Wild edible fruits generate substantial income for local people of the Gunung Leuser National Park, Aceh Tamiang Region

Abstract

Background: Gunung Leuser National Park offers a variety of wild edible fruit species (WEFs) with food, nutrition, medicine, and economic value to the local people. In recent times, these WEFs have been threatened by over-exploitation, land-use changes, and biodiversity loss. This study aims to investigate the diversity of WEFs and their contribution to household income for communities living around the National Park.

Full text

Manuscript received: 27/04/2019 – Revised manuscript received: 27/06/2020 - Published: 14/07/2020
http://dx.doi.org/10.32859/era.20.11.1-13
Wild edible fruits generate
substantial income for
local people of the
Gunung Leuser National
Park, Aceh Tamiang
Region
Adi Bejo Suwardi, Zidni Ilman Navia, Tisna Harmawan,
Syamsuardi, Erizal Mukhtar
Research
Abstract
Background: Gunung Leuser National Park offers a
variety of wild edible fruit species (WEFs) with food,
nutrition, medicine, and economic value to the local
people. In recent times, these WEFs have been
threatened by over-exploitation, land-use changes,
and biodiversity loss. This study aims to investigate
the diversity of WEFs and their contribution to
household income for communities living around the
National Park.
Methods: The study was conducted in three sub-
districts adjacent to Gunung Leuser National Park.
The plant materials were randomly collected from
three sub-districts, while local knowledge was
gathered through a structured survey and in-depth
interviews. The informant sample comprised 450
people, 150 from each of the three sub-districts.
Results: A total of 54 wild edible fruit plants belonging
to 41 genera and 27 families were recorded in the
study area. Thirty-nine (72.22 %) species were found
growing in forests, 12 (22.22 %) species in farmland,
and 3 (5.56%) species occur in the bush. Several
species have economic value including Baccaurea
macrophylla (Müll.Arg.) Müll.Arg., Baccaurea
polyneura Hook.f., Diospyros kaki L.f., Flacourtia
rukam Zoll.&Moritzi, Garcinia atroviridis Griff. ex
T.Anderson, Garcinia xanthochymus Hook.f. ex
T.Anderson, Lansium domesticum Corrêa,
Mangifera foetida Lour., Mangifera odorata Griff.,
Mangifera laurina Blume, Nephelium cuspidatum
Blume, Passiflora edulis Sims., Pometia pinnata J.R.
Forst. & G. Forst., Syzygium aqueum (Burm. f.)
Alston, and Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & L.M.
Perry. These fruits formed a source of household
income and were harvested by approximately 82%
of respondents. The sale of WEFs contributed
approximately 34.31% of the total annual household
income. These findings confirm the assumption that
WEFs are important for the generation of household
income.
Conclusion: This study demonstrates the importance
of WEFs to local communities in Aceh Tamiang,
Indonesia, particularly rural communities living near
Gunung Palung National Park. WEFs play an
important role in rural livelihoods by ensuring food,
medicine, and sustained income. Policies and
legislation involving stakeholders are required to
ensure the cultivation, management, sustainable
use, and promotion of WEFs in order to encourage
the economic growth of the rural community in the
Aceh Tamiang region.
Correspondence
Adi Bejo Suwardi1*, Zidni Ilman Navia2, Tisna
Harmawan3, Syamsuardi4, Erizal Mukhtar4
1Department of Biology Education, Faculty of
Teacher Training and Education, Samudra
University, Langsa, Aceh, 24416, Indonesia
2Department of Biology, Faculty of Engineering,
Samudra University, Langsa, Aceh, 24416,
Indonesia
3Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Engineering,
Samudra University, Langsa, Aceh, 24416,
Indonesia
4Department of Biology, Faculty of Mathematics and
Sciences, Andalas University, Kampus Limau Manis
Padang, 25163, West Sumatra, Indonesia
*Corresponding Author: adi.mipa@gmail.com
Ethnobotany Research & Applications
20:11 (2020)
Key words: Aceh Tamiang district, biodiversity,
economics, household, value addition

Ethnobotany Research and Applications
2
ABSTRAK
Pendahuluan: Taman nasional Gunung Leuser
memiliki berbagai jenis tumbuhan buah edible liar
yang dimanfaatkan oleh masyarakat pedesaan,
terutama sebagai sumber pangan, nutrisi, obat-
obatan, dan dapat menjadi sumber pendapatan
keluarga. Saat initumbuhan buah liar terancam oleh
eksploitasi berlebihan, perubahan penggunaan
lahan, dan kehilangan keanekaragaman jenis.
Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk menginvestigasi
keanekaragaman jenis tumbuhan buah edibel liar
dan kontribusinya terhadap pendapatan keluarga
bagi masyarakat yang tinggal di sekitar Taman
Nasional Gunung Leuser.
Metode: Penelitian dilakukan pada tiga Kecamatan
yang berbatasan langsung dengan Taman Nasional
Gunung Leuser. Sampel tumbuhan dikumpulkan
secara acak dari tiga kecamatan, sementara itu,
pengetahuan masyarakat dinilai dengan survey dan
wawancara. Data diambil dengan melibatkan 450
orang dengan masing-masing 150 orang di setiap
kecamatan.
Hasil: Sebanyak 54 jenis tumbuhan buah edible liar
yang terdiri dari 41 marga dan 27 keluarga telah
ditemukan selama penelitian. Sebanyak 39 (72.22
%) jenis ditemukan di hutan, 12 (22,22%) jenis di
kebun, dan 3 (5,56%) jenis ditemukan di semak
belukar. Beberapa jenis yang memiliki nilai ekonomi
diantaranya Baccaurea macrophylla (Müll.Arg.)
Müll.Arg., Baccaurea polyneura Hook.f., Diospyros
kaki L.f., Flacourtia rukam Zoll.&Moritzi, Garcinia
atroviridis Griff. ex T.Anderson, Garcinia
xanthochymus Hook.f. ex T.Anderson, Lansium
domesticum Corrêa, Mangifera foetida Lour.,
Mangifera odorata Griff., Mangifera laurina Blume,
Nephelium cuspidatum Blume, Passiflora edulis
Sims., Pometia pinnata J.R. Forst. & G. Forst.,
Syzygium aqueum (Burm. f.) Alston, and Syzygium
malaccense (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry. Tumbuhan
tersebut menjadi sumber pendapatan keluarga dan
dipanen oleh sekitar 82% responden. Penjulan
tumbuhan tersebut berkontribusi sebesar 34,31%
terhadap total pendapatan tahunan keluarga. Hasil
penelitian ini mengasumsikan bahwa tumbuhan
buah edible liar ini sangat penting dalam mendukung
ekonomi keluarga.
Kesimpulan: Penelitian ini menunjukkan tingkat
kepentingan tumbuhan buah edible liar bagi
masyarakat di Aceh Tamiang, Indonesia, terutama
yang tinggal di sekitar Taman Nasional Gunung
Leuser. Tumbuhan buah edible liar berperan penting
dalam mendukung kehidupan masyarakat pedesaan
sebagai sumber pangan, nutrisi, obat-obatan dan
penghasilan keluarga. Kebijakan dan peraturan
yang melibatkan semua pemangku kepentingan
diperlukan untuk mendukung budidaya, manajemen,
pemanfaatan berkelanjutan, dan promosi WEFs
dalam rangka mendorong pertumbuhan ekonomi
masyarakat pedesaan di wilayah Aceh Tamiang.
Background
Wild edible fruit plants (WEFs) refer to fruit plants
growing in the natural habitat (Shava 2005). Wild
plants form an important part of the human diet;
almost 75,000 plant species are known to be edible
(Diamond 2002; Leonti et al. 2006). These plants
are generally grown in different habitats such as
forests, cultivable fields, and even anthropogenically
disturbed areas such as roadsides and wastelands
(Beluhan & Ranogajec 2010). WEFs have played a
significant role in the livelihoods of rural communities
in developing countries (Mwema et al. 2012; Mabaya
et al. 2014; Khruomo & Deb 2018) due to their
nutritional and medicinal value (Biswas et al. 2018).
WEFs provide vitamins and minerals that are
essential for the maintenance of human health (Saka
& Msonthi 1994; Navia et al. 2015; Suwardi et al.
2018). Many WEFs contain more vitamin C than the
commercial species and are capable of providing
macro and micronutrients in the diet (Bvenura &
Sivakumar 2007). They also provide a similar taste,
flavor, and aroma as cultivated fruit plants (Suwardi
et al. 2019a). In addition, WEFs are also important
sources of traditional beverages, food recipes, oil,
medicines, fodder, firewood, and building materials
for rural communities (Maghembe et al. 1998;
Suwardi et al. 2019b; Navia et al. 2020; Suwardi et
al. 2020a). Local communities are known to possess
extensive knowledge about the use of local plants as
food and for other purposes (Sundriyal et al. 1998).
Local people should enjoy continuous access to their
natural habitats so that they maintain and improve
their knowledge on the collection and preparation of
food from wild edible plant resources (Somnasang &
MorenoBlack 2000).
Gunung Leuser National Park (GLNP), one of the
world heritage sites was considered to be a hot spot
of tropical fruit plants in Sumatra. Approximately
4,000 species of flora are found in this area (Wiratno
et al. 2004). More than one million people live around
the GLNP (Wiratno et al. 2004), and rely on forest
resources for income and livelihood security. Fruits
as one of the non-timber forest products offer
potential to enhance the economic conditions of local
communities (Deb et al. 2013). Oryema et al. (2013)
reported that several WEFs have been identified as
being consumed in large quantities, while also
significantly contributing to the livelihoods of the local
community in Gulu District, Uganda. For the local
people in Riau Province, Indonesia, sales of WEFs
accounted for 38% of the total annual family income

Ethnobotany Research and Applications
3
(Pardede et al. 2018). Similarly, the communities in
Central Aceh, Indonesia and the Eastern Nuba
Mountains of Sudan obtained 43% and 0-100% of
the total annual family income from sold WEFs
(Salih-Kamal & Ali, 2014; Navia et al., 2020). WEFs
are therefore considered vital to sustaining rural
livelihoods, reduce rural poverty, and promote rural
economic growth (Maske et al. 2011; Ahenkan &
Boon 2011). Underutilization, high population
growth, and land-use changes including the
expansion of agricultural sector leading to
deforestation have also to lead to loss of diversity of
the WEFs (Ohiokpehai 2003; Bagra et al. 2006;
Navia et al. 2020; Suwardi et al. 2020b), even in
GLNP. WCS (2019) reported that about 4,685 ha of
GLNP forests had been converted to agricultural
land between 2000 and 2017, which also drove
biodiversity loss. Loss of various species, in
particular WEFs, will lead to increased food
insecurity (Lulekal et al. 2011; Addis et al. 2013).
Therefore, this study aims to investigate the diversity
of WEFs and their contribution to household income
for communities living around Gunung Leuser
National Park, Aceh Tamiang Region.
Materials and methods
Study area
The study was conducted in three sub-districts of
Aceh Tamiang districts (03°53'N, 97°43'E, 700 m
a.s.l.), Aceh province, Indonesia including
Tenggulun, Tamiang Hulu, and Bandar Pusaka as
shown in Figure 1. These areas are typically forested
and part of the buffer zone of the Gunung Leuser
National Park. These areas have a tropical humid
climate with a dry season mainly occurring from
January to June, while the rainy season lasts from
July to December. The rainfall ranges between 406
and 2,886 mm per year with 20 – 158 rainy days and
the average temperature is around 260 - 300C. The
topography is generally mountainous and the zone is
characterized by a cropping system (The Central
Bureau of Statistics of Aceh Tamiang Regency,
2019).
Data collection
The present investigation of WEFs was based on an
extensive field survey carried out from April to
September 2018. Information on WEFs was
obtained through participatory observations. The
study involved a total of 450 respondents (150
individuals from each sub-district), who were
selected through simple random sampling, with
different background characteristics such as sex,
age group, religion, marital status, tribe, and local
language (Table 1). A questionnaire was prepared
with four sections, namely: background
characteristics of the respondents, collections and
harvestings, sales, and other values of WEFs
(Appendix 1). The questionnaire also included the
amount of fruit harvested per year and income
secured from fruit sales. The interview was
conducted face to face in the Indonesian language
and each interview lasted between 30 and 60
minutes.
Table 1. Demographic characteristics of respondents
Baseline Characteristics
Number
(Total =
450)
Percentage
Gender
Male
214
47.56
Female
236
52.44
Age
20-30
96
21.33
31-40
148
32.89
41-50
122
27.11
51-60
64
14.22
>60
20
4.44
Religion
Islam
450
100
Marital status
Single
32
6.22
Married
406
91.11
Widowed
12
2.67
Tribe
Acehnese
96
21.33
Tamiang
235
52.22
Javanese
119
26.44
Local language
Acehnese
96
21.33
Malay
235
52.22
Javanese
119
26.44
Data analysis
The contribution of WEFs to household income was
estimated as a percentage of the total annual
household income generated by WEFs sales.
Computations were made in Microsoft Office Excel
2016.

Ethnobotany Research and Applications
4
Figure 1. Map of Aceh Tamiang district showing the three study areas, Bandar Pusaka, Tamiang Hulu and
Tenggulun sub-districts
Results
A total of 54 wild edible fruit plants, consisting of 41
genera and 27 families, were identified in the study
area. Sapindaceae was the largest family
contributing six species, followed by Meliaceae (5
species), Clusiaceae (4 species), and Myrtaceae (4
species). Anacardiaceae, Fagaceae, Malvaceae,
and Phyllantaceae contributed three species each
(Table 2).
Thirty-nine (72.22 %) species were found growing in
forests, 12 (22.22 %) species in farmland, and 3
(5.56%) species occurred in the bush. The mean
number of WEFs identified by each age group of
respondents ranged from 15.8±2.05 (20-30 years) to
50.31±3.22 (41-50 years). Several WEFs have been
recognized for all ages including Langsat (Lansium
domesticum Corrêa), Kuwini (Mangifera odorata
Griff.), Macang (Mangifera foetida Lour.), Asam pauh
(Mangifera laurina Blume), Tampoi (Baccaurea
macrophylla (Müll.Arg.) Müll.Arg.), Jentik
(Baccaurea polyneura Hook.f.), Ceri (Prunus
beccarii (Ridley) Kalkman), Jambu air (Syzygium
garciniifolium (King) Merr. & L.M.Perry), Jambu bol
(Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & L.M. Perry),
Asam kandis (Garcinia xanthochymus Hook.f. ex
T.Anderson) and Asam gelugur (Garcinia atroviridis
Griff. ex T.Anderson). While Durian enggang (Durio
griffithii (Mast.) Bakh.), Jengkol hutan (Archidendron
borneense I.C. Nielsen), Rambutan hutan
(Nephelium juglandifolium Blume), and Peralih
(Garcinia nigrolineata Planch. ex T.Anderson) are
several examples for such less known species.
The respondents explained that the harvesting of
WEFs is carried out mostly by men compared to
women. Several of the WEFs such as Baccaurea
macrophylla, B. polyneura, Diospyros kaki,
Flacourtia rukam, Garcinia atroviridis, G.
xanthochymus, Lansium domesticum, Mangifera
foetida, M. odorata, M. laurina, Nephelium
cuspidatum, Passiflora edulis, Pometia pinnata,
Syzygium malaccense, and S. aqueum were
harvested by 82% of the respondents. The majority
of respondents collected between 10 to 200 kg of
WEFs for sale or consumption by themselves. L.
domesticum and M. foetida were found to be
harvested in large quantities (more than 100 kg).
Approximately 40 % of respondents reported that
they only harvested small quantities of WEFs such
as Castanopsis costata (Blume) A.DC, Eleiodoxa
conferta (Griff.) Burret., and Garcinia nigrolineata
Planch. ex T. Anders.
Value addition
According to the local people, a total of 15 species
have additional values and are utilized as medicines,
additive, juice, pickles, chutney, and in dried forms
(Table 3).

Ethnobotany Research and Applications
5
Most fruits were consumed raw and fresh, but
several were consumed as pickles (M. foetida, M.
odorata, M. laurina, S. aqueum, S. garciniifolium,
and S. malaccense), chutney (M. foetida, M. odorata,
and M. laurina), or as an additive (G. atroviridis, G.
xanthochymus, and Syzygium polyanthum (Wight)
Walp). Few species were processed into juice (M.
foetida, M. odorata, and M. laurina). In addition, B.
macrophylla is used as traditional medicine for the
treatment of ringworm, while Santiria laevigata
Blume, and Momordica balsamina L. are used in the
treatment of diarrhea.
Contribution of WEFs to household income
Local communities in the study area collect WEFs for
sale in the traditional market, roadsides, or
neighborhood. Species, traded part, average
quantity, and the market price of WEFs that were
sold by local communities in the study area are
shown in Table 4. Approximately 85.5% of
respondents sold WEFs. Trading of WEFs were
dominated by women compared to men. The highest
quantity of fruits sold were M. foetida (200 ± 12.24
kg), and L. parasiticum (200 ± 10.54 kg), followed by
M. odorata (160 ± 2.82 kg), S. malaccense (100 ±
12.37 kg), S. aqueum (100 ± 13.65 kg), and D. kaki
(60 ± 4.21 kg). Several WEFs such as L.
domesticum, N. cuspidatum, and M. foetida are sold
in traditional markets or promoted on the roadside by
local people. Among fruit species, M. foetida and M.
odorata have high market price of around IDR
15,000-20,000 per kg, followed by L. domesticum
(IDR 12,0000-15,000), D. kaki, G. atroviridis (IDR
10,000-12,000 kg-1), and P. edulis (IDR 10,000 kg-
1). The mean income earned through the selling of
WEFs by the households is IDR 13,220,000 per
year, with the mean income of each respondent
being IDR 1,101,667 per month. Of all households
selling WEFs, 68% earned less than 25,000,000
Indonesian Rupiah (IDR) annually, while 32%
earned more than 25,000,000 IDR. The mean total
annual contribution to the household income from
selling of WEFs was around 34.41%.
Table 2. Wild edible fruits in the study area
Scientific Name
Family
Local Name
Lifeforms
Habitat
Co. No
Actinodaphne cuneata (Blume)
Boerl.
Lauraceae
Medang
Tree
F
ATAM-22
Adenia macrophylla (Blume)
Koord.
Passifloraceae
Climber
F
ATAM-20
Aglaia tomentosa Teijsm. & Binn.
Meliaceae
Tree
F
ATAM-19
Aporosa benthamiana Hook.f.
Phyllantaceae
Kayu asam
Tree
F
ATAM-35
Archidendron borneense I.C.
Nielsen
Leguminosae
Jengkol hutan
Tree
F
ATAM-21
Baccaurea macrophylla
(Müll.Arg.) Müll.Arg.
Phyllantaceae
Tampoi
Tree
F
ATAM-17
Baccaurea polyneura Hook.f.
Phyllantaceae
Jentik
Tree
F
ATAM-46
Blumeodendron tokbrai (Blume)
Kurz
Euphorbiaceae
Bantas
Tree
F
ATAM-41
Canarium littorale Blume
Burseraceae
Kenari
Tree
F
ATAM-45
Castanopsis costata (Blume)
A.DC
Fagaceae
Berangan
gunung
Tree
F
ATAM-25
Cheilosa montana Blume
Euphorbiaceae
Tree
F
ATAM-43
Chisocheton patens Blume
Meliaceae
Tree
F
ATAM-24
Diospyros kaki L.f.
Ebenaceae
Kesemek
Tree
FL
ATAM-07
Durio griffithii (Mast.) Bakh.
Malvaceae
Durian
enggang
Tree
F
ATAM-32
Dysoxylum alliaceum (Blume)
Blume
Meliaceae
Tree
F
ATAM-40
Dysoxylum cyrtobotryum Miq.
Meliaceae
Tree
F
ATAM-29
Eleiodoxa conferta (Griff.) Burret.
Arecaceae
Salak Hutan
Palm
F
ATAM-16
Ficus lepicarpa Blume
Moraceae
Ara
Tree
F
ATAM-18
Flacourtia rukam Zoll. &Moritzi
Flacourtiaceae
Rukam
Tree
FL
ATAM-04
Garcinia atroviridis Griff. ex
T.Anderson
Clusiaceae
Asam
Gelugur
Tree
FL
ATAM-09
Garcinia nervosa (Miq.) Miq.
Clusiaceae
Manggis
hutan
Tree
F
ATAM-34

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6
Garcinia nigrolineata Planch. ex
T.Anderson
Clusiaceae
Peralih
Tree
F
ATAM-28
Garcinia xanthochymus Hook.f. ex
T.Anderson
Clusiaceae
Asam kandis
Tree
F
ATAM-54
Glycosmis parviflora (Sims) Little
Rutaceae
Urot Merah
Shrub
F
ATAM-23
Grewia laevigata Vahl
Malvaceae
Tree
F
ATAM-49
Helicia robusta (Roxb.) R.Br. ex
Blume
Proteaceae
Tree
F
ATAM-31
Horsfieldia superba (Hook.f. &
Thomson) Warb.
Myristicaceae
Tree
F
ATAM-36
Knema laurina (Blume) Warb.
Myristicaceae
Dedarah
Tree
F
ATAM-38
Lansium domesticum Corrêa
Meliaceae
Langsat
Tree
FL
ATAM-06
Lepisanthes fruticosa (Roxb.)
Leenh.
Sapindaceae
Rambutan
biabak
Tree
F
ATAM-37
Lepisanthes amoena (Haask.)
Leenh.
Sapindaceae
Tree
F
ATAM-26
Lithocarpus echinulatus
Soepadmo
Fagaceae
Tree
F
ATAM-27
Lithocarpus indutus (Blume)
Rehder
Fagaceae
Tree
F
ATAM-33
Mangifera foetida Lour.
Anacardiaceae
Macang
Tree
FL
ATAM-01
Mangifera odorata Griff.
Anacardiaceae
Kuweni
Tree
FL
ATAM-02
Mangifera laurina Blume
Anacardiaceae
Asam pauh
Tree
FL
ATAM-03
Microcos latistipulata (Ridl.) Burret
Malvaceae
Tree
F
ATAM-47
Momordica balsamina L.
Cucurbitaceae
Pare hutan
Climber
B
ATAM-13
Nephelium cuspidatum Blume
Sapindaceae
Kapulasan
Tree
FL
ATAM-05
Nephelium juglandifolium Blume
Sapindaceae
Rambutan
hutan
Tree
F
ATAM-30
Passiflora edulis Sims.
Passifloraceae
Markisa
kuning
Climber
B
ATAM-15
Physalis angulata L.
Solanaceae
Ciplukan
Herb
B
ATAM-14
Polyspora oblongifolia (Miq.) Orel,
Peter G.Wilson, Curry & Luu
Theaceae
Tree
F
ATAM-44
Pometia pinnata J.R. Forst. & G.
Forst.
Sapindaceae
Matoa hutan
Tree
F
ATAM-48
Pouteria viridis (Pittier) Cronquist
Sapotaceae
Tree
F
ATAM-42
Prunus beccarii (Ridley) Kalkman
Rosaceae
Buah Ceri
Tree
FL
ATAM-08
Santiria laevigata Blume
Burseraceae
Kedondong
tunjuk
Tree
F
ATAM-53
Solanum betaceum Cav.
Solanaceae
Shrub
F
ATAM-39
Syzygium garciniifolium (King)
Merr. & L.M.Perry
Myrtaceae
Jambu
Tree
FL
ATAM-11
Syzygium polyanthum (Wight)
Walp
Myrtaceae
Salam
Tree
F
ATAM-10
Syzygium aqueum (Burm. f.)
Alston
Myrtaceae
Jambu Air
Tree
FL
ATAM-12
Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. &
L.M. Perry
Myrtaceae
Jambu Bol
Tree
FL
ATAM-52
Voacanga foetida (Blume) Rolfe
Apocynaceae
Telur
kambing
Tree
F
ATAM-51
Xerospermum noronhianum
(Blume) Blume
Sapindaceae
Tree
F
ATAM-50
Note:
Co. No = collection number
Habitat: B = Bush; F = Forest; FL = Farm land

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Table 3. Species with their value addition
Scientific name
Plant
part
Medicine
Additive
Juice
Pickle
Chutney
Dried
Mangifera foetida
Fruit



Mangifera odorata
Fruit



Mangifera laurina
Fruit



Microcos latistipulata
Leaves

Momordica balsamina
Fruit

Garcinia atroviridis
Fruit



Garcinia
xanthochymus
Fruit

Syzygium aqueum
Fruit

Syzygium
garciniifolium
Fruit

Syzygium malaccense
Fruit

Santiria laevigata
Leave

Baccaurea
macrophylla
Leave

Physalis angulata
Leave

Syzygium polyanthum
Leave

Voacanga foetida
Leave

Table 4. Wild edible fruit plants commercialized in the study area
Scientific name
Trade part
Marketing (n=450)
Mean quantity per
respondent (kg)
Market Price
(IDR/kg)
Baccaurea macrophylla
Fruit
50 ± 1.05
8,000 ± 408.24
Baccaurea polyneura
Fruit
25 ± 2.75
6,000 ± 712.19
Diospyros kaki
Fruit
60 ± 4.21
12,000 ± 1,290.99
Flacourtia rukam
Fruit
10 ± 1.94
5,000 ± 308.11
Garcinia atroviridis
Fruit
50 ± 1.53
12,000 ± 1,312.33
Garcinia xanthochymus
Fruit
50 ± 1.93
5,000 ± 406.25
Lansium domesticum
Fruit
200 ± 10.54
15,000 ± 471.41
Mangifera foetida
Fruit
200 ± 12.24
20,000 ± 2,818.59
Mangifera odorata
Fruit
160 ± 2.82
20,000 ± 2,581.57
Mangifera laurina
Fruit
50 ± 1.08
7,000 ± 1,490.71
Nephelium cuspidatum
Fruit
40 ± 2.10
7,000 ± 1,220.19
Passiflora edulis
Fruit
50 ± 1.23
10,000 ± 1,228.29
Pometia pinnata
Fruit
40 ± 2.16
8,000 ± 302.18
Syzygium malaccense
Fruit
100 ± 12.37
8,000 ± 430.21
Syzygium aqueum
Fruit
100 ± 13.65
8,000 ± 204.56
* Mean ± Standard deviation
Note: 1 USD = 14,500 IDR in August 12, 2018 from id.exchange-rates.org

Ethnobotany Research and Applications
8
Discussion
A total of 54 wild edible fruit species belonging to 41
genera and 27 families were identified in the study
areas. Most WEFs were found to grow wild in the
forest, while several WEFs such as Kuwini (M.
odorata) and Mancang (M. foetida) have been found
to have a natural occurrence in the farmlands. The
harvesting of WEFs is carried out by men compared
to women. Men make more frequent visits to the
forest to gather fuelwood and hunt animals, which
explains this. This study differs from the report by
Mahapatra & Panda (2012) from the state of Orissa,
India, which gathers most of the wild fruits of women
compared to men. Differences between genders in
the collection of WEFs are influenced by different
objectives, perceptions, interests, and access to
resources between communities. In this study area,
men collect WEFs while also collecting fuelwood or
hunting animals. A similar method of the collection
was reported in localities of Peru (Phillips & Gentry
1993), and in Botswana (Legwaila et al. 2011). The
intensity of use of WEFs has been reported on the
characteristics of the plants used and the livelihood
of the people (Shrestha & Dhillion 2006; Suresh et
al. 2014). WEFs have been associated with the
traditions and culture of local peoples (Bussmann et
al. 2006; Medley & Kalibo 2007; Addis et al. 2013).
The high diversity of WEFs in the study area shows
that local people possess traditional knowledge
about local plant species that provide food. Local
people tend to take advantage of a variety of plants
that are more accessible or abundant locally
(Srivastava 1988). The number of species recorded
in this study is comparable to the 56 wild edible fruit
species (26 families) reported from the Orissa state
of India (Mahapatra & Panda 2012), and 56 species
(24 families) in South Aceh, Indonesia (Suwardi et al.
2020b). However, it is also higher than the 44
species reported from the West Aceh, Indonesia
(Suwardi et al. 2019b), 38 species from the Gayo
Highlands of Indonesia (Navia et al. 2020), 33
species from Rupandehi district, Nepal (Acharya &
Acharya 2010), 27 species from Shorobe, Northern
Botswana (Neudeck et al. 2012), 12 species from
Uttara Kannada district of Karnataka (Hebbar et al.
2010), and 11 species reported from Dera Ismail
Khan district of northwestern Pakistan (Marwat et al.
2011). This variance in the diversity of WEFs has
been attributed to disparities in culture and location
(Arora & Anjula 1996).
During the discussions, the respondents stated that
M. foetida and M. odorata are the most preferred fruit
species because of their sweet taste and fragrant
smell. This is similar to that report of Navia et al.
(2020) that M. foetida and M. odorata were the most
popular and preferred fruits by the community in
Central Aceh, Indonesia. The taste was an important
criterion for the preference for fruit (Sujarwo et al.
2015; Navia et al. 2020). Most WEFs have sweet or
a slightly sour taste and are preferred by local people
in the study area which is comparable to cultivated
fruits. WEFs offer various essential nutrients to
maintain human health. For example, M. foetida fruit
is reported to have a high nutritional (Tee et al. 1997)
and antioxidant content (Tyug et al. 2010), and is
essential to supplement nutrients in the community.
In addition, G. atroviridis fruits contain potassium
hydroxycitrate that helps to reduce cholesterol (Jena
et al. 2002), and may be used in the treatment of
obesity (Mattes & Bornmann 2000; Tisdale et al.
2003; Preuss et al. 2004; Hamidon et al. 2017).
Most WEFs are eaten fresh by the local community
in the study area, but several species have additional
value. M. odorata and M. laurina are used for juice,
pickles, and chutneys, while M. foetida, S. aqueum,
S. garciniifolium, and S. malaccense are used for
pickle. This study is in line with the report of Tyug et
al. (2010) from Malaysia, where M. foetida is used as
pickles. G. atroviridis has traditionally been used in
food preparation and cooking, mainly to make food
more filling. Clouatre & Rosenbaum (1994) reported
that G. atroviridis contains HCA (Hydroxy citric acid)
and is traditionally used to make meals more filling.
In addition, G. atroviridis fruit is cut into thin slabs,
dehydrated by sun-drying, and stored for a certain
period before being used as an ingredient or sold on
the market. Its preparation method is similar to that
reported by Rittirut & Siripatana (2006) from
Thailand, where the community often dried G.
atroviridis thin slabs by sun-drying in the air and kept
them before entering the juice production process.
The respondents state that the value addition of
WEFs may increase the price of the product by three
to four times. For example, M. foetida in raw fruit form
is sold in traditional markets at IDR 20,000 kg-1,
whereas, it may increase to IDR 40,000 kg-1 if
processed into mango juice. Diversification of
products is expected to increase profits, which are a
good source of income for the community. The
diversification of products of several wild fruits has
already been adopted in other areas and reported as
highly remunerative (Maikhuri et al. 1998). The fruit
of M. balsamina was used as traditional medicine for
the treatment of diarrhea by people in the Bandar
Pusaka sub-district. Aqueous extract from M.
balsamina showed an antidiarrheal effect (Otimenyin
et al. 2008) and is being used in Nigeria for the
management of diarrhea (Thakur et al. 2009). The
leaves of B. macrophylla are used in the treatment of
ringworm, while leaves of S. laevigata were used in
the treatment of diarrhea. In addition, G. atroviridis is

Ethnobotany Research and Applications
9
traditionally used to treat cough and stomach pains.
This fruit has been reported to have bioactive
compounds such as saponins, phenolic, flavonoids,
and anthraquinone glycosides (Roslan et al. 2019).
It is traditionally used by the communities in Riau,
Indonesia for pain in the ears, dandruff, cough, and
stomach (Grosvenor et al. 1995; Alsarhan et al.
2014).
In the Aceh Tamiang region, all commerce and trade
activities primarily are conducted in the local market.
The frequency of the market days and the demand
for goods depends on the socio-economic conditions
of the people in the area. These markets serve as
collection points for local products as well as for the
distribution of goods. A variety of items are sold in
this market. Some of the common products are fruits,
vegetables, grains, agricultural produce, animals,
and their by-products. In the study area, women and
children usually sell WEFs in limited quantities door
to door or on the roadside around villages. Similar
methods have been reported from Gweta village,
Bostwana (Badimo et al. 2015), in East Kalimantan,
Indonesia (Koizumi 2005), and in Nepal (Shrestha &
Dhillion 2006). However, when the quantity of WEFs
is harvested in large quantities, they are sold in
traditional local markets. The sale of WEFs provides
income used to meet several family needs such as
buying food or paying school fees. Sale of WEFs can
provide 34.41% of the total annual family income in
the study area. This contribution of WEFs is lower
than reported by Pardede et al. (2018) from Riau
Province, Indonesia where they accounted for 38%
of the total annual family income, and in Central
Aceh, Indonesia (43%) (Navia et al. 2020).
WEFs in Aceh Tamiang region offers diverse
benefits to the communities. These plants grow
abundantly in the wild and have economic potential
as a source of household income. However, efforts
should be made to domesticate or cultivate them in
the communities’ farmlands outside the GLNP area.
Training and technology transfer must be provided to
local communities to support the cultivation of WEFs.
These activities must be supported by the
Indonesian government through the Aceh Tamiang
District Agriculture Office to emphasize the
domesticating of WEFs in providing economic
values. Intensive cultivation of WEFs may also
reduce the dependence of communities on the
GLNP. As a result, in addition to providing economic
benefits, the domestication of WEFs is also a
conservation strategy for WEFs in the GLNP. The
marketing of WEFs continues to be a challenge,
especially for local people who are engaged in this
business. The promotion and marketing efforts of
WEFs must be carried out intensively. Fortunately,
the Aceh Tamiang region is an attractive tourist
destination for both natural and cultural tourism,
visited by millions of tourists every year. The
Indonesian government through the Aceh Tamiang
District Tourism, Youth, and Sports Office must be
involved in promoting WEFs. Intensively promoting
and marketing WEFs will have more positive impact
on the economic growth of the people in the Aceh
Tamiang region.
Conclusions and recommendations
A total of 54 WEFs belonging to 27 families and 41
genera were found in the study area. Thirty-nine
(72.22 %) species were found growing in forests, 12
(22.22 %) species in farmland, and 3 (5.56%)
species occur in the bush. Several species have
economic value including Baccaurea macrophylla,
Baccaurea polyneura, Diospyros kaki, Flacourtia
rukam, Garcinia atroviridis, Garcinia xanthochymus,
Lansium domesticum, Mangifera foetida, Mangifera
odorata, Mangifera laurina, Nephelium cuspidatum,
Passiflora edulis, Pometia pinnata, Syzygium
malaccense, and Syzygium aqueum. The sale of
WEFs contributed approximately 34.31% to the total
annual household income, and are thus relevant to
household food security. Policies and legislations
developed by involving all stakeholders are required
to ensure the cultivation, management, sustainable
use, and promotion of WEFs in order to encourage
the economic growth of the rural community in the
Aceh Tamiang region.
Declarations
List of abbreviations: WEFs = Wild edible fruit
species; GLNP = Gunung Leuser National Park; a.s.l
= above sea level.
Availability of data and materials: Data will be
available from the corresponding author on special
request.
Ethical approval and consent to participate:
Permission was taken from the subdistrict heads of
Tenggulun, Tamiang Hulu, and Bandar Pusaka prior
to data collection. Oral informed consent was
obtained from all informants.
Consent for publication: Not applicable.
Conflict of interests: The authors declare no
competing interests.
Funding: The study received funding from the
Ministry of Research, Technology, and Higher
Education, the Republic of Indonesia.
Authors’ contributions: ABS and TH carried out
fieldwork, data analysis, and drafted the manuscript.
ZIN configured the research project. The work was
supervised by S and EM. All authors read, reviewed,
and approved the final version of the manuscript.

Ethnobotany Research and Applications
10
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to the Directorate General of the
Ministry of Research, Technology, and Higher
Education, the Republic of Indonesia for the
Collaborative Research Grant we received. We
would also like to thank all local people who assisted
and cooperated in this study.
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Appendix 1. Survey Questionnaire for Identification of indigenous edible fruit plants to promote diversification and
food security in Aceh Province, Indonesia
No. of Respondent: _______________________ Date: ________________________
PART 1 —BACKGROUND INFORMATION
Name of Respondent:
Sex:
Age:
Marital status:
Tribe:
Address:
__________________________________________________________________________________________
PART 2 —COLLECTION AND HARVESTINGOF WILD EDIBLE FRUIT PLANTS
1. Are you familiar with the wild edible fruit plants?
2. Where do usually go to find wild edible fruit plants?
3. Have you ever harvested any wild edible fruit plants?
4. How often do you usually harvest wild edible fruit plants in a year?
5. Fill in the species and quantity of wild edible fruit plants that you are harvesting this year!
No.
Common name
Quantity (Kg)
6. How do you consume these wild edible fruit plants? (to be eaten raw, processed, etc.)?
7. How do you use wild edible fruit plants? (for sale, self-consumption, etc.)
__________________________________________________________________________________________
PART 3 —TRADE OF WILD EDIBLE FRUIT PLANTS
1. Have you ever sold any wild edible fruit plants?
2. Where do you usually sell wild edible fruit plants?
3 .Fill in the species, traded part, quantity and market price of wild edible fruit plants that you're selling this year!
No.
Common name
Traded part
Quantity (Kg)
Market Price (Rp)