Cross-Cultural Aspects of Tourism and Hospitality: A Services Marketing and Management Perspective

Full text

Cross- Cultural Aspects of
Tourism and Hospitality
Cross- Cultural Aspects of Tourism and Hospitality is the first textbook to offer students,
lecturers, researchers and practitioners a comprehensive guide to the influence of
culture on service providers as well as on customers, affecting both the supply and
the demand sides of the industry – organisational behaviour, and human resource
management, and marketing and consumer behaviour.
Given the need for delivering superior customer value, understanding different
cultures from both demand and supply sides of tourism and hospitality and the impact
of culture on these international industries is an essential part of all students’ and
practitioners’ learning and development. This book takes a research- based approach
critically reviewing seminal cultural theories and evaluating how these influence
employee and customer behaviour in service encounters, marketing, and management
processes and activities. Individual chapters cover a diverse range of cultural aspects
including intercultural competence and intercultural sensitivity, uncertainty and risk
avoidance, context in communication, power distance, indulgence and restraint,
time orientation, gender, assertiveness, individualism and collectivism, performance
orientation, and humane orientation.
This book integrates international case studies throughout to show the application
of theory, includes self- test questions, activities, further reading, and a set of
PowerPoint slides to accompany each chapter. This will be essential reading for all
students, lecturers, researchers and practitioners and future managers in the fields of
Tourism and Hospitality.
Erdogan Koc is Professor of Services Marketing and Management at Bahçes¸ehir
University. He received his BA in Communication Studies from the University of Istanbul,
MBA from the Cardiff Business School, and Ph.D.from Oxford Brookes University in
Business and Management. He has extensively published in top- tier journals such
as Tourism Management, International Journal of Human Resource Management,
Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing, International Journal of Intercultural
Relations, Journal of Hospitality Marketing and Management, among others, and
serves on the editorial boards of several high- ranking journals and acts as a referee
for top- tier journals. He has published two international books in the area of tourism
and hospitality. As well as his research and academic experience, he provides training
to a wide range of businesses and has management experience of reputable brands.

Cross- Cultural Aspects
of Tourism and
Hospitality
A Services Marketing and
Management Perspective
Erdogan Koc

First published 2021
by Routledge
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and by Routledge
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© 2021 Erdogan Koc
The right of Erdogan Koc to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him
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and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing- in- Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data
Names: Koc, Erdogan, author.
Title: Cross-cultural aspects of tourism and hospitality: a services
marketing and management perspective / Erdogan Koc.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon; New York, NY: Routledge, 2021. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2020014255 (print) | LCCN 2020014256 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780367862893 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367860745 (paperback) |
ISBN 9781003018193 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Tourism–Cross-cultural studies. |
Tourism–Marketing–Cross-cultural studies. |
Tourism–Management–Cross-cultural studies.
Classification: LCC G155.A1 K595 2021 (print) |
LCC G155.A1 (ebook) | DDC 910.68–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020014255
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020014256
ISBN:978– 0- 367– 86289– 3 (hbk)
ISBN:978– 0- 367– 86074– 5 (pbk)
ISBN:978– 1- 003– 01819– 3 (ebk)
Typeset in Frutiger and Sabon
by Newgen Publishing UK
Visit the eResources:www.routledge.com/ 9780367860745

v
Contents
List of figures vi
List of tables vii
Preface ix
Acknowledgements xvi
1 Introduction:international and global nature of tourism and hospitality 1
2 Culture:a cross- cultural perspective 30
3 Intercultural competence, intercultural sensitivity, and cultural
intelligence 54
4 Culture and context in communication 83
5 The influence of indulgence and restraint on tourism and hospitality 106
6 Power distance as a cultural variable 138
7 Uncertainty avoidance as a cultural variable 175
8 Masculinity versus femininity, gender egalitarianism, and assertiveness 211
9 The influence of individualism and collectivism on tourism and
hospitality 241
10 Performance and humane orientation as cultural variables 271
11 Time orientation as a cultural variable 294
12 A review of Trompenaars and Hampden- Turner’s cultural dimensions 315
13 Conclusions 332
Index 348

vi
Figures
1.1 Dyadic influence of cross- cultural characteristics on tourism
and hospitality social servicescape 8
1.2 Customer/ marketing perspective:the influence of culture on
customers 13
1.3 Service provider/ management perspective:influence of culture
on employees and managers 13
1.4 Service blueprint for a restaurant 18
1.5 Service experiences 19
2.1 Factors influencing consumer behaviour 35
2.2 Values, norms, and artefacts and practices 38
3.1 Model of intercultural competence 66
4.1 High- and low- context cultures continuum 86
4.2 Communication in high- and low- context cultures 86
6.1 Employee empowerment and service recovery 160
9.1 Lines used in the Asch’s experiments 249
12.1 Universalistic and particularistic cultures continuum 318
12.2 Neutral and affective cultures continuum 321
12.3 Achievement- oriented and ascription- oriented cultures continuum 325

vii
Tables
1.1 Marketing mix elements in tourism and hospitality 10
1.2 Service quality dimensions and marketing mix elements 14
1.3 Gap model of service quality 16
1.4 Types of tourism 23
2.1 The influence of culture on customers 31
2.2 Cultural models in service recovery 33
2.3 Perspectives of the definitions of culture 37
2.4 Main features of culture 41
2.5 Meanings shared by a society 43
2.6 Cultural theories, dimensions proposed by scholars 44
2.7 Cross- cultural dimensions 47
4.1 High- and low- context countries and their main characteristics 84
4.2 Proxemics and the types of space 99
5.1 Indulgence and restraint values in selected countries 109
5.2 Basic summary of the main characteristics of indulgence and
restraint cultures. 111
5.3 Potential tourism and hospitality incidents relating to indulgence
and restraint 114
5.4 Indulgence indicators in the marketing mix elements of emirates 115
5.5 SERVQUAL and women’s key areas of aptitude 128
6.1 Power distance scores of selected countries in the world 141
6.2 Characteristics of high and low power distance cultures 143
6.3 Customer waiting situations in tourism and hospitality 163
7.1 Uncertainty avoidance scores of selected countries in the world 178
7.2 Basic summary of the main characteristics of low and high- uncertainty
avoidance cultures 179
7.3 Types of risk in tourism and hospitality 195
7.4 Types of control and strategies to provide control to customers 197
8.1 Basic summary of the main characteristics of masculinity and femininity 213
8.2 Income equality and inequality in selected countries in the world 215
8.3 Masculinity and femininity scores of selected countries in the world 216
8.4 Assertive behaviours 217
8.5 Assertiveness and gender egalitarianism scores of selected countries 219

Tables
viii
8.6 Airport and air flight services and their relationship to marketing
mix elements 228
8.7 Main differences between men and women at work 230
9.1 Individualism scores selected countries in the world 244
9.2 Summary of the main characteristics of individualistic and
collectivistic cultures 245
10.1 Summary of the main characteristics of high and low
performance orientation 273
10.2 Associations of high and low performance orientations with
other cultural dimensions 274
10.3 Summary of the main characteristics of high and low human
orientation 276
10.4 Associations of high and low humane orientations with other
cultural dimensions 278
10.5 Performance- and humane- orientation scores of selected countries 280
10.6 GDP per hour worked in OECD countries 283
11.1 Future orientation scores of selected countries 295
11.2 Long- term orientation scores for countries in the world 298
11.3 Summary of the main characteristics of long- and short- term
oriented cultures 300
11.4 Monochronic and polychronic cultures 304
12.1 Characteristics of universalistic and particularistic societies 317
12.2 Recommendations for interacting with people from universalistic
and particularistic cultures 318
12.3 Characteristics of individualistic and communitarian (collectivistic)
societies 319
12.4 Recommendations for interacting with people from universalistic
and particularistic cultures 320
12.5 Characteristics of individualistic and communitarian (collectivistic)
societies 326
13.1 The influence of cultural dimensions on marketing mix 337
13.2 The influence of cultural dimensions on other services marketing
and consumer behaviour related issues 339

ix
Preface
The rationale for this book
As stated by Peter Drucker “Culture eats strategy for breakfast”, culture has an
overriding influence on human behaviour as it shapes both the perceptions and
the attitudes of people. Hence, the way in which systems, processes, and businesses
are established and managed, and the interactions that take place among the
stakeholders of this system (e.g., customers, employees, managers, suppliers) are very
much culture- bound.
Owing to the general service characteristics of intangibility, inseparability,
heterogeneity, and perishability, and given the fact that interactions and communication
which take place between customers, employees, managers, and processes are
frequent and intense, tourism and hospitality is probably the most relevant industry
for the study of culture. As explained in Chapter1, tourism is the largest industry in
the world in terms of revenues generated, directly and indirectly, and the employment
created. Moreover, with the participation of more and more people from different
countries and cultures in tourism and hospitality, there is an increasing need to better
understand intercultural interactions between people (customers, employees and
managers) and processes, and systems.
The perspective of this book
The book has a dyadic perspective in that it explains cross- cultural aspects of tourism
and the implications of culture based on the following disciplines:
1. Customer/ Marketing perspective: marketing, consumer behaviour, services marketing
and management, and international marketing.
2. Service provider/ management perspective: organisational behaviour, human resource
management, international management, and management.
As explained in Chapter1, the reason for the dyadic perspective of this book is due
to the highly interactive nature of processes in services in general and in tourism and
hospitality in particular. Compared with manufacturing and marketing tangible products,
in service businesses, especially in tourism and hospitality, business functions such as
marketing and human resource management are highly interlinked and intertwined

Preface
x
and require a more integrated approach. Hence, any human resource manager needs
to understand marketing, consumer behaviour, and the service’s marketing implications
of her/ his policies, strategies, and activities. Conversely, any marketing manager needs
to understand human resource management, organisational behaviour, and the
management implications of her/ his policies, strategies, and activities.
Topics and concepts explained in this book from a marketing perspective
The marketing topics, concepts, and theories explained and discussed in this book
comprise the following:
marketing mix
elements (product,
price, place,
promotion, physical
evidence, people, and
process)
customer
satisfaction
customers’
repurchase and
word- of- mouth
(WOM) intentions
customer
complaints
customer loyalty variety- seeking
behaviour
service quality and
service quality
dimensions
service failures
customer
involvement, and
participation
service orientation customer switching
behaviour
service recovery,
service recovery
paradox
attribution and
justice
Topics and concepts explained in the book from the management perspective
The management topics, concepts, and theories explained and discussed in the book
comprise the following:
employee
empowerment,
skill development,
organisational training
and development,
accountability
bureaucracy,
hierarchy and
organisational
structure, systems
organisational
communication,
subordinate-
superior
communication,
relationships
organisational
citizenship
behaviour,
organisational
commitment
entrepreneurship,
intrapreneurship
leadership,
organisational
culture
change
management,
motivation
teamwork,
groupthink,
emotional labour,
emotional contagion
employee job
satisfaction,
performance
orientation
employee
turnover,
absenteeism,
stress, burnout
syndrome
ethics, legitimacy,
nepotism,
ethnocentrism
recruitment,
selection,
performance
appraisal, reward
systems, staff
training, promotion

Preface
xi
Features of this book
Each chapter in this book explains and discusses cross- cultural theories and dimensions
and their characteristics. Based on the relevant research findings published in top
tourism and hospitality and in other relevant journals and books, the implications
of these cross- cultural theories, dimensions, and characteristics are explained and
discussed. As the book is aimed at understanding people, where relevant, findings
from the fields of psychology, sociology, anthropology, biology, and neurology are
provided.
The book has the following features to enhance the teaching and learning
experiences:
• presentation slides for each chapter for in- class use by lecturers;
• case studies;
• exercises;
• activity boxes;
• recommendations for further reading;
• end- of- chapter questions;
• research questions/ ideas to pursue for researchers.
The above features aim to develop knowledge as well as skills and abilities.
Hence, many of the activity boxes contain scales (such as intercultural sensitivity,
ethnocentrism, intercultural competence) for readers to get to know themselves
and oversee their development as a result of the learning experience offered
by the book. It is recommended that these scales/ tests should also be filled in
after completing of the book in order to see personal development in terms of
knowledge, skills, and abilities.
Each chapter (except Chapter 1) presents at least one original research question
or idea to pursue and carry out as a study by researchers. These research ideas may
be instrumental for researchers to publish original research in leading international
tourism and hospitality journals.
The cases presented in the chapters are in various forms. While some of the cases
are company cases, others provide cultural anecdotes or interesting experiments on
relevant topics.
This book presents many exercises for self- learning and development. The exercises
are aimed at involving the reader, and they require her/ him to explore a specific aspect
of culture in order to develop knowledge, skills, and abilities pertaining to a specific
aspect of a cross- cultural characteristic.
Contents of the book
Chapter1
This chapter provides an introduction and an overview to tourism and hospitality.
The chapter particularly explains and emphasises the importance of the tourism and

Preface
xii
hospitality industry, and demonstrates the growing importance of the international
and global nature of tourism and hospitality. As tourism and hospitality activities are
becoming increasingly international and global, from both the demand and suppply
sides, there is a growing need to understand the multicultural aspects of these
activities. The chapter also provides an outline of the types and categories of tourism
and hospitality businesses to draw the framework for the book.
Chapter2
This chapter explains the basic concepts and components of culture and provides a
rationale for the dyadic perspective of the book:a) marketing and consumer behaviour,
and b) human resource management, organisational behaviour, and management.
The importance of studying cross- cultural aspects of tourism and hospitality from the
perspectives of both service providers and customers are explained and discussed with
the support of relevant research findings.
Chapter3
This chapter explains the concepts of intercultural competence, intercultural sensitivity,
and intercultural intelligence and their relevance for tourism and hospitality. The
chapter also provides a number of scales/ tests that will enable readers to get to know
themselves better, and to measure their tendency in a specific field relating to cross-
cultural aspects of tourism and hospitality.
Chapter4
This chapter explains the characteristics of high- and low- context cultures, and the
implications of contextual orientations of service providers and customers for the
effective and efficient marketing and management of various tourism and hospitality
operations. Based on relevant research, the chapter demonstrates that the contextual
orientation of people (both as service providers and as customers) can significantly
influence their perceptions, attitudes, and behaviours as well as the way in which they
communicate, form, and maintain relationships.
Chapter5
This chapter explains the indulgence and restraint paradigm, and the implications
of this paradigm for tourism and hospitality. Indulgence and restraint orientations
of people determine their involvement with tourism and hospitality activities, how
they view leisure, pleasure, and fun. Moreover, indulgence and restraint orientation
of people influences the experiences (positive or negative) they tend to remember.
As tourism and hospitality services are mainly hedonistic experiences, the concept of
indulgence and restraint are highly relevant for tourism and hospitality, from both

Preface
xiii
the supply and the demand perspectives. However, a review of the literature shows
that this dimension seems to have been largely overlooked by researchers in the field.
Chapter6
This chapter presents the power distance paradigm and explains its influence on
relationships, how people communicate, establish, and sustain systems. Power distance
orientation of people, both as service providers and as customers, appears to influence
a wide range of issues. For instance, power distance influences the approach taken
by customers towards various elements of the marketing mix (7Ps), and the way in
which service providers design and implement marketing mix elements. Moreover,
power distance tends to determine how customers evaluate overall service quality
and the individual service quality dimensions. As power distance significantly affects
relationships and communications among people, it shapes the approaches of people
to management and organisational issues such as empowerment, and the upward and
downward communication that takes place between subordinates and superiors in an
organisation.
Chapter7
This chapter explains uncertainty avoidance or risk aversion paradigm as a cultural
orientation. Tourism and hospitality experiences are mainly intangible, that is, they
cannot be tested beforehand, and involve encounters with the unknown in terms
of destinations, the concept of uncertainty avoidance is particularly relevant for the
design and management of tourism and hospitality activities. For instance, the type of
tourism and hospitality products customers purchase and the informational channels
they use are all influenced by whether they are highly risk aversive or not. The chapter
focuses on concepts and the types of risks associated with tourism and hospitality
and the theory of control as a risk reduction strategy. The chapter also shows how
uncertainty avoidance may influence employees’ and managers’ approaches to
change, innovation, and development.
Chapter8
This chapter explains the masculinity and femininity dimension and the concepts
of assertiveness and egalitarianism. The chapter demonstrates how masculine and
feminine characteristics may influence customers’ and employees’ perceptions,
attitudes, and behaviours in tourism and hospitality contexts. Gender orientation of
customers influences not only how they collect information in making their purchase
decisions, but also how they perceive various marketing mix elements and how they
evaluate overall service quality and particular service quality dimensions. In addition,
gender orientation influences various aspects of service providers in terms of service
orientation and the provision of efficient and effective services.

Preface
xiv
Chapter9
This chapter presents the individualism and collectivism paradigm as one of the
oldest and pervasive cultural paradigms. The chapter explains how individualism and
collectivism orientations of customers may influence customers’ choice of holiday or
hospitality products, how they make their purchase decisions, and how they evaluate
their tourism and hospitality experiences. From a management perspective, the chapter
explains how individualism and collectivism may influence people’s relationships and
communication patterns within a business establishment, and the degree of comfort
they may have with employee empowerment.
Chapter10
This chapter explains the performance and humane orientations based on the GLOBE
project/ framework and how these dimensions relate to other dimensions explained
throughout the book. These dimensions significantly influence the efficient and
effective provision of services in tourism and hospitality businesses. The chapter
explains and discusses the concepts of performance and humane orientation in relation
to other cultural dimensions explained in other chapters of the book.
Chapter11
This chapter presents the concept time orientation and its potential influence on
service providers and customers in tourism and hospitality. The chapter shows that
long- and short- term orientation, past/ present/ future orientation, or polychronism and
monochronism orientations of customers influence the type of tourism and hospitality
services they prefer, the characteristics of tourism and hospitality services, and how they
evaluate these services. Moreover, time orientation influences customers’ approach
towards marketing mix elements. For instance, while past- oriented customers tend to
avoid advertisements, present- and future oriented customers tend to be interested
in advertisements, though with different motivations. Also, time orientations of
employees and managers tend to influence how they perceive other people, work,
processes, and systems.
Chapter12
This chapter explains the cultural dimensions proposed by Trompenaars and
Hampden- Turner, namely, universalism vs particularism, individualism vs collectivism
(communitarianism), neutral vs emotional, specific vs diffuse, achievement vs ascription,
sequential vs synchronic, and internal vs external control. The dimensions offered by
Trompenaars and Hampden- Turner are highly interlinked with the other dimensions
explained throughout the book. The chapter explains Trompenaars and Hampden-
Turner’s dimensions in relation with the other dimensions since there appears to be a
dearth of research publications which specifically focus on them.

Preface
xv
Chapter13
This final chapter provides an overview and summary of the book together with the
concepts and theories explained. The chapter demonstrates the concepts and theories
explained from a dyadic perspective, that is, from the perspective of both customers
and service providers. It can be seen that cross- cultural aspects influence a wide range
of marketing, consumer behaviour, human resource management, organisational
behaviour, and management issues in tourism and hospitality.

xvi
Acknowledgements
Writing a textbook aimed at developing new knowledge in an area in which no
comprehensive book has been published previously requires years of research and
really hard work. Iwould like to thank my past and present students from various
universities and various countries, whose curiosity motivated me to relentlessly search,
explore, learn, and make connections. I also would like to thank employees and
managers in several companies Ihave provided training for. Ihave learned immensely
from them.
My teachers, lecturers, and professors have been extremely instrumental in
my professional and academic development, and career, spreading over 25 years.
Iparticularly would like to acknowledge the influential role of my Ph.D.supervisor at
Oxford Brookes University, UK, who supervised me many years ago. Her guidance still
illuminates my path during my journey. May her soul rest in peace.
I also thank all researchers and authors whose publications Ihave read and used,
and the ones who have given consent to use their scales and cultural dimension tables.
I particularly thank my colleague Jim (Professor James William Neuliep, the author
of the book Intercultural Communication:A Contextual Approach) from St Norbert
College, for his kind and timely support, and his consent for the use of his scales. My
special thanks go to the late Professor Geert Hofstede for granting permission to use
country scores data for preparing cultural dimensions and the scales. I also would
like to thank Professor Stella Ting- Toomey (California State University, Fullerton) for
granting permission to use their scale.
Last but by no means the least, Iwould like to thank the editorial and production
team at Routledge, Emma Travis (editor), Lydia Kessell (editorial assistant) and Claudia
Austin (production editor) for their hard work, assistance, and encouragement
throughout this book project.
Erdogan Koc
Professor of Services Marketing and Management
Bahçes¸ ehir University

1
Chapter 1
Introduction:international
and global nature of
tourism and hospitality
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
• understand the international nature of tourism and hospitality
operations;
• explain the intertwined and dyadic perspective of management (human
resource management and organisational behaviour) and marketing
(consumer behaviour and services marketing);
• explain service characteristics in relation to tourism and hospitality;
• understand the influence of culture on the design and implementation
of marketing mix elements and service quality dimensions;
• develop a service blueprint for a tourism or hospitality service by taking
dyadic cross- cultural aspects of tourism and hospitality services into
account.
Introduction
This introductory chapter sets the scene for the whole of the book by explaining the
importance and potential of international tourism and hospitality activities and the
inuence of culture on customers, employees, managers, and systems. As increasingly
more and more international customers, employees, and managers with different cultural
backgrounds participate in tourism and hospitality activities, a cross- cultural study of the
dyadic aspects of their interactions is of paramount importance in a dynamic and fast-
growth market. As the setting up and maintenance of tourism and hospitality businesses
require a signicant amount of nancial resources, the stakes are high and complexities
often result in business failures.

Introduction
2
Disneyland Paris (Euro Disney), which was the second- largest construction project at
the time of its opening in 1992 (Hartley, 2006), can be given as an example. Euro Disney
(see the Euro Disney case study in Chapter2) made a total loss of two billion dollars at end
of its third year (Matusitz, 2010), as result of several business and management mistakes,
and the inability to understand the cultural environment, customers, employees, managers,
and systems. Primarily, the Euro Disney management ignored the basic quote “When in
Rome do as the Romans do”, and had an ethnocentric approach in its operations in France.
This was partly due to the overcondence emanating from the success of the company’s
previous project, Tokyo Disneyland, opened up in Tokyo, Japan in 1982.
Activity
GENE (Generalised ethnocentrism) scale
You can measure whether you are ethnocentric or not by doing the following
test.
Important Note: Throughout the book there are several self- report scales/ tests
like the one below. Please save your personal test score records (especially
the ones relating to cultural awareness, cultural competence, ethnocentrism,
cultural intelligence, etc.) in order to make comparisons later. After studying
the whole book, you are advised to go back and redo all these tests once
more. By doing this you can compare these scores with your earlier ones. This
is expected to help you to see the changes that have taken place as a result
of the learning experience.
The Intercultural Communication Competence Scale Instructions
Please read the statements below and indicate how much each statement
describes you by assigning a value, in the blank section on the left of each
statement, from 1 to 5 as follows:
(5) strongly agree (4)agree (3)neutral (2)disagree (1)strongly disagree
Please keep in mind that there is no right or wrong response for each
statement. In order to avoid biased responses, you are recommended to
record your initial response without elaborating too much on the statements.
_ _ _ _ _ _ 1. Most other cultures are backward compared to my culture.
_ _ _ _ _ _ 2. My culture should be the role model for other cultures.
_ _ _ _ _ _ 3. People from other cultures act strange when they come into my
culture.
_ _ _ _ _ _ 4. Lifestyles in other cultures are just as valid as those in my culture.
_ _ _ _ _ _ 5. Other cultures should try to be more like my culture.
_ _ _ _ _ _ 6. I’m not interested in the values and customs of other cultures.
_ _ _ _ _ _ 7. People in my culture could learn a lot from people of other
cultures.
_ _ _ _ _ _ 8. Most people from other cultures just don’t know what’s good
for them.

Introduction
3
_ _ _ _ _ _ 9. Irespect the values and customs of other cultures.
_ _ _ _ _ _ 10. Other cultures are smart to look up to our culture.
_ _ _ _ _ _ 11. Most people would be happier if they lived like people in my
culture.
_ _ _ _ _ _ 12. Ihave many friends from other cultures.
_ _ _ _ _ _ 13. People in my culture have just about the best lifestyles of
anywhere.
_ _ _ _ _ _ 14. Lifestyles in other cultures are not as valid as those in my culture.
_ _ _ _ _ _ 15. I’m very interested in the values and customs of other cultures.
_ _ _ _ _ _ 16. Iapply my values when judging people who are different.
_ _ _ _ _ _ 17. Isee people who are similar to me as virtuous.
_ _ _ _ _ _ 18. Ido not cooperate with people who are different.
_ _ _ _ _ _ 19. Most people in my culture just don’t know what is good for
them.
_ _ _ _ _ _ 20. Ido not trust people who are different.
_ _ _ _ _ _ 21. Idislike interacting with people from different cultures.
_ _ _ _ _ _ 22. Ihave little respect for the values and customs of other cultures.
_ _ _ _ _ _ YOUR TOTAL SCORE (Please calculate your score as follows).
Scoring:
Step 1:Please add your scores for items 4, 7, and 9.
Step 2: Add your scores for 1, 2, 5, 8, 10, 11, 13, 14, 18, 20, 21, and 22 (note
that not all items are used in scoring).
Step 3: Subtract the sum from Step 1 from 18 (i.e., 18 minus Step 1 sum)
Step 4: Add the results of Step 2 and Step 3. This sum is your generalised
ethnocentrism score.
Higher scores (e.g., scores above 55)indicate a higher level of ethnocentrism.
Source:Neely (2002).
Used with permission given by the author (James W.Neuliep).
However, unlike the French, the Japanese did not ask or expect anything to be Japanese,
that is, adjusted to their culture and habits. Disneyland did not have to make signicant
cultural considerations in Disneyland Tokyo as the Japanese wanted to have a truly
American experience.
The case of the Mardan Place Hotel, Antalya, Turkey can also be related here as a
major failure in tourism and hospitality. The failure of this hotel is also primarily due to
ignoring the cross- cultural aspects of tourism and hospitality. The Mardan Palace Hotel,
which was described as Europe’s most ostentatious resort hotel at the time of its opening
in 2009, could not pay its debts and went bankrupt in 2015. The total investment made
for the project at the time was 1.5 billion dollars. The cases of Disneyland Paris and
the Mardan Palace Hotel demonstrate how failure to understand customers, employees,
managers, and systems can produce disastrous results for tourism and hospitality
businesses. Research shows that the failure rate in tourism and hospitality is quite
high. For instance, in the hospitality industry, almost 30% of new restaurants go out of
business in their rst year of operation (Parsa etal., 2005; Fields, 2014).

Introduction
4
Given the frequency and intensity of interaction (both between customers and staff,
and among the staff themselves), and the tangibility, inseparability, heterogeneity, and
perishability nature of tourism and hospitality services, the need to understand the
inuence of culture in the design and management of tourism and hospitality businesses
is extremely evident. Based on this background, this chapter explains the international
and multicultural nature of tourism and hospitality operations, and how culture may
inuence the efcient and effective management of these operations.
International and global nature of tourism and
hospitality
Tourism is the largest industry in the world, in terms not only of revenues generated
but also of employment created in this industry (WTTC, 2019). In 2019 the tourism
and hospitality industry generated total revenue of $1.7 trillion (WTTC, 2019). The
direct contribution of travel and tourism to gross domestic product (GDP) is expected to
grow by 3.6% annually to $4,065 billion, representing 3.5% of the world’s total GDP
by 2029. With its relatively high multiplier effect, the tourism and hospitality industry
enables the creation of revenues and employment not only in tourism and hospitality
directly, but also in and other tertiary (i.e., services), secondary (i.e., manufacturing), and
primary (e.g., agriculture) sectors indirectly.
Activity
The multiplier refers to the total addition to income resulting from initial
expenditure within a sector. It measures the impact of additional expenditure
introduced into an economy (Fletcher, 1995). In tourism, the multiplier effect
shows the additional volume of income earned by the expenditures of
tourists that will contribute to the economy in general. Basically, the tourism
multiplier value of a country shows how many times the money spent by a
tourist circulates through a country’s economy.
Look at the following countries’ tourism multiplier values and discuss the
likely role and potential of the tourism industry in these countries from both
the perspective of revenues generated and the employment created. What
could be the main reason behind the difference between countries such as
Turkey and Barbados? Please discuss.
Country – Region Multiplier Value Country– Region Multiplier Value
Turkey 1.96 Hong Kong 0.87
United Kingdom 1.73 Philippines 0.82
Jamaica 1.27 Bahamas 0.73
Egypt 1.23 Malta 0.68
Dominican Republic 1.20 Iceland 0.64
Seychelles 1.03 Barbados 0.60
Adapted from Fletcher (1995) and Cooper etal. (2008).

Introduction
5
In other words, the importance of the tourism and hospitality industry is much more
signicant than the tourism revenue and employment gures may singly suggest. As travel
and tourism are interlinked with a variety of other industries, as many as 30, ranging
from food, furniture, transportation, construction, to durable goods (Koc and Altinay,
2007), its total contribution to the world economy is estimated to be about $9,000 billion
(WTTC, 2019). Additionally, as a labour- intensive industry, with about 320 million
people working in travel and tourism, employment in this industry represents about
10.5% of total employment in the world (WTTC, 2019). The tourism and hospitality
industry may be instrumental, especially in creating jobs for developing countries where
unemployment rates are high (Noja and Cristea, 2018; Marcu etal., 2018).
Moreover, it must be kept in mind that the percentage of people participating in
tourism and hospitality activities in the world is on the rise. A report by the United
Nations World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO, 1998) estimated that 7% of the world’s
population would be travelling internationally1 by the year 2020. Considering that,
currently, a rather small proportion of the world population engage in international
travel and tourism activities, there is a signicant potential for growth in the international
tourism and travel industry when larger proportions of the world population engage in
travel and tourism activities.
Information zone
Three of the main factors contributing to the growth of services which
influence the demand for tourism and hospitality services are provided in
the following table (Koc, 2018).
Factor Explanation/ Example
Increase in
leisure time
and disposable
income
With the decrease in working hours and an increase in the
annual paid holidays, the demand for tourism and hospitality
services has gradually risen. More and more people tend to
have more time and money for going on holiday and eating
out in restaurants more frequently.
Changing
demographics
and life styles
People in large towns and cities are more likely to frequently
use services. Urbanisation is one of the important drivers of
holidays, eating out, etc.
Households are increasingly getting smaller with fewer
children in the family. This results in families being more able
to afford tourism and hospitality services such as holidays,
or eating out in restaurants, in addition to being able to
afford other services such as insurance, private education, and
private healthcare.
The advent
of innovative
products and
developments in
technology
The word travel comes from the Old French word travail
(or travailler), which means to work, to labour; a suffering
or painful effort. With the development of large passenger
planes, travelling has become relatively easier. International
air travel accounts for a significant proportion of
transportation relating to tourism and hospitality activities.

Introduction
6
Factor Explanation/ Example
With the developments in media and communications and
easier access to various media, people are becoming more
knowledgeable about other countries and regions. Being
more knowledgeable about foreigners reduces xenophobia,
fear or hatred towards anything foreign or strange and
increases interest in foreign people, lands, foods, etc.
Knowledge reduces risks and increases liking.
As stated above, tourism and hospitality activities are increasingly becoming
international in nature, with the participation of people from different countries and
cultures (Mihalič and Fennell, 2015). This means that there is a need for a better
understanding of culture and cultural issues relating to tourism and hospitality. In the
highly internationalised environment of tourism and hospitality, there is a need for a
dyadic perspective, understanding both the demand and the supply side. The demand
side represents customers, for example, tourists/ guests. The supply side represents the
service providers, for example, employees, managers, systems, and businesses that offer
tourism and hospitality services. Considering that over one- third of Fortune Top 500
companies disappear after a decade (ICS- UNIDO, 2000), there is an apparent need for
organisational development and a need for adapting to the changes and differences that
take place in the market.
The dyadic influence of culture on tourism and
hospitality services
The dyadic perspective
This book has a dyadic perspective, that is, it explains and discusses the implications of
cross- cultural matters for tourism and hospitality based on the following framework:
1. Customer/ Marketing perspective: marketing, consumer behaviour, services marketing
and management, and international marketing.
2. Service provider/ management perspective: organisational behaviour, human resource
management, international management, and management.
The rationale for the dyadic perspective
With the worldwide growth in the tourism and hospitality sector, the number of
establishments in this sector is increasing steadily together in parallel with the increase in
the number of international tourists/ customers participating in tourism and hospitality
activities. In line with this growth, tourism and hospitality establishments need to
understand their international customers better, and to be able to manage effectively
their diverse workforce whose attitudes and behaviours may be signicantly inuenced
by their diverse cultural backgrounds (Koc etal., 2017; Koc, 2019).

Introduction
7
Tourism and hospitality services take place in a social servicescape (Tombs and
McColl- Kennedy, 2003; Koc and Boz, 2020) within which intense and frequent social
interactions take place involving both customers and employees. The social servicescape
can be dened as customer and employee elements that exist in the consumption setting
(Rosenbaum and Montoya, 2007; Kim and Baker, 2017). Owing to this intense social
contact and interaction, tourism and hospitality industry businesses are often referred
to as people businesses (Kim etal., 2010). This frequent and intense social contact and
interaction between the service personnel and customers often forms the basis of service
quality evaluations of customers in tourism and hospitality (Prayag and Ryan, 2012;
Rauch etal., 2015).
This is probably why a signicant number of service quality elements in service quality
models such as SERVQUAL (Parasuraman etal., 1988) (e.g., service quality dimensions)
are to do with service encounters and social interactions which take place between
the service personnel and the customer. Research shows that customers’ perceptions
of service interactions have a signicant inuence on their overall service quality
evaluations and satisfaction (Wang and Mattila, 2010; Koc and Bozkurt, 2017). Services
marketing mix (7Ps) comprises the people element, together with process and physical
evidence, in addition to the traditional marketing mix (4Ps) designed for the marketing
of tangible products. People may be considered as the most important marketing mix
element in the marketing and managment of any service or experience.
As social interactions are signicantly inuenced by the culture of people, the cultures
customers and employees come from may have important implications for the effective
management of service encounters, customer satisfaction, service quality, and, eventually,
business success (Lai etal., 2018; Koc, 2019). The greater the cultural distance, which is
the extent to which national cultures differ from the culture of the host, the greater the
inuence of cultural dimensions on tourism and hospitality operations (Shenkar, 2001;
Litvin etal., 2004).
The abilities of tourism and hospitality staff in terms of understanding customers’
and other employees’ cultures and behaving accordingly is often referred to as the
intercultural sensitivity of staff. Intercultural sensitivity can be a major strength of a
tourism and hospitality business catering for international customers, and employing
staff with diverse cultural backgrounds (Irimias and Franch, 2019; Yurur etal., 2020).
In addition to the interactions of staff with customers, the interactions among staff (both
front and backstage) are also important and may be signicantly culture- bound in today’s
multicultural work environments. In services, it is accepted that the quality of the service
received by internal customers (i.e., by employees) cannot be higher than the quality of
service received by external customers (i.e., actual customers). This means that not only
customers but also employees and managers need to be approached by all staff members
in an interculturally sensitive and highly professional manner. This is why this book takes
a dyadic perspective to explain culture’s inuence on the social servicescape in tourism
and hospitality, as well as the physical servicescape. In other words, the book explains
and explores cross- cultural aspects of tourism and hospitality from the perspectives
of both the customer (consumer behaviour and marketing) and staff (human resource
management, organisational behaviour, and management) (see Figure1.1).
It should be kept in mind that the human resource management and marketing
functions in services, especially in tourism and hospitality services, are very much
intertwined as shown in Table 1.1. The design and implementation of the marketing
mix (7Ps) when carrying out the marketing function requires considerations relating to

Introduction
8
people and processes (i.e., human resource management, organisational behaviour, and
management) and vice versa.
Owing to the high level of customer and employee interaction and communication
and the general service characteristics of, especially, inseparability, heterogeneity, and
perishability, tourism and hospitality services are highly prone to service failures (Koc,
2017, 2019).
Information zone
General service characteristics
Service
Characteristic
Explanation Implications for Tourism and
Hospitality Businesses
Inseparability Consumption and
production or hospitality
services often take place
simultaneously.
The influence of other
customers (e.g., in terms
of their attitudes and
behaviours) may also be
an important determinant
of customer satisfaction
(Cakici and Guler, 2017).
The service needs to meet the
demands of the customer at the
right time.
Both the provision and the
consumption of the service often
require the participation of the
customer. The customer may need
to be present and may be needed
to participate in the service, in
terms not only of consumption
but also of production of the
service.
Heterogeneity The difficulty of
standardising service
performance elements.
The heterogeneity of a
service is largely due to
The high degree of social
interaction and communication
means that the product and
service experience consistency
depends very much on the
Culture
Culture
Culture
Customer
Segment 1
Customer
Segment 2
Customer
Segment 3
Culture
Employees /
Managers
Culture
Employees /
Managers
Culture
Employees /
Managers
Social
Servicescape
Consumer Behaviour & Marketing
Perspective
Human Resource Management,
Organisational Behaviour &
Management Perspectiv
e
Figure1.1 Dyadic influence of cross- cultural characteristics on tourism
and hospitality social servicescape

Introduction
9
Service
Characteristic
Explanation Implications for Tourism and
Hospitality Businesses
the vagaries of human
interaction between and
among service contact
employees and consumers
(Koc, 2006). No two
services would be exactly
alike as the person who
delivers the service may
have different attitudes
or be in a different mood
during the delivery of two
consecutive services.
Services are highly variable
and heterogeneous as they
depend on who provides
them, and when, where,
and for whom they are
provided (Koc, 2006).
tourism and hospitality service
provider’s skills and various
characteristics (including culture)
and performance at the time of
the encounter.
Organisational systems and
processes in the tourism and
hospitality business need to be
designed in such a way that the
service is consistently produced.
The processes and systems in the
business need to ensure that:
• each customer has a high-
quality experience that meets
her/ his expectations;
• the service is nearly equal to
that experienced by every other
customer (except for differences
supplied by servers in response
to each customer’s unique needs
and coproduction capabilities).
Intangibility The inability to see or
touch the “product” of
service.
Tourism and hospitality services
may involve many uncertainties
and unknowns. Customers’ risk
perceptions tend to be high.
Employees are expected to
behave and communicate in a
manner to close the information
gap and reduce customers’ risk
perceptions.
Perishability The difficulty in
synchronising supply and
demand
The demand is usually seasonal
(e.g., throughout the year or
depending the day of the week
for a resort hotel or an airline)
or during the hours of the day or
the day of the week (e.g., for a
restaurant). This has implications
for revenues, process, and service
quality management. Perishability
may place additional demands on
managers’ abilities.
Adapted from Koc (2017).

Introduction
10
The dyadic inuence of culture’s inuence on tourism and hospitality activities can
also be seen through the marketing mix elements (7Ps) (Table1.1).
Table1.1 Marketing mix elements in tourism and hospitality
Marketing
Mix Element
Explanation and Examples
Product Comprises all tourism and hospitality products and services– for example,
a package holiday, menus, all food items, and beverages served in a
restaurant.
According to Conell (2013), compared with overall tourism activity, people
who engage in medical tourism take cultural differences more into account
when they make their purchase decisions. Tourists from masculine and
high- power distance cultures tend to allocate more monetary resources to
shopping when they are on a holiday (Su etal., 2018). Cultural differences
in tourism may increase the likelihood of purchasing souvenirs which
can reflect local uniqueness (Su et al., 2018). For instance, while tourists
from culturally different destinations tend to shop for souvenirs or gifts
(Ozdemir and Yolal, 2017), people from similar cultures (like Canadian
tourists visiting the United States) tend to shop for more for daily use items
such as groceries, foods, and clothes (Timothy and Butler, 1995).
Price Pricing refers to all the activities regarding how the business sets up its
prices and their influence on customers. Pricing requires an analysis of
monetary and non- monetary prices, competitors’ prices, packages, price-
related discounts, etc. Pricing is significantly more important in services,
and particularly in tourism and hospitality, due to the intangibility and
perishability nature of these services (Boz et al., 2017). Dynamic pricing
(also referred to as surge pricing, demand pricing, time- based pricing, or
yield management) is commonly used in tourism and hospitality both to
manage demand and capacity effectively and to increase revenues and
profits.
Koc’s (2013) study shows that more risk- averse customers are more likely
to require more cognitive control and often tend to purchase all- inclusive
holidays.2 An all- inclusive package holiday is defined as a trip planned and
paid for as a single price in advance which covers commercial transportation
and accommodation, meals, and sightseeing, and sometimes with an
escort or guide. All- inclusive holidays attract risk- aversive tourists and/ or
tourists with a pre- determined spending budget who do not wish to make
additional expenditures when they are on holiday.
Place In tourism and hospitality marketing and management, the place element
is interlinked with almost all other elements of the marketing mix where
customers are exposed to all aspects of the tourism and hospitality business
including tangible features (location of a hotel or a restaurant), personnel
(how they look, and the way they communicate with customers), web
pages (the nature, type of information provided on the web pages of a
hotel or a restaurant, or the cues used in the messages). The design and the
management of a distribution system (i.e., the system

Introduction
11
Marketing
Mix Element
Explanation and Examples
comprising intermediaries such as tour operators, online and brick-
and-mortar travel agencies, airlines) to reach the customers are among the
issues which relate to place decisions. Lee etal.’s (2012) research showed
that travel agencies had a significant influence on Japanese people’s
medical tourism decisions. Money and Crotts’s (2003) and Litvin et al.’s
(2004) studies showed that people from cultures with a high level of risk
avoidance are more likely to depend on personal information sources like
travel agencies, tour operators, friends, and relatives.
Promotion Promotion comprises all marketing communication mediums and messages
customers are exposed to, ranging from advertisements to public relations,
sales promotions, and all communication with tourism and hospitality staff.
In addition to all planned messages in the form of advertising, public
relations, sales promotions and personal selling, tourism, and hospitality
products (i.e., the tangible aspects, such as the freshness and the variety of
food served at a hotel) and services (e.g., the social skills and the capabilities
of service staff) convey a significant amount of information to customers as
well. According to Correia etal.’s (2011) study, tourists from cultures with
long- term orientation are more likely to depend on multiple information
sources when making their decisions.3
People People as a marketing mix element comprise all the human resources (e.g.,
front stage employees, such as stewards and stewardesses, receptionists,
and waiters who interact with customers; backstage employees, such as
cooks, housekeeping employees, and technical staff working for an airline)
whose work outcomes influence customers’ satisfaction and perception of
the business establishment
People’s decisions comprise all human resource management (HRM)
activities (ranging from human resource planning; recruitment and
selection; orientation, training and development; performance appraisal;
benefits– pay and rewards; to health, safety, and security of all employees).
According to Koc (2003) staff in tourism businesses act as a major tool in
conveying marketing communications messages to customers. As stated
above, the inability to see and manage the cultural differences of human
resources and HRM practices resulted in substantial losses for Disney, when
they set up Euro Disney in France in 1992.
Process The process element of the marketing mix is about the way and which sub-
services that make up a whole service (e.g., a service product) are designed
and implemented. Booking and reservations at a hotel, check- in for an
airline, taking orders of customers in a restaurant, cooking and serving
of food in a restaurant are examples of such sub- services. The service
blueprint4 shows all of the sub- services that make up a service and the staff
employed at each phase.
Given the inseparability and heterogeneity nature of tourism and hospitality
services, the smooth, efficient and effective running of all activities in a
timely manner is highly important for tourism and hospitality businesses.
The fact that while product quality (goods/ service
Table1.1 continued

Introduction
12
The inuence of culture on the customer is not limited to its inuence on the
design and implementation of marketing mix elements. Apart from the customer’s
perception of marketing mix elements (7Ps), the customer’s perceptions of himself/
herself, service employees, and managers, other customers, systems, and processes
may have a signicant inuence on the success or failure of tourism and hospitality
businesses (Figure1.2). This is because, coupled with the perceptions of marketing mix
elements, these factors can result in important emotional states and behaviours (pre-
purchase, consumption and post-purchase phases) which collectively determine the
eventual success or failure of the tourism and hospitality business. These emotional
states and behaviours comprise approach- avoidance behaviours (i.e., whether to stay
or not in the service environment of the tourism and hospitality business), satisfaction,
dissatisfaction, making evaluations (i.e., whether to make a complaint or a praise),
repurchase intentions, loyalty, switching, and engaging in positive or negative word- of-
mouth (WOM) communication (Figure1.2).
On the other hand, from a supply- side, the cultural background of employees or
managers may have a signicant inuence on their perceptions of themselves, their roles,
tasks, jobs, and careers, together with how they perceive customers, subordinates, peers,
managers, systems, and processes (Figure1.3). These perceptions result in important
emotional states, attitudes, and outward behaviours that may have a signicant inuence
in determining the success or failure of a tourism and hospitality business. These emotional
states, attitudes, and outward behaviours, determine attitudes and behaviours towards
teamwork, job satisfaction, commitment, organisational citizenship, stress, absenteeism,
staff turnover, and productivity and performance.
In addition to the general inuences explained in Figures1.1, 1.2, and 1.3, cross- cultural
factors have a major inuence (actual and perceived) on service quality dimensions (see
Table1.2 and the explanations below).
Marketing
Mix Element
Explanation and Examples
products) may account for 14% of all switching behaviours, and the
dissatisfaction, the quality of social exchange may account for as much as
67% of all switching behaviours (Doyle, 2008) shows the interconnected
nature of sub- services that make- up an overall service product or experience,
and the need for the smooth running of processes and operations.
Physical
Evidence
Physical evidence decisions cover a wide range of aspects of tourism and
hospitality ranging from buildings, furniture, decoration, equipment to the
appearance of service personnel. Hsieh and Tsai’s (2009) research showed
that Taiwanese tourists (people from a highly risk- averse culture) are more
likely to place a higher degree of importance on the tangible elements of
the service than American tourists (a low- risk- averse culture) when making
their quality judgements.
Table1.1 continued

Introduction
13
Perceptions*of
Marketing Mix Elements
(7Ps)
•Product
•Price
•Place
•Promotion
•Physical Evidences
•People
•Processes
Perceptions
*of /
Interactions with
•Perceptions of
himself/herself
•Service
employees and
managers
•Other customers
•Systems
•Processes
Culture
Emotional States and
Behaviours
•Approach –Avoidance
Behaviours
•Satisfaction–
Dissatisfaction
•Evaluations –
complaining or praising.
•Repurchase Intentions
•Switching
•Loyalty
•Positive or negative
WOM
Business
Success
or
Failure
Figure1.2 Customer/ marketing perspective:the influence of culture on
customers (marketing management, consumer behaviour,
services marketing, and international marketing aspects)
* Pre- purchase and consumption, purchase and consumption, post- purchase and
consumption phases.
Culture
Perceptions of:
•Herself /
Himself
•Roles, tasks,
jobs, and
careers
•Customers
•Subordinates
•Peers
•Managers
•Systems
•Processes
The Emotional States, Attitudes
and Outward Behaviours
•Teamwork
•Job satisfaction
•Commitment
•Organisational
Citizenship
•Stress
•Absenteeism
•Staff turnover
•Productivity and
performance
Business
Success
or
Failure
Figure1.3 Service provider/ management perspective:influence of culture
on employees and managers (organisational behaviour,
human resource management and management, and
international management aspects)

Introduction
14
Table1.2 Service quality dimensions and marketing mix elements
SERVQUAL
Dimensions
Explanation and
Examples
Association with
Marketing Mix
Elements (7Ps)
Cross- Cultural Examples
Tangibles Physical facilities,
equipment,
furniture,
decoration and
appearance of
personnel
Physical
evidence
Place
Product
Promotion
People
Suppliers of medical tourism
packages are expected to pay
more attention to designing and
modifying their product offers
to suit people from different
cultures. Kim and Lee (2000) found
that tourists from individualistic
cultures5 were more likely to seek
novelty compared with tourists
from collectivistic cultures.
According to Huang and Teng
(2009), feng shui is an important
element of Chinese superstition
and influences people’s service
quality judgements.6
Reliability The ability to
perform the
promised service
dependably
and accurately;
for example,
a correct and
accurate payment
transaction
People
Process
Physical
evidence
Price
Place
Due to the high level and intense
contact with customers, the quality
of tourism and hospitality services
are mainly judged by customers
based on their evaluations of
human resources alone (Maxwell,
1994; Villi and Koc, 2018).
According to Correia etal.’s (2011)
study, tourists from collectivistic
cultures tend to be more price and
brand conscious.
Responsiveness The willingness
and the ability to
help customers
and provide
prompt service;
for example,
providing timely
service, not
keeping customers
waiting
People
Process
Product
Physical
evidence
Bilgili etal.’s (2020) study in Turkey
showed that the red colour of
lighting in restaurants increased
customers’ perception of the
duration of waiting time.
Koc’s (2013) study showed that
hospitality employees from a
high- power distance culture (e.g.,
Turkey) were less empowered
compared with a low- power
distance culture (e.g., the UK)
causing a delay in responding to
and recovering service failures.

Introduction
15
SERVQUAL
Dimensions
Explanation and
Examples
Association with
Marketing Mix
Elements (7Ps)
Cross- Cultural Examples
Assurance The knowledge
and courtesy of
employees and
their ability to
convey trust and
confidence; for
example, greeting
and thanking
customers, the
level of expertise
(e.g., the expertise
of a chef in a
restaurant)
People
Process
Product
Place
Koc’s (2006) research showed that
in Turkey tourists’ expectations
regarding the skills and abilities of
staff on all- inclusive holidays were
relatively lower. However, as all-
inclusive establishments employed
largely unskilled staff and expected
them to overwork, the level of
satisfaction with the employees
in all- inclusive establishments was
much lower.
Empathy The provision
of care and
individualised
attention to
customers.
People
Process
Tourists with relatively high
intercultural competence and
intercultural sensitivity tend to be
more empathetic with the service
provider (Ye etal., 2013).
Table1.2 continued
Exercise
Watch a few sessions of the TV shows Restaurant Express and Restaurant:
Impossible (presented by Robert Irvine) on YouTube. Take down notes and
explain how the 7Ps (marketing mix elements) and service quality dimensions
influence customer satisfaction and service business success.
Additionally, as service quality gaps/ problems and service failures occur due to
misunderstandings, misperceptions, and unexpected behaviours, culture may signicantly
inuence the emergence of service quality gaps. Service quality problems or service
failures in service businesses occur due to the service quality gaps shown in Table 1.3
(Parasuraman et al., 1991). The SERVQUAL model focuses on the service quality
elements of reliability, assurance, tangibles, empathy, and responsiveness (Parasuraman
etal., 1988).
The previous explanations regarding the marketing mix elements, service quality
dimensions, and service quality gaps demonstrate the intertwined dyadic nature of tourism
and hospitality services, and how they may be inuenced by cross- cultural characteristics.
Managers are recommended to develop a service blueprint (see the following exercise) for
each service product/ element that they have so they themselves and their employees better
understand the dyadic nature of culture and its implications for the services they provide.

Introduction
16
Exercise
A service blueprint is an operational planning tool that shows how a
service will be provided, specifying the physical evidence, staff actions, and
support systems/ infrastructure needed to deliver the service through its
various phases. The service blueprint diagram enables the visualisation of
the relationship between various service components of people, physical to
evidence, and processes that are directly tied to touch points in the pre- ,
during and post- service encounter stages in the delivery of a service.
The key elements of a service blueprint are as follows:
• Customer actions: comprise the steps, activities, and interactions that a
customer performs in relation to the use or consumption of a service.
• Front stage actions: the activities that occur directly in the view of the
service consumer and include all human- to- human and non- human- to
human actions.
• Backstage actions: the steps and activities behind the scenes supporting
on- stage activities.
• Processes: the internal steps and all the interactions that support the
employees during the delivery of a service.
The above key elements of a service blueprint are organised around the
following zones:
• The Line of Interaction: shows the direct interaction between the
customers with any element of the service offer.
Table1.3 Gap model of service quality
Gap Explanation
The Knowledge or
Perception Gap
Difference between what customers expect and what managers
think customers expect from the service business
The Standards Gap Difference between service managers’ perceptions of customer
expectations and the service procedures, standards, and
specifications established
The Delivery Gap Difference between service quality specifications and the actual
service delivered to the customers
The Communications
Gap
Difference between what is communicated to the customer and
the actual service delivered
The Customer Gap Difference between customer expectations and customer
perceptions; customers may not always understand what the
service has done for them or they may misinterpret the service
quality

Introduction
17
• The Line of Visibility: separates the front stage (all service activities that
are visible to the customer) and backstage activities (all service activities
that are not visible to the customer).
• The Line of Internal Interaction: separates the customer contact
employees and activities from those who employees and activities that
indirectly support the customer and users.
Study the blueprint for a restaurant shown in Figure1.4.
Tasks
1. Understand the interconnected dyadic nature (i.e., both the marketing
and the management perspectives) and how each perspective may
interact with one another.
2. Identify and discuss the likely fall points (problem areas) which may
take place due to cross- cultural differences of customers and service
providers.
3. Try to find specific cultural characteristics (examples) which may be the
likely causes of these fall points.
4. Discuss how these fall points may be avoided.

Introduction
18
Physical ev
idence
(tangibles)
Parking lot
Exterior and
interior of the
restaurant
Furniture
Decor
Signs
Welcoming staff
or the waiter
(appearance,
grooming, etc.).
waiting area in
the restaurant
Seating
arrangements
Waiter
(appearance,
grooming,
etc.).
Air
conditioning
Lighting and
colour
Music
Waiter
Menu
Table cloth
Plates
Serviettes
Serviette
holders
Cutlery
Pans
Waiter
Menu
Food delivery
Tray
Food and drinks
Food and
drinks
The bill.=The bill
POSmachine
Customer
actions
Arrives at the
restaurant
Waits to be
assigned to a
table
Receives the
menu
Selects food
and drinks to
order
Waits for the
waiter
Gives the order
to the waiter
Receives the food
and drinks
Eats and
drinks
Asks for the
bill
Pays the bill and leaves
Line of Interaction
On-stage employee
contac
t
(e.g.,
we
lcoming staff,
waiter,runner)
Greets the
customers
Directs the
customers to the
waiting area
until the
customers are
shown to their
tables
Directs the
customers to
their tables
Gives the
customers the
menu. Tells
them s/he will
be with the
customers
when they are
ready to order
Takes the order
and gives it to
the kitchen staff
Brings the food to
the table
Asks
customers
whether they
were happy
with the food
Asks for more
orders
Prepares the
bill
Brings the
bill
Processes the bill paid
Line of Visibility
Back-stage employee
contac
t
(e.g.
,r
eceptionist)
Checks the
customers in
Processes the
order –prepares
the food and
drinks
Checks the customers
out
Line of Internal Interactio
n
Support processes
Registration process Prepares food Registration process
Figure1.4 Service blueprint for a restaurant

Introduction
19
Several examples have been provided to show how motivations of tourism and
hospitality customers may be inuenced by their culture. Pine and Gilmore (2011) have
identied four service experience motivations alongside the dimensions of Passive– Active
and Immerse– Absorb (see Figure1.5). The degree of activity is about the extent to which
a customer prefers to remain a passive observer or the extent to which s/ he becomes
an active participant. For instance, as explained in Chapter7, depending on whether
a customer is from a high- uncertainty avoidance culture or low- uncertainty avoidance
culture, s/ he may participate in tourism and hospitality experiences in an active or passive
manner.
As explained in Chapter 7, a customer with a high level of uncertainty avoidance
(risk aversive) may prefer to participate in passive tourism and hospitality experiences
(e.g., taking part in package holidays with a group of people). Again, as explained in
Chapter9, customers’ individualistic or collectivistic orientation may inuence the types
of services in which they want to participate actively or passively. When customers
passively participate in a tourism and hospitality experience, they may have no inuence
on the course of the experience. However, when they participate actively in a tourism
and hospitality service they may have a signicant inuence on the service experience.
When a customer participates passively with entertainment motivation, this activity is
associated with absorption. The aim of participation in this type of experience is to
have fun, which does not require too much activity and commitment on the part of
the customer (Kacprzak etal., 2015). However, an experience with aesthetic motivation
allows customers to immerse themselves in sensations, but do not require participation
from them, for example, a tourist admiring the view of Lake Como in Italy.
The third type of experience is based on educational motivation, which requires active
participation, but the individual customer does not have a major impact on their role in
the experience (Pine and Gilmore, 2011; Kacprzak etal., 2015). For example, a tourist
from an indulgence culture (see Chapter5) can take golf lessons in Antalya, Turkey during
their holidays with an educational motivation. As explained in Chapter10, tourists who
are past- oriented are more likely to have holidays motivated by the intention of sensation
seeking (hedonistic, indulgent) (e.g., 3S– sun, sand, and sea holidays), while tourists who
are future- oriented are more likely to have holidays motivated by the intention of self-
fullment and knowledge enhancement (Miao etal., 2011; Lu etal., 2016).
Finally, the escapist motivation requires the individual customer to both immerse
herself/ himself in the experience and actively inuence the experience (Pine and Gilmore,
2011; Kacprzak etal., 2015). For example, a customer from an individualistic and low-
uncertainty avoidance culture may take part in a mountain climbing holiday in Tibet.
Passive
Absorb
Active
Entertainment Educational
Esthetic Escapist
Immerse
Figure1.5 Service experiences

Introduction
20
The dyadic perspective and approach to business
management
Today much of the knowledge developed in marketing and management rests on
the knowledge developed in relation to businesses and organisations involved in the
production and marketing of tangible products. However, today, with the growth of the
service sector, a signicant proportion of gross domestic product (GDP) in many countries
is produced in the services sector. For instance, in the United States, the UK, France,
the Netherlands, Japan, Germany, and Russia the contribution of the services sector to
the country’s GDP is about 80%, 79.2%, 78.8%, 70.2%, 68.7%, 68.6%, and 62.3%,
respectively (The World Fact Book, 2016). Likewise, the total employment in services in
these countries constitute between 50% and 80% of total employment. Moreover, the
contribution of the service sector to GDP and employment shows signicant growth
every decade. As mentioned previously, as the world’s largest industry, tourism is a service
sector industry, and more than 70% of the largest 100 companies in the world are service
businesses (FORTUNE, 2020).
Hence, publications presenting knowledge about businesses and the business
environment need to reect this transition or transformation. For instance, marketing
and consumer books are expected to present knowledge reecting the dominant inuence
of services, and hence they should be written overwhelmingly from the perspective of
services. Owing to the nature of service characteristics (such as intangibility, inseparability,
heterogeneity, and perishability), as explained previously, production, marketing, and
human resource management functions are signicantly more interconnected in services
than in manufacturing businesses that produce and market tangible products. Therefore
marketing managers in services need to be more knowledgeable about the human
resource management function, while human resources or operations managers need
to be more knowledgeable about the marketing function. As explained previously, this
is why this cross- cultural book has been written with this dyadic perspective in mind,
reecting aspects relating to customers, employees, and managers. In addition to general
service characteristics, the following characteristics of services necessitate an intertwined
approach to the development of knowledge (Koc, 2018):
• Services comprise performances, and unlike tangible products, they are not
manufactured.
• Although the relative importance of technology in services is growing signicantly,
services are more human- based (labour intensive) rather than technology- based.
• The supply of services cannot be easily changed to match uctuations in demand.
• The demand for services can be more seasonal and exible.
• Services involve unique service quality and service delivery problems.
• Overall service quality depends on the quality of intertwined sub- services and process.
Barabba (2004) argues that “make and sell” and “sense and respond” orientations
prevalent in the manufacturing businesses (producing tangible products) in the past are
not suitable for today’s service businesses. Service businesses need to have an “anticipate
and lead” orientation to survive and prosper in today’s competitive markets. According
to Barabba (2004) establishing and sustaining an “anticipate and lead” orientation
requires a high level of interaction and dependence between the marketing, operations
management, and human resource management functions in service businesses. Ruekert
and Walker (1987) also argued that providing a high- quality service, creating unique value

Introduction
21
propositions, development of skills and abilities, and increasing productivity requires
strong cooperation and interaction among human resource management, marketing, and
operations management functions.
Therefore, it could be argued that as service industry businesses, tourism, and hospitality
establishments require a more combined, interlinked, and intertwined approach in the
design and implementation of human resource management, marketing and operati-
onsmanagement (production and operations management of services) functions.
CASE STUDY
Business functions in hospitality
Assume that you work as the human resource manager of a resort hotel in Alicante
in Spain. The hotel has been recently purchased by a young entrepreneur. The new
owner of the hotel wishes to change the concept of the hotel to an all- inclusive
pricing concept in order to increase the hotel’s occupancy rate.
The owner and the general manager arranged an urgent meeting with the
managers and supervisors to take place on Monday the following week. All
managers, including yourself, have been invited to the meeting, except for managers
who had to be away for previously scheduled meetings and commitments. You have
a valid excuse for not attending the meeting. Although you can rearrange your other
commitment and attend this meeting, you do not wish to do so because you believe
that all- inclusive pricing would mainly involve marketing, accounting, and nance
managers and their departments, not your human resource management department.
Whether they attend the meeting or not all managers and supervisors have been
asked to prepare a short report and send it to the general manager in two days. The
report asks the following:
1. Write down the advantages and disadvantages of the all- inclusive pricing
system for the hotel.
2. Write down specic courses of action to reduce costs in the all- inclusive system.
First, try to be as creative as possible, without thinking about the quality
implications of the courses of action you suggest to reduce the costs.
3. Then, write down the potential negative implications of some of the courses of
action you have recommended.
Tasks
1. As the human resource manager, who will not be attending the meeting, write
a report addressing the above three items.
2. Now re- consider your role as the human resource manager of the hotel. Do you
still think that all- inclusive pricing involves only the marketing, accounting,
and nance managers and their departments? Or do you feel that marketing
and human resource management activities are not separate; that is, they are
signicantly interlinked in a tourism and hospitality establishment?

Introduction
22
The context:tourism and hospitality businesses and
the stakeholders
This section provides an overview of the context, that is, the tourism and hospitality
businesses, and the stakeholders, who are inuenced by cross- cultural differences.
The explanations provided throughout the book refer to the tourism and hospitality
businesses, and stakeholders stated below.
Tourism and hospitality businesses
The tourism and hospitality businesses referred to in this book comprise the following
four categories of businesses:
• lodging and accommodation
• food and beverage
• recreation
• travel and tourism.
Lodging and accommodation businesses
Lodging and accommodation businesses comprise hotels, motels, B&Bs, inns, resorts,
apartments, villas, chalets, time- shares that provide accommodation services to
their customers who stay away from their homes for leisure and business purposes.
Accommodation establishments may be classied according to their a) size (number of
rooms, for example, under 50 rooms, over 500 rooms), b) location (e.g., city hotels,
airports, resort hotels), c) level of service (e.g., economy– limited service, luxury), d)
ownership and afliation (e.g., individual or chain hotels), e) market served (e.g., bed-
and- breakfast, all- inclusive, boutique, casino, conference, resort), and f) level/ standard
(e.g., 5- star hotels, AAA rated hotels). People may stay in these hotels to engage in
business and leisure related tourism activities (Table1.4).
Food and beverage businesses
Although people participating in the tourism activities listed in Table1.4 may consume
food and beverages provided at the premises of the listed types of accommodation
establishments, there is a large hospitality market providing food and beverages to its
guests/ customers. Hospitality businesses such as restaurants, cafes, pubs, bars, wine
houses, tea, and coffee houses provide food and beverages to their guests/ customers,
whether they are tourists or not. As one of the largest group of food and beverage
providers, restaurants may be categorised as bistros, ne- dining restaurants, take- aways,
ethnic restaurants, taverns, trattorias, pizzerias, fast- food restaurants, drive- in or drive-
through restaurants, pop- up restaurants, cafes, pubs, luncheonettes, steakhouses, a la
carte restaurants, etc.
Recreation businesses
Recreation businesses may comprise parks, zoos, theatres, concert halls, cinemas, sports,
tness and hobby centres, spas, skiing centres, night clubs, and sporting events organisers
(competitions, cups, and tournaments), etc.

Introduction
23
Travel and tourism businesses
Travel and tourism businesses may comprise tour operators, travel agencies, airports,
airlines, railways, coach businesses, cruise businesses and car rental businesses, etc.
The stakeholders
A stakeholder can be dened as “any group of people organised, who share a common
interest or stake in a particular issue or system” (Grimble and Wellard, 1997:175), and
who can inuence or be inuenced directly or indirectly by using a system (Freeman
1984). Culture inuences the attitudes, behaviours, and systems developed by the
stakeholders. The following tourism and hospitality stakeholders may be inuenced by
cultural differences.
Customers of tourism and hospitality businesses
Customers of tourism and hospitality businesses may comprise, but are not limited to,
guests at hotels, hostels, guest houses, time- shares, restaurants, cruise chips; passengers
in transportation businesses, for example, airlines, railways, coaches; participants in
Table1.4 Types of tourism
3S tourism (sun,
sand, and sea)
Adventure
tourism,
mountain
tourism,
hunting,
fishing
tourism,
Agri/ Agro
tourism, farm
tourism, rural
tourism,
ecotourism
Cultural
tourism
Heritage
tourism
Event tourism
(conferences,
corporate
meetings,
incentives,
weddings,
etc.)
Dark tourism
(thanatourism)
disaster
tourism, war
tourism
Individual
business
tourism
(company
representatives
travelling
for business
purposes)
Nature tourism,
wildlife tourism,
botanical
tourism, safari
tourism, bird
watching
tourism
Sex
tourism
Gastro and
culinary
tourism,
wine
tourism
LGBT tourism
Religious and
faith tourism
Slum/ Ghetto
tourism
Sports tourism,
skiing tourism,
water sports
tourism,
rafting,
paragliding,
golf tourism,
etc.
Medical
tourism,
health
and
wellness
tourism
Educational
tourism
Shopping
tourism,
festival
tourism
Civic tourism Space tourism Exhibitions,
trade shows,
trade fairs
Urban
tourism
Cruising
and yacht
tourism
Gambling
tourism

Introduction
24
any tourism and hospitality- related events. As shown previously in Figure1.2, cultural
characteristics may inuence customers in a variety of ways.
Staff at tourism and hospitality businesses
Staff or employees at tourism and hospitality businesses include all back and front
stage employees, and managers. They may also include people such as entrepreneurs,
managers (e.g., general managers, marketing managers, human resource managers),
employees (e.g., waiters, cooks, cleaners, ticketing ofcers).
As shown in Figure 1.3, cultural characteristics may shape perceptions, emotional
states, attitudes, and outward behaviours of tourism and hospitality employees which
impinge on the success and failure of the business.
Suppliers and intermediaries
Suppliers and intermediaries in tourism and hospitality may be tour operators, travel
agencies, airlines, convention and event organisers, food and beverage providers to
hotels and restaurants, etc. Tourism and hospitality businesses may be affected by how
suppliers and intermediaries operate or interact with them. For instance, service quality
problems in suppliers and intermediaries (e.g., a lack of responsiveness) arising as a result
of cultural characteristics (e.g., polychronism– see Chapter10) may prevent a tourism
and hospitality business from providing a high- quality service to its nal customers.
Tourism authorities
Tourism authorities may comprise tourism ministries, government ofcials, tourism
ofces and bureaus, destination marketing management ofcials, etc. As it can be seen in
the Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report (World Economic Forum, 2019) several
of the measurements in the competitiveness index relate to the performance of tourism
authorities in a country. The cultural characteristics of ofcials in tourism authorities
may inuence the laws, regulations, systems, incentives, and processes they develop.
Consequently, the laws, regulations, systems, incentives, and processes developed by the
authorities inuence the way and which tourism and hospitality businesses operate.
Related industries and businesses and the general public
As mentioned previously, there are as many as 30 industries that may be interlinked
with tourism and hospitality, ranging from food, furniture, transportation, construction,
to durable goods (Koc and Altinay, 2007). Additionally, the cultural characteristics
of a country may inuence the attitudes and behaviours of the general public, or the
society as a whole, towards tourism and hospitality in general, and towards customers,
in particular. For instance, ethnocentricism or xenophobia in a society may inuence
people’s attitudes towards international visitors.
Conclusion
This introductory chapter explains the importance of tourism and hospitality and the
potential inuences of culture on tourism and hospitality activities. Owing to the intense
and frequent social contact between customers and service staff in tourism, there is a
signicant need to understand cross- cultural aspects of tourism and hospitality. This
understanding would help managers design and implement marketing mix elements and

Notes
25
service quality dimensions, which in turn are believed to determine a business’s success
or failure.
The dyadic inuence of culture, that is, from the perspectives of both management
(human resource management and organisational behaviour) and marketing (consumer
behaviour) in tourism and hospitality are explained in Figures1.1, 1.2, and 1.3. The rest
of the book will explore, explain, and discuss the dyadic perspectives of tourism and
hospitality presented in Figures1.1, 1.2, and 1.3.
Questions
1. Explain the three groups of factors that have been influential for the
growth of tourism and hospitality services. What other factors may have
contributed to the growth of tourism and hospitality services? Discuss.
2. What is meant by the dyadic perspective of culture? What does this
dyadic perspective suggest for a marketing and human resources
manager in a tourism or hospitality business?
3. What are the key emotional states, attitudes, and behaviours culture
that may influence customers, employees, and managers? What are the
antecedents of these emotional states, attitudes, and behaviours?
4. Explain the marketing mix and the dimensions of service quality for a
tourism or hospitality business having a cultural perspective in mind.
5. Explain the components of a service blueprint and discuss how cross-
cultural factors may pose potential problems for a tourism or hospitality
business.
6. Explain and discuss Michel de Montaigne’s (1533– 1592) quote “There is
as much difference between us and ourselves as there is between us and
others” from the perspective of analysing cultures from an intercultural
perspective.
Notes
1 In 1996 this gure was estimated to be 3.5%.
2 Risk aversion may be due to cultural and personal factors. Certain cultures are more risk
averse than other cultures as explained in Chapter7.
3 Time orientation as a cultural variable is explained in Chapter11.
4 See Figure1.1 for an example of a service blueprint.
5 Individualism- collectivism as a cultural variable is explained in Chapter9.
6 Feng shui is ancient Chinese wisdom relating to architecture and the built environment.
The basis of feng shui is to achieve a level of harmony between heaven, earth, and human
by providing an equilibrium between nature, building, and people.

References
26
1 An ethnocentrism scale is presented in Chapter1.
1 Although the model of high- and low- context cultures is a popular framework in
interculturalstudies, there have been some criticisms of it, based on the fact that it lacks
empirical validation.
2 After having lived in Turkey for a long period, Hugh Pope, the author of several books
on Turkish culture and identity, such as Sons of the Conquerors (2005), describes Turkish
people (a high- context culture) as people who prefer learning by observing and listening,
rather than reading and investigating.
1 The concept of service recovery paradox and the pertaining research is explained later in
this chapter.
1 In primates, showing the teeth, especially teeth held together, is almost always a sign of
submission and the human smile may have probably evolved from that. When chimpanzees
smile they do it by covering their top teeth and showing their bottom teeth. A human smile
is seen as a threatening expression to chimpanzees. When the chimpanzees are afraid or
when they are trying to be intimidating, they tend to show all their top teeth and do what
we call a “fear grimace.”
2 The main thrust of this study came from an anecdote explained in Chapter7 of Gladwell’s
(2008) book Outliers:The Story of Succes. This anecdote, explained in the above case
study, shows the signicant inuence of power distance in communication and its likely
drastic consequences.
1 As a consequence of Covid-19 epidemic, experienced by people in the world in 2020,
people may not feel comfortable with touch and being in close physical distance with
others and may avoid social relations to some ex tent.
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