventure township of Lusaka District. A cross- sectional study was conducted in St. Bonaventure township involving 55 households. The study site was purposively selected because all households in the township used septic tanks and boreholes for human waste treatment and drinking water supply respectively. Households were randomly sampled from a total of 490 households using stratified systematic method because of the differences in plot sizes. Groundwater samples were collected, distances from groundwater sources to soakaways were measured and direction of groundwater flow was obtained from the department of Water affairs. Logistic regression analysis was used to determine relationships between variables. P-values of less than 0.05 were considered statistically significant. The study showed that about 33 percent of the groundwater samples were contaminated with harmful bacteria. The study revealed that only direction of groundwater flow had a relationship with groundwater quality and there was no relationship between distance from borehole to soakaway and groundwater quality. Siting boreholes and septic tank systems in the same piece of land is not suitable for St. Bonaventure township.
While growth points in Zimbabwe were created to become economically viable spatial entities, over time they have not so much grown as intended. Amid the urbanization thrust in the country, these places have grown and continue to grow demographically. Little studies, if any, in Zimbabwe, have been done to establish the possible future outcomes of this urbanization of small settlements. This present paper examines the implications of the multiplier effect at growth points in the country. The main question is: What is the likely future of the growth centres in the country and what new infrastructural and related assets need to be in place if chaotic urbanization is to characterize these places. By case studies we attempt to make a rapid assessment of the situation, basing on historical trends and developments with the aim of proposing future policy and practical alternatives.
The co-ordination of different sector policies with respect to sustainable development is one of the challenges of planning, and particularly of spatial planning. To fulfil this challenge successfully, spatial planning must ensure full integration and assessment of environmental, social and economic issues. Linking spatial planning with strategic environmental assessment (SEA) is being considered as a crucial condition for sound development, and an important opportunity to move ‘sustainability’ up the ladder of decision making. A research proposal is suggested based on five forms of integration — substantive, methodological, procedural, institutional, and political — which are adopted as a foundation for evaluating current best-practice and defining a framework for integration.
Making and applying the European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP) is an example of ‘Europeanization’. Europeanization is the outcome of the interaction between actors with various motivations. In the case of the ESDP process, these motivations reflect the spatial planning traditions and the institutional set‐ups of the relevant actors. As a preliminary, the paper describes the ESDP. It then analyses the motivations, reflecting as they do their spatial planning traditions and institutional set‐ups, of four key actors without whom the ESDP would not have been what it is: France, the Netherlands, Germany and the European Commission. The paper ends with a discussion of the prospects of European spatial planning after enlargement.
In this article, the author explains and assesses the modern municipal statutory frameworks in Canada. More specifically he examines the novel provisions that provincial and territorial governments are including in some of the emerging municipal statutory frameworks. The overarching purpose of such novel provisions is to supplant the restrictive features the traditional municipal statutory frameworks with permissive and empowering features. Such novel provisions include recognition of municipal governments as ‘orders of government’, ‘spheres of jurisdiction’, and ‘natural person powers’, as well as broader corporate powers and broader bylaw making powers. The author concludes that although the novel provisions constitute important steps in the right direction, they do not constitute a panacea either for municipal governments or, more importantly, for municipal governance. Indeed, he suggests that there is the potential for some negative ramifications for both if such novel provisions are not adopted and implemented with due care and attention to important matters such as the organizational capacity of various types of municipal governments to use them appropriately for various governance purposes.
Over the years, the Zimbabwean and Zambian governments have been facing severe spatial development inequalities. They have therefore put in place various policies and strategies in a bid to ensure equitable spatial development. Spatial planning, which refers to the distribution of land uses and people, not only focuses on the physical aspects of land but also on national economic, environmental and social policies. This paper examines spatial planning frameworks in Zimbabwe and Zambia and how they have influenced spatial planning. The effect of spatial planning frameworks on development reveals a close relationship between spatial plans and spatial planning outcomes. The study shows how changes in institutional and legal frameworks affects development in different sectors of the economy and that a holistic approach to planning promotes sustainable development without neglecting other sectors. The data for the study was drawn primarily from secondary sources through a review of documents such as statutes, local development plans and other statutory instruments. The study found that in order to achieve sustainable spatial planning, there is need for a sustainable framework to guide spatial planning. Sustainable spatial planning frameworks also control and promote spatial development in both Zimbabwe and Zambia. Both institutional and legal frameworks guiding spatial planning should be sustainable for the benefit of future generations.
This study examines the spatiotemporal patterns of urban land use (urban-LU) change in the rapidly urbanising city of Lusaka, Zambia, during the 1990-2000 and 2000-2010 periods, using geospatial tool and techniques. The results show that the city experienced rapid urban growth, with about a 233% increase in the total urban-LU area from 1990 − 2010. The results also show that urban-LU expansion was more intense during the 2000 s than during the 1990s. Spatially, the city displays a disordered pattern of urban-LU associated with the pattern of major roads and the city centre, which draws its legacies from the colonial era. Lusaka has emerged as a highly unplanned city with approximately 40% of the city representing unplanned residential land use dominated by informal settlements (30%). The growth of commercial and industrial land use has also been consistent with high-density residential land uses. The growth of planned residential, and public institutions and service land uses has been slow. The results further reveal spatial dependency of informal settlements on commercial and industrials, and planned high density residential land uses. The study discusses and offers vital insights for strategic urban planning that can control the observed unplanned urban growth and stimulate sustainable urban development.
This book reports why orthodox structural adjustment measures do not have the expected results in Africa. Orthodox measures may be necessary but are frequently not sufficient because of structural factors, some peculiar to individual countries, some found more widely. Six chapters report on extensive fieldwork in Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe; three chapters compare countries in Africa (recovery from disaster, labour markets, new financial markets) and one makes comparisons with Asia and Latin America of employment policies.
The relationship between income inequality and economic growth is complex and the evidence mixed. This paper focuses on the connections between income inequality and the fragility of economic growth. We find that longer growth spells—periods of strong, healthy, per capita growth—are robustly associated with more equality in the income distribution, even when controlling for a range of other standard determinants. A key implication is that it would be a gamble to think that distribution will take care of itself provided policy makers steadfastly pursue growth. Over longer horizons, avoiding excessive inequality and sustaining economic growth may be two sides of the same coin.
Disparity in the patterns of development between rural and urban areas in Zambia has resulted in very high rural-urban migration with a lack of corresponding effort to provide appropriate housing in the expanding urban regions. This paper analyses the history of land administration, urban housing problems, and residential land conflicts in Zambia during the era of economic liberation and land commercialisation. A major problem is the fact that about 80% of national housing in Zambia is located in informal and unplanned settlements. Provision of services such as water, electricity, and sanitation in unplanned settlement areas is inadequate, resulting in floods and diseases such as cholera and dysentery. Zambia has experienced a critical shortage in housing since independence in 1964 when barriers to rural-urban migration were eliminated. The Zambian government enacted the 1995 Land Act, with the aim of stimulating the accumulation of capital and reducing poverty in the nation, and this significantly impacted land ownership and urban housing. The housing sector in Zambia is largely driven by “self-help housing” initiatives, but many residents are unable to afford construction costs and land rent. A serious potential problem is the disruption of social order due to competition for urban residential land and the radical responses of urban residents to land requisition by administrative subrogation.
The benefits of urban green space for city residents has long been recognised. Indeed, in the UK, the impetus for the development of urban parks in the mid-1800s was specifically to benefit the public's health. More recently, the potential impacts on physical and mental health (both directly and indirectly) have become major drivers of the developing blue-green infrastructure strategies for many modern cities. However, there have been a number of questions raised about how easy it is to access green space for all communities and individuals. Factors associated with accessibility include the location and physical configuration of urban green space, including both real and perceived risks such as personal safety. In addition, it is becoming clear that access to natural environments has a cultural dimension and urban green space such as parks are no exception to this. The presentation will examine the current state of knowledge in the UK, where the park movement began and has more recently been revitalised. ...
Water supply and sanitation services in developing countries face a number of challenges which make it difficult for them to meet the Millennium Development Goals. The world population has increased by an average annual rate of 1.3 % since 1990 and currently stands at about 7 billion. Urbanisation around the world has increased from 43 % in 1990 to 51 % in 2010 and the rising trend is expected to continue. This urbanisation, which is highest in developing countries, has led to the mushrooming of informal settlements where water supply and sanitation services are virtually non-existent and waterborne diseases are prevalent. This chapter looks at the challenges for water supply and sanitation in developing countries and uses case studies and examples from Zimbabwe to illustrate typical problems. The problems include lack of investment in the water and sanitation sector, inappropriate technologies, ill-defined institutional frameworks, capacity limitations, and neglect of rural areas. Poor water supply and sanitation in Zimbabwe is typified by the cholera outbreak of 2008/09 which killed nearly 4,300 out of the 99,000 that were affected. The general conclusion of this chapter is that the problem of water supply and sanitation in developing countries requires innovative thinking as it impacts on other areas such as the food and energy sectors. The emphasis should be on appropriate technologies, particularly waterless toilets and natural sewage treatment systems. For water supply, focus should be on demand management and reduction of unaccounted-for water and innovative methods of enhancing revenue collection.
Planning is here shown to be integral to colonial projects, used to appropriate territory for management by the state and then to produce an ordered, coherent system of land regulation and control. This is both a demonstration of how planning was central to the colonial invasion of settler states, and an analysis of how it endures as a colonial practice in complex post-colonial settings.
The British system of universal development control celebrated its 50th anniversary in 1997. Remarkably, the system has survived more or less intact but the experience of the 1980s has left large questions unanswered about the relevance and effectiveness of the system. This book traces the history of the development control system in Britain from early modern times to the present day.
Building on the reflexive tradition within the social sciences, this article takes up one of the longest-standing concerns in our field—the right to education. The article provides a critical look at the history of the Education for All movement and the global aid architecture that has evolved to support it. It also reflects on the contributions of the field of comparative education to the Education for All movement. The term “leaning in” is used throughout the article as a trope to weave together these institutional histories with the author’s own career journey, which has included both academic and practitioner roles in international educational development—including as the chief technical officer at the Global Partnership for Education, an organization created to deliver on global commitments to the right to education. © 2015 by the Comparative and International Education Society. All rights reserved.
Staff Discussion Notes showcase the latest policy-related analysis and research being developed by individual IMF staff members and are published to elicit comment and to encourage debate. These papers are generally brief and written in nontechnical language, and so are aimed at a broad audience interested in economic policy issues. This Web-only series replaced Staff Position Notes in January 2011
This note raises the IMF’s profile on a number of issues related to inequality, unemployment, governance, etc. It builds on earlier empirical work that examined correlations between growth downbreaks/duration of growth spells and a range of macro/policy/institutional factors. This paper is designed to be more accessible, more policy oriented, and focused squarely on the issue of inequality and the sustainability of growth. It will reference the literature that has gained prominence in the wake of the global crisis, and the possible links between the crisis and rising inequality in countries at the epicenter of the crisis. The analytical findings will also be connected to real world policy narratives in certain countries, to provide texture to the results and enhance policy relevance. The paper will argue that, based on the empirical findings, more equality in the income distribution is associated with longer-lived growth spells. Broad redistributive policies are not necessarily pro-growth, however, as these can have strong disincentive effects. The paper’s policy discussion is appropriately cautious, therefore, offering only tentative ideas, for example, active labor market policies and more attention to human capital investments designed to avoid conflicts between efficiency and equity perspectives.
The importance of culture in defining new models of local development has been increasingly emphasized. However, less attention has been paid to the influence of local development models on local cultural policy. This article will focus on analysing two cities that have used culture as a central element in their economic and urban development. In both cases, they have followed different strategies but the two have finally finished generating two “white elephants”: the Universal Forum of Cultures in the case of Barcelona and the City of Arts and Sciences in the case of Valencia. From a comparison of the two cases, the paper analyses the causes of this urban phenomenon, which combines cultural legitimation, wasteful investments, financial and social unsustainability and, last but not least, corruption. These four characteristics of cultural white elephants express the depletion of a neoliberal city model based on real estate speculation and tourism, which de facto relegates culture – in spite of discourses about social cohesion and sustainability – as an instrument of urban branding and elite socio-economic domination.
An analysis of the social, economic, and political context is undertaken, with particular reference to state intervention in the form of Northern Rhodesia's attempts to ensure an appropriate labour supply for colonial economic enterprises via the establishment of a local government structure and an urban planning system, and policies for land and housing. Finally, the legacy inherited by the newly-independent Republic of Zambia, with its particular urban population structure, urban local government and planning systems, and its various land-use policies, is assessed. -from Author
Analyzing the effects of urban development on dynamic and spatial patterns of land use is vital to establish more efficient land management policies. However, in Malaysia, such effects are usually explained without quantitative metrics. This research quantified the future impact of urban expansion on the dynamic of land use by developing the area-independent dynamic metric. The metric was calculated based on summarizing the cross tabulation matrices of change in an urbanizing area at west coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Another two land use measures involving vulnerability to gain and vulnerability to loss were used to evaluate tendency of land classes to transition. The effects of urban development on spatial patterns of land use were quantified using two landscape metrics involving the Edge Density (ED) and Area-Weighted Mean Patch Fractal Dimension (AWMPFD). Analyses were carried out on a set of spatial land use data including observed 1997, 2002, and 2008, as well as a simulated near future land change for the year 2020 under a spatio-temporal land use model. Results showed that urban development practices would influence the dynamic of land transition in the near future. Urban growth would experience a fast-growing dynamic and high vulnerability to gain than loss while the dynamic and vulnerability of forest/wetland covers would decrease in terms of loss. Moreover, agriculture practices tend to be hindered by further urban development in the coming years. Another important finding was that urban development process would influence the spatial patterns of land use in the near future.
This study provides a review of spatial planning in the context of Ghana’s socio-economic development trajectory. Spatial planning has been integral to the economic policies of the country since colonial rule. Yet, its role has been overshadowed by the domain of socio-economic planning. Drawing from published literature, policy documents, legislative frameworks and interviews, this study reveals the different context and scope within which spatial planning has been implemented in Ghana, and the successes and failures thereof. While the colonial governments employed spatial planning on limited scale and for exploitative purposes, post-colonial governments have implemented broad-based planning grounded in the ‘genuine’ aspiration to promote a spatially balanced development. This study argues that postindependence planning has not been successfully implemented compared to pre-independence planning due to a myriad of factors including rapid urban growth, inadequate staffing, low capacity, lack of institutional coordination, political interference in planning, complex land tenure and evolving land markets among others. Consequently, urban centres in Ghana are beset with problems such as poor environmental conditions, poor infrastructure and service delivery, and uncontrolled growth; and these are inimical to sustainable urban development. The study lauds renewed efforts to transform planning in the spirit of sustainable development through the national urban policy framework and a proposed land use and spatial planning bill; the latter proposes planning based on spatial development framework, and a repeal of an obsolete 1945 planning ordinance that has underlain planning since. It is argued that if supported and harmonised the two initiatives present the best planning framework in the 21st century Ghana
This study examines the effect of tourism arrival (TOR) on carbon dioxide emissions from the transportation sector (TCO2). The panel methodology techniques were utilized to analyse the data which included statistics from 48 top international tourism destinations. The results in general show that TORs have a significant impact on the TCO2 in all the selected countries with the exception of the European countries. The insignificant impact of TOR on TCO2 in the European countries is due to the strict environmental regulations. Therefore, implementation of regulations similar to that of the European countries is recommended for the other countries to limit the pollution from the transportation sector that is caused by international TOR.
In this era of nuclear stalemate, guerrilla warfare has assumed great importance as a tool for settling national and international disputes and for changing governmental systems. In the South African sub-continent no less than eight liberation movements have organized guerrilla activity amongst a growing section of the 30 million inhabitants against the four million white settlers dominating the present political and economic system.
This paper discusses the land struggles of the urban poor in Zimbabwe and the emerging strategies used by the alliance of the Zimbabwe Homeless People’s Federation and its partner Dialogue on Shelter to address these struggles in the face of continued economic and political crisis. The paper looks at how they are navigating this space and creating new solutions for housing and livelihood strategies. It considers the recent history of informal settlements and government measures to control or destroy them, including Operation Murambatsvina in 2005, which made hundreds of thousands of people homeless. It discusses the pragmatic decisions regarding partnership with different government agencies that the alliance has had to make in light of the sustained political and economic crisis, and the positive responses, especially from some local governments. It suggests that these decisions and strategies taken at a time of crisis and rapid change should be seen as part of a longer-term debate that seeks to change the relationship between communities of the urban poor and the state. Today, the alliance presents government with an alternative way of dealing with land and housing issues. Although progress to date has been minimal given the scale of need, there is a strong basis for partnership that can be scaled up.
The garden city introduced - Stephen V Ward. English origins - Frederick H A Aalen. The French garden city - Jean Pierre Gaudin. The Japanese garden city - Shun-ichi Watanabe. The Nazi garden city - Gerhard Fehl. The Australian garden city - Robert Freestone. The American garden city: lost ideals - Daniel Schaffer. The American garden city: still relevant? - Robert Fishman. The British garden city: metamorphosis - Michael Hebbert. The garden city campaign: an overview - Dennis Hardy. Index.
The first European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP) document agreed in May 1999 calls for closer cooperation at the EU level in response to the challenges posed by globalization and the increasingly transnational impact of spatial development in Europe. The ESDP maps out a common approach to spatial development in the EU member states and supports an integrated perspective for European spatial development which goes beyond specialist viewpoints. This article focuses on the relationship between key statements on the European urban system contained in the ESDP and the 'real' structures and changes within this urban system. It also examines possible conclusions from the ESDP for urban policy in Europe in the light of the activities already launched to translate the ESDP into practice in the urban dimension of European spatial development.
Implementation of spatial policy involves intervention in the land market. In the Netherlands local government also acts as a land developer. Due to an increase in activities in the land market by private actors and an increase in the geographical scale of economic and social processes, this practice is under threat. This paper analyses the background and evolution of Dutch spatial development policy during the last ten years, from the perspective of governmental directive function for spatial policy. It focuses on the multi-level governance between local and regional governments and between local government and private actors.
A close connection is emerging between water management and spatial planning in the Netherlands as a result of a new acceptance of water on land, and the European Union's recent emphasis on managing water at the scale of entire river basins. We review Dutch and European trends in water management and identify four potential approaches to integrating water management and spatial planning in the Netherlands or elsewhere, depending on whether we adopt a regulatory or more strategic approach to planning, and whether we make water policy for areas defined by their water related functions (like watersheds or coastlines) or incorporate water issues into policy for broader socio cultural regions.