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Pakistan Journal of Gender Studies 185
Ascertaining Impact Of Economic Conditions Of Pakistan On
Women Working In Industrial Sector Of Karachi
Shagufta Nasreen
Nasreen Aslam Shah
&
Aliyah Ali
Women’s Studies
University of Karachi
Abstract
Economic conditions and economic policies are major factors influencing labour
force participation rate, division of labour, conditions of work and overall impact on
the society. In Pakistan, women participation in productive activities have increased
due to globalization, increasing ratio of education, international and national
commitments to reduce gender discrimination and poverty but the quality of work
conditions and change in status and position of women needs consideration. This
research shows that ratio of female labour force participation in industrial sector of
Karachi has not shown significant increase, conditions of work has not improved, yet
more and more women are pushed into the workforce due to poverty. Further, the
analysis of secondary data of selected indicators shows less improvement in
macroeconomic conditions creating a difficult economic situation for general
population and women in particular. A gender analysis of selected macroeconomic
indicators shows that the economic policies adopted in 1980s and onwards lead to
weak economy there by leading to increase in poverty and stagnation of employment
opportunities for women in industries. Further it suggests for conscious efforts to
adopt policies focusing not only on increase of women in paid jobs but improved
work conditions there by leading to empowerment of women.
ﺨﻠﺗي ِ
ﺺ ہلاقم
186 Ascertaining Impact of Economic Conditions of Pakistan on Women Working in Industrial Sector
of Karachi
“My home is dependent on my job, how would I make both ends meet?
I want a bright future for my children so they can live a happy life
without worries. This is the aim of my life and therefore I am working
hard to send them to school properly.”
This is unambiguous response of a woman during interviews in the research to explore
conditions of work in an urban industrial sector. In Pakistan if we compare the economic
participation of women with the past it shows an increase. This quantitative increase
leads to a concern about the qualitative conditions in terms of type of employment
opportunities available, conditions of work and change in status of women. Pakistan is
signatory to some of the major international commitments such as Millennium
Development Goals (MDG) and Convention on Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) to ensure social equity and justice. Pakistan
has taken some major initiatives in this regard for poverty reduction namely the Gender
Reform Action Plan (GRAP) 1 and the Gender Support programme (GSP) 2003-2012.
The aim of international organisations and the government is to reduce poverty and
gender discrimination. These two goals become achievable when all policies made under
the term ‘development’ are constantly reviewed in order to suit and meet changing
circumstances. Further and more importantly, success in the implementation of a policy is
subject to monitoring the whole process. This requires periodical review of the policies as
well as their implementation process. From 1990s economic policies based on economic
liberalization, free trade and deregulated labour, goods and financial markets were
introduced. It was expected that these policies would increase women’s labour force
participation. Is that what really happened? If yes, then, does the increase in number
empowered women in real?
In Pakistan almost 50 percent of the total population comprises of females. Female
economic activity rate for ages 15 and above is 36.3 percent and the percentage varies in
different sectors, the highest in agriculture and lowest in industry (Human Development
Report, 2009). The latest reports from Government of Pakistan accept that Female
Labour Force Participation (FLFP) is increasing but it is low for Pakistan. Pakistan
Employment Trends for Women 2009 is an updated and detailed report about the issue.
The report illustrates that during the last decade women’s labour force participation grew
to a large extent in Pakistan. In Pakistan, the female population was estimated at 78
million out of 161 million in 2008. Approximately 45.9 million women in the country
were at working age (15 years and above) compared to 47.2 million men. In line with
increases in the female population, the number of women at an employable age is
constantly growing with the large increases in rural areas.
Women in Pakistan, like other parts of the world are not a homogenous group in Pakistan.
There is a great difference in the status and conditions of women based on class, age,
Shagufta Nasreen, Nasreen Aslam Shah, Aliyah Ali 187
ethnicity and urban rural divide. In 2008, almost two thirds of women at an employable
age (29.8 million) were living in rural areas and just 16 per cent in urban areas (Pakistan
Employment Trends for Women 2009). Women of urban areas have advantage of better
education facilities and employment opportunities as compared to rural women who are
mainly working as agricultural workers. Nevertheless, employment ratio was 22 percent
in 2008, a low number, if considered from an international or regional point of view.2
Furthermore, female participation has increased in the labour market but working
conditions and job quality has not improved. The majority of females are in the
agricultural sector with little or no economic security. The share of employment for
females has increased from 69 to 71 percent in informal sector. There are enormous wage
discrepancies for male and female employees. The participation of women in agriculture
is highest, 73 percent, 12 percent in industry and 14 percent in the services sector
(Pakistan Employment Trends for Women 2009).
In the service sector, the rate of women workers is gradually increasing, a higher
proportion of females, especially in the fields of teaching, medicine and domestic helpers
are being employed. The males are concentrated in manufacturing, services and trade
sectors. The share of female employment in the informal economy is 72 percent and it is
expected to increase further. The percentage of females subject to difficult working
conditions increases as 8 out of 10 women are employed in dangerous working
conditions.3 The report calculates ‘hours of work’ by the time period a worker does his or
her economic activities and shows that 41 percent women work less than 35 hours a week
in a normal working week as defined by Pakistan (Government of Pakistan, Pakistan
Employment Trends for Women: Series No.5, 2009, p. 22). This also raises a question
that if we are measuring hours of work for women only in paid activities then what about
the unpaid work that she is responsible for back home? There is a large wage gap
between males and females mostly due to women being part of the informal sector. The
report also lacks any linkages of economic restructuring and SAP policies and the
increase of the informal sector in Pakistan.
Earlier, Pakistan’s Economic Survey, 2006-07 highlighted that labour force participation
has been increasing over the years but it is still low and even lower for the female
segment of the population. It stated that both male and female unemployment rates
declined in rural as well as urban areas. It also raises another point that the Female
Labour Force Participation (FLFP) is different by provinces. Female participation in
Baluchistan (12.6%), NWFP4 (13.0%) and Sindh (9.1%) are low (Government of
Pakistan, Economic Survey, 2007). The economic survey also states that ‘the low Labour
Force Participation rate (LFPR) indicates huge reservoirs of human resources that can be
effectively utilized for future economic growth’. These assumptions especially with the
complex economic conditions, only focusing on increasing the number of women in
188 Ascertaining Impact of Economic Conditions of Pakistan on Women Working in Industrial Sector
of Karachi
workforce, lack the gender analysis of economic conditions, budgets and impacts of
globalisation on women.
The Country Gender Profile (CGP) of Pakistan 2008 explains that poverty and economic
restructuring has increased women’s demand in labour force but the conditions are
putting them under pressure. A marked increase is seen in informal sector leading to their
invisibility and un recognized status as a workforce (Government of Pakistan, Pakistan
Employment Trends for Women: Series No.5, 2009; Kazi & Sathar, 1993; Ayub, 1994,
Shah, 1986, Wiess, 1999).
Gender inequality has many dimensions that stem from women’s dual role in paid and
unpaid activities performed in the market and the non-market spheres of social life.
Empirical research on gender and trade has predominantly focused on the nature of job
opportunities and labour income brought about by trade expansion, with a secondary
focus on the impact on the intra household allocation and distribution of resources. Both,
lack of data and methodological problems explain the lack of empirical research on the
size of female labour reallocation in import-competing industries as the direct result of
trade liberalisation. In case of Pakistan, where a majority of women are illiterate,
represent a small fraction in formal sector employment, have only a symbolic
representation in decision making bodies and are unaware of the international agreements
with IMF and World Bank and yet their lives are directly affected by these policies. It
needs to be analysed that what the results on the economy, employment, households with
reference to women are. It is assumed that a weak economy, low income generating
activities in the formal sector and increased work burden would lead to further
exploitation of women.
This study was conducted to explore the impact of economic policies and its impact on
women workers in urban industrial sector. Based on both qualitative and quantitative data,
it explores the linkage between the economic policies and their impact on the economy
and the effects of the economy on Women’s lives in particular. The study also focuses on
women work conditions and experiences. For this research, factories from the three
industrial areas of Karachi5 were selected,6 these are namely the Sindh Industrial Trading
Estate (SITE) Karachi, SITE North Karachi and Korangi Industrial areas.7 The first task
was to identify the number of industries in which women are employed. From earlier
studies it was noted that women are mostly employed in textile, food industries, and
pharmaceutical industry (Hafeez, 1989). For this study a total of 200 women workers
were interviewed from 13 garments industries of Karachi. Interviews were conducted by
questionnaire method comprising of both close and open ended questions. Some of the
hurdles and challenges faced during the study and collection of data was lack of sex
segregated data of workers, unwillingness in sharing of information, reluctant
administrative staff of the factories, long distances, poor transport facilities, the law and
Shagufta Nasreen, Nasreen Aslam Shah, Aliyah Ali 189
order situation in the city, sudden disappearance of the respondents etc. The raw data
obtained from the questionnaires filled by the respondents was converted into statistical
form of tables and graphs. Carefully drawn tables and charts are used to interpret the
major findings of this research. The questions provided by the respondents are interpreted
in the light of the researcher’s field observations. Another method used in this research is
secondary analysis. This type of study focuses on archival data such as those maintained
by various institutions holding survey data or census data. This method has been used to
study official data and recent reports of government to relate employment with selected
macroeconomic indicators in the period between 1980- 2009. This will help in analysing
the economic conditions developed due to globalisation. For this purpose Economic
Survey of Pakistan 1980- 2009, labour force surveys and other relevant documents were
analysed. Unstructured interviews were also conducted with three women rights activists
and four employers/ supervisors in these factories.
To explore the economic conditions and changes due to economic policies adopted after
1980’s an analysis is carried out by selective indicators. Table 1 shows selected
macroeconomic indicators from 1981- 2009. The objective was to understand analyze the
conditions of work place for women against the backdrop of economic conditions of
Pakistan in the given time period. This time period is selected to have a quick look at the
impact of economic globalisation and the macroeconomic condition. The change in
economic policies was based on the idea of economic growth, openness of markets,
improving the efficiency of public institutions by privatisation and reducing fiscal deficit.
These macroeconomic indicators show that economic conditions did not improved much.
Table 1- Key Macroeconomic Indicators: 1981-2009
Years GDP Current
Account
deficit
Infloation
(Consumer
Price
Index)
Budget
deficit
Public
Investment
Total
investment
Exports
(Goods
and
Services)
Foreign
direct
investment
Growth
% per
annum
% of
GDP
Growth %
per annum
% of
GDP
% of GDP Growth %
per annum
Growth %
per annum
net inflows
(% of GDP)
1981 6.4 4.3 12.0 n.a. 9.1 18.4 12.31 0.38463493
1985 8.7 3.1 5.2 n.a. 8.9 17.99 10.42 0.421864139
1990 4.6 4.51 12.7 7.18 8.58 19.52 15.53 0.612997637
1995 4.1 4.5 13 6.46 6.4 17 16.70 1.19175194
2000 3.9 2.13 3.6 4.1 4.63 16.97 13.44 0.416484258
2005 9.0 3.1 12.2 4.3 4.07 21.95 15.68 2.008211679
2009 4.1 2.0 17.9 n.a. n.a. 18.9 12.84 1.473547967
Sources:
1) Hand book of Statistics on Pakistan Economy, 2010, http://www.sbp.org.pk/
departments/stats/PakEconomy_HandBook/index.htm
2) Economic Survey of different years
190 Ascertaining Impact of Economic Conditions of Pakistan on Women Working in Industrial Sector
of Karachi
3) World Bank http://data.worldbank.org/country/pakistan
The results here show that these policies couldn’t bring about the changes promised. GDP
growth rates are fluctuating. There are other contributing factors such as weak economic
policies, continuous changes of governments, natural disasters and the law and order
situation of Pakistan. Inflation has increased manifold, raising the cost of living. Various
studies show that simultaneously with the introduction of SAPs, especially the
liberalisation policies, poverty has increased in Pakistan (Kemal & Amjad, 1997,
MHCHD,1999) and inflation has increased many folds thereby leading to an increase in
daily use items. Often quoted by Pakistani economists and common people are the prices
of diesel and petrol. In 1999 it was Rs.10.80 and in early 2010 the cost was as high as Rs.
73 per litre. It directly effects the rates of everything else making life more difficult for
the minimum salaried population. Khattak and Sayeed (2000) point out that poverty in
Pakistan has led to an increase in labour supply, especially for women who have never
worked before.
One of the major objectives of these economic policies has been to reduce the budget
deficit. Statistics shows that it has not been achieved yet. On the contrary different taxes
is levied to reduce fiscal deficits such as the General sales tax (GST), Value added
tax(VAT) etc. GST was initially rejected by the business community8 in Pakistan. The
business community was blamed for they didn’t want to show their actual sales. It is
accepted by economists, that the tax collection system has become ineffective which
results in fiscal deficits.9To reduce fiscal deficits another measure was the privatisation of
public institutions. But it was also not a successful scheme. It resulted in negative results,
one of the example quoted is the privatisation of KESC.10 It has been five years since it
was privatised and it has neither become efficient nor has the quality of service has
improved. Value added tax (VAT) was another tax highly resisted by all groups,11
unfortunately, in Pakistan most taxes are paid by salaried people. This leads to the
imbalance reflected in the indicators.
Another macroeconomic indicator in Table 1 is exports. It has not increased after
globalisation policies. Although this is true, in the case of Pakistan, the direct link
between impact of globalisation and development is very difficult to measure because
there are some major factors contributing to the poor condition of the economy. These are
the law and order situation especially after 9/11, natural disasters-earthquake in 2005 and
floods in 2010, corruption and unstable political conditions. But the fact remains that the
choice of policies in such conditions is also very important. Economists suggest different
ideas and plans to improve the economy but the government takes different paths because
they have agreements with the IMF and World Bank. In 2011 according to a news report,
40 percent population was living below the poverty line.12
Shagufta Nasreen, Nasreen Aslam Shah, Aliyah Ali 191
Table 2
Year Population Education
Expenditure
(% of GNI)
Health
Expenditure,
Total (% of
GNP)
Labour Participation Rate
Female (%
of Female
Population
Ages 15+)
Male (%
of Male
Population
Ages 15+)
Total (%
of Total
Population
Ages 15+)
1981 85096000 1.5 0.6 12.3 86.4 51.6
1985 94794433.82 2.0 0.7 11.6 85.7 50.7
1990 107975060.2 2.3 0.7 13.5 84.5 50.7
1995 122374952.6 2.4 0.8 12.5 83.3 49.4
2000 138080000 2.3 0.7 16.1 84 51.3
2005 155772000 1.51 0.4 19.4 84.4 52.9
2009 169708302.6 2.15 n.a. 21.7 84.9 54.3
Source: World Bank http://data.worldbank.org/country/pakistan
The primary responsibility of a woman in Pakistan is considered her reproductive role. So
even when she is not doing paid job macroeconomic conditions directly affect her life
because high prices means malnutrition, inaccessibility to education and health services,
a push towards menial jobs both for males and females, migration and living in poverty.
Women are effected as home managers by inflation. Table 2 shows that the population of
Pakistan has doubled from 1980 to 2009 and the expenditure on the contrary health and
education has reduced. For accessibility to health services, education people are being
pushed towards the private sector which has created two types of groups, vying for health
and education. The private sector is affordable for the rich and the middle classes while
public sector is affordable for poor classes.
A brief review of these statistics shows difficult economic conditions for people at large
and women in specific. Women primary role is considered reproductive role however
poverty, changing socio cultural conditions, increase in level of education for women and
push from international community and its efforts for gender equality has pushed women
into productive role as well. Traditional development economists and modernisation
theorists have viewed economic development as a process in which economic growth and
women’s incorporation into the labour force go hand in hand. Others however argue that
the process of industrialization and economic development is accompanied by
marginalization of women (Bhattacharya, 2007). The changes in the world economic and
social structure to make a uniform system for all are known as globalization. Feminist
schools and researchers have explored different aspects of globalisation. To some
restructuring, as a result of globalisation, tends to reinforce and exacerbate existing
gender inequalities (Marchand and Runyan 2000). For others, impacts of globalisation
have been multiple and contradictory and there have been conflicting interactions
between local and global economies, cultures and faiths (Afshar and Barrientos 1999).
Momsen (2004) discusses that there is new international division of labour (NIDL)
192 Ascertaining Impact of Economic Conditions of Pakistan on Women Working in Industrial Sector
of Karachi
associated with the process of globalisation, which involves a search for cheap labour and
is reinforced by national and international trade agreements and policies. As discussed
earlier the development being carried out by integration of economies is showing
imbalances in the world. These imbalances can be identified by the fact that different
countries claim that their growth rate has increased but that “growth” is not reflected in
light of other indicators.
The analysis of primary data shows conditions of work in urban industrial sector of
Karachi. They have less control over resources; have limited decision making power and
less knowledge and awareness of their rights. Despite these conditions, the fact remains
that most women work and they work hard.
The first objective of the research was to explore the industries in the urban sector which
have high female labour force participation. Findings show that, in Karachi, the trend of
female employment has not changed much. Sabiha Hafeez’s study in 1989 had the same
industries as the ones in 2009-2010 in which women are employed. These are mainly
garments, pharmaceuticals, food and beverages. A comparative study by Nayyar and Sen
in 1987 explored similar trends which show that not much has changed. The employment
of women in the organised manufacturing sector was low; women were mainly confined
in textile and garment industries. (Nayyar & Sen, 1987, p. 129).
Another major finding regarding data of industries and number of workers was that they
lack data based on gender. For example, The “Development Statistics of Sindh 2008”
shows that the number of manufacturing establishments in Sindh was 1852 in the year
2005-2006 with average daily employment 290,400, in total with no distinction for male
or females. Thus, to identify the number of industries in Karachi, those with high female
employment and ratio of male and female workers became quite difficult. Many
researchers identify that the data about FLFP is not complete or under-reported in
Pakistan (ADB, 2008; Nayyar & Sen, 1987; Mumtaz & Shaheed, 1987; Shah, 1986). It is
also accepted by the government’s official Medium Term Development Framework
2005–10, which mentions “…continued invisibility of women’s economic contribution to
the GDP and … the continued lack of accurate gender disaggregated data” (Government
of Pakistan, MTDF, 2008, p. 57).
All the major sources such as Industries and Commerce Department of Sindh, Sindh
Bureau of Statistics, Employees Old-Age Benefit Institution (EOBI), Sindh Technical
Education and Vocational Training Authority (STEVTA) and National Institute of
Labour Administration and Training (NILAT) were visited to collect this data. They all
had generalised data. During informal interviews and conversations they all agreed that
the ratio of males to females in industries is 80 and 20. The primary data explores and
confirms the low status of working women in most cases. Karachi is the largest city of
Shagufta Nasreen, Nasreen Aslam Shah, Aliyah Ali 193
Pakistan and the main financial centre of the country. There are many benefits for women
living in Karachi for example transport accessibility, accessible educational institutions
and fewer restrictions on employment. But discrimination is existent in the labour force
participation.
1. Demographic Profile
To understand the demographic profile of women workers in these industries age,
ethnicity, literacy level, and marital status were analysed. The age of women workers is
very important because it gives an idea as to what age women enter into paid activities.
Table 3
Distribution of the Respondents According to their Age Groups
Age Groups Frequency Percentage
Less than 18 years 02 1.00 %
18-22 years 52 26 .00%
23-27 years 75 37.50 %
28-32 years 35 17.50 %
33-37 years 08 4.00 %
38-42 years 10 5.00 %
43-45 years 16 8.00 %
Above 45 years 02 1.00 %
Total 200 100 %
Table 3 shows the distribution of respondents according to their age. Of the eight age
groups presented in chart the largest is of 23-27 years. There are only 2 who were less
than 18 years out of 200 women. Most of the respondents fall in the range of 18 to 32
years. This is usually the age group which falls in youth group. It appears that young
women are employed because they can give more time and energy to work. Middle aged
(33-45) years were less employed in because they have more pressure of work due to
their domestic responsibilities and household burdens. At the same time one cannot
overlook the factor of early aging in Pakistan. This leaves one to wonder how women
beyond the age of forty would be coping with work pressure, health problems and other
worries that come along during work.
Table 4
Distribution of Respondents According to Literacy Level
Literacy level Frequency Percentage
Literate 168 84.00 %
Illiterate 32 16.00 %
Total 200 100 %
194 Ascertaining Impact of Economic Conditions of Pakistan on Women Working in Industrial Sector
of Karachi
Table 4 shows that majority of women were literate. It shows that in urban formal sector
mostly literate women were employed. Although their jobs were assembly line jobs and
require minimal educational qualifications. It also shows that women who have achieved
education prefer to work in formal sectors where they assume that their job is
comparatively better than income generating activities in informal sector. The literate
group of women was not highly educated as clear from the table below
Table 5
Distribution of Respondents According to Level of Education
Level of education Frequency Percentage
Primary 15 9.00%
Middle 27 17.00%
Matriculation ( 10 years of education) 52 31.00%
Intermediate ( 12 years of education) 43 25.00%
Bachelors 21 12.00%
Masters 05 3.00%
Religious education 05 3.00%
Total 168 100%
Of the seven levels of education presented in the table 5, the largest is the group who has
ten years of education. It shows that once entered in paid jobs, they were unable to
continue their studies. This shows that the cultural or social restrictions are not the only
factor creating hurdles but socio-economic conditions are also responsible for it. The
remaining 16 percent illiterate women told that due to house hold responsibilities, work
burden, lack of financial resources and in few cases lack of interest in education impede
them from education.
Results showed that the majority of these women are living in rented houses and their
income goes in paying off the rent and fulfilling the daily food needs of the house. They
are earning for survival and do not complain to their employers because they do not want
to lose their jobs. The major demand from government was to reduce inflation as they
complained about high prices. It is clear from the findings that it is in this exploitative
and oppressive frame work that women are dealing under neo liberal policies, where the
cost of living is high. Another problem is that work is not available for their husbands or
the male members of the household so the men are at home. In some cases, men were not
willing to do work. Sparr (1994) criticised the origin of ‘development’ based on the neo-
classical theory on the assumption that all societies will be fully monetised and market-
oriented societies. This is a real problem especially in those countries where well-
developed labour, capital and markets are not available. A gender analysis shows that
some countries laws and customs restrict or prohibit women’s independent control of
Shagufta Nasreen, Nasreen Aslam Shah, Aliyah Ali 195
money, ownership of property, and paid employment. This leads to invisibility and subtle
acknowledgment of ‘women’s work’ which is child-rearing and ‘keeping house.’
Table 6
Distribution of Respondents According to Marital Status
Marital status Frequency Percentage
Unmarried 125 62.50%
Married 63 31.50%
Divorced 07 3.50%
Widow 05 2.970%
Total 200 100%
Table 6 clearly indicates that majority of women workers were unmarried. It shows that
either they or their families have delayed their marriage due to pressure of job because
usually women of this age group get married. During interviews it was also identified that
industries are choosing unmarried women for work because they are assumed to have less
family responsibilities as compared to married women, they can do long working hours
and are not expected to apply for maternity leave or day care centre facilities. This is not
a written policy but a trend followed by employers. Those who were divorced shared
reasons of divorce. Major reasons were beating by husband, behaviour of in-laws and
second of marriage of husband. In Pakistan’s cultural context divorced women are
considered a ‘burden’ on family as usually she goes back to her parent’s home. There is
poor support system culturally, legally and socially to treat her as a ‘normal’ woman. It
has more of cultural rather than religious back ground because Islam gives a right of
remarriage after divorce, provision of mahr13 and financial support after divorce. In
practice the society does not follow it. Results also show that these women are mostly
young and unmarried. They want to get married but due to financial problems at home,
their marriage is delayed. It also creates a feeling of incompleteness. Even highly
educated, well paid young women have the same feelings.
The impacts are not only on economic grounds but gender relations as well. The
woman’s role in the family has not changed yet she has to do her job. Women are
considered responsible for doing household activities. They leave their children when
they go for jobs because day care facilities are limited. Out of 200 women only 6 availed
day care facility at the work place.
196 Ascertaining Impact of Economic Conditions of Pakistan on Women Working in Industrial Sector
of Karachi
Table 7
Distribution of Respondents According to the Person Responsible for
Child Care in Mother’s Absence
Guardian of children in
mother’s absence Frequency Percentage
No one 27 41.00%
Maternal grandparents 17 27.00%
Grandparents 16 25.00%
Father 04 6.00%
Uncle 01 1.00%
Total 64 100%
Taking care of children is assumed to be responsibility of mothers. This trend has not
changed even if women enter in paid job in fact it increases work burden for women. It is
very risky to see that 41 percent of such children are on their own; in other cases maternal
grandparents are taking care of children as compared to paternal grandparents. The
reason of differentiation is because in Pakistani cultural context children are usually more
close to mother’s family. In some cases mother feels that her parents would take care of
her children more as compared to father’s family but this is a general observation.
Why women enter into paid jobs is a complex question. Majority women identified
economic problems for their entry into work force. Respondents were analysed according
to their marital status to see the difference in reasons. In both cases answers were similar
and out of 200 women only 33(20 married and 13 unmarried) said they were doing this
work for their personal needs. As identified earlier widows and divorced women are
considered a burden, this also became a reason of doing paid work out side home. These
answers were confirmed with another question about spending of their income which
showed that most of income is spent for family and household needs. Other reasons such
as for fulfilment of self, empowerment or to put their education to use is not the motive of
work for these women. Women are usually hired for assembly line jobs and men are in
higher positions such as supervisors and managers. Along with that, the restructuring of
the economy also leads to restructuring of social relations, including gender relations, as
markets recruit specific gender, age, ethnic and religious groups. These changes
transform household, communities and markets and the changes in gender relations
reflect shifting gender identities. Parent-child relationships change as young women
become the major earners in the family, and working in factories for transnational
companies while living in urban dormitories with other young workers introduces rural
women to new ideas (Wolf, 1992).
Unionisation is also very low amongst these workers. This also confirms the study of
Hisam (2009) that trade unions are decreasing or if present, they are full of males. Similar
Shagufta Nasreen, Nasreen Aslam Shah, Aliyah Ali 197
findings are analysed by Syal (2004) showing that the working conditions of women are
linked with their participation in trade unions. She notes that women themselves lack the
importance of organised movement (Syal, 2004). Pakistan’s Statistical Year book 2010
shows that out of the 460,000 members of the 7000 registered trade unions in 2007, there
were only 15000 female members. 14
There are also some studies such as the one conducted by Ali and Haq (2006) which
conclude that labour force participation is not making women ‘happy’ in the context of
Pakistan. It seems that the majority of Pakistani women seek work out of necessity and
the money earned by them is used either for household needs or is taken over by the
husband. Not only this, the women in Pakistan bear the double burden of house and work.
Economic independence rarely leads to individual independence (Ali & Haq, 2006).
High cost of living pushes more women to look for employment. These jobs are not
improving their standard of living but fulfilling their basic needs. Through this research it
was identified that women’s decision making power has not changed. The reason being is
the lack of acceptance for income generated by females as societal norms and customs
dictate that it is a man’s job. Though many households are financially headed by females
they do not have a say in other decisions. The perception of the researcher based on the
review of literature was that that they would have gained in self-confidence due to an
increase in mobility, decision making powers access to and control over money and other
resources thus leading to changed power relation with men. But this perception changed
during interviews with women rights activists and women workers. In their opinion
globalisation policies has not expanded formal sector. They do not have job security.
They are waiting for their confirmation letters. Analysis of case studies revealed that they
have been working for more than three years on probation however according to the
labour laws, the probation period is three months. The job is not leading to women’s
autonomy. The perception by traditional theorists that women participation in employed
work will lead to empowerment is not supported by this study. They are doing this work
to sustain their lives, support their families’ needs. Khattak (2001) find that the sexual
division of labour has by and large not changed due to increased participation of women
in employment. The study shows that household responsibilities are shifted to other
female members. Women are taking part in productive as well as reproductive
‘responsibilities’. This confirms that women’s employment is not leading to a change in
gender roles. Koggel (2003) analysed the increase in labour force participation of women
and its linkage to freedom and choices. She criticises Amartya Sen’s strategy of women’s
work outside of home to achieve development because there are several factors involved
which need attention such as MNCs and their power of exiting and entering in a country,
the social norms of a country, poverty, political corruption, environmental disasters,
peace, security and the absence of labour laws. Such conditions weaken the position of
workers and become disadvantageous for them. She concludes that women’s freedom and
198 Ascertaining Impact of Economic Conditions of Pakistan on Women Working in Industrial Sector
of Karachi
agency do not always improve when they enter the work force so the need is to take an
‘informed discussion of development processes and policies that must include accounts
of global forces of power and their intersection with and utilization of local systems of
oppression. These factors are particularly evident in the area of women’s work and have a
direct impact on women’s freedom and agency in this and other domains’ (Koggel, 2003,
p. 179).
Further it was proved that women are mostly engaged in low skilled jobs. They are in
assembly line jobs on contract bases. Mies (1998) pointed out coercive job losses of
women in developed countries and creation of low paid jobs for women in developing
countries by capitalism. At present the number of women in paid jobs has increased but
we need to understand the quality of this change.
Occupational health is another very important aspect of women who work. Most of the
women complained about their health. It has physical as well as psychological impacts.
Usually they are in stitching and repetitious work causes back pain, headache and eye
strain. From field observation, it was noted that in majority of work places the conditions
were difficult with low lighting and uneasy seats.
“I usually feel stress and pain in my back and I want to quit the job but
I don’t have a choice”
“When I go back home I get tired and my legs ache because most of the
times I stand to supervise the work”
Even an employer said that “Women come to work in factories in
looking fine but during their employment they seem to lose their health
day by day.”
All of the respondents shared they feel tension, depression, have fear of losing their job
and are fatigued.
The study identified that most women work to help their families in their economic
disparities. However, the general impression of the society is contrary. Women suffer
from some of the assumptions and prejudices which males have towards them. The
management feels that women are not serious or efficient workers. They put in less work
and come only to pass time. As soon as they get married they will go away. If they
continue the job after marriage they will demand leave for reasons such as maternity
leave, childcare, transfer of husbands and then become in efficient. For these reasons
women are not preferred. Some management groups think that women may spoil the
strict atmosphere of the workplace. At the time of selection, women face discrimination,
Shagufta Nasreen, Nasreen Aslam Shah, Aliyah Ali 199
male colleagues stare, pass remarks at her looks or usually think that because she is
female she has been selected otherwise she doesn’t have skills. If the young woman
mixes freely with colleagues she is considered “too liberal”, if she limits her interactions
only for work, she is labelled arrogant. If the boss appreciates her efforts, rumours are
spread about her.
During interviews respondents shared that they realize that women also have an identity
of their own. But there are too many expectations from them. There are also many
situations where in urban areas working women’s problems collides with their multiple
role expectations. Women also have to fulfil their roles as mothers, wives, home makers,
workers and citizens. A woman also has to look after domestic chores even with
employment. One of them shared that she cooks in the morning when she leaves home at
eight and when she reach home at eight in the night. This dual responsibility has
overburdened working women, thereby leading to multidimensional problems. Where
there are joint families exists, she is expected to fulfil the demands of her role as a
daughter-in-law. She has a much larger area of social interaction. So her informal work
increases more if she is part of voluntary associations. Due to her multiple roles she has
no time to relax. Chronic fatigue, weakness are some of the results of such high level
stress. Some other factors related to working conditions are poor ventilation, unfriendly
working atmosphere and discrimination at the work place.
When economic conditions and existing workplace conditions for women are analysed in
the context of globalisation, a difficult position for women is revealed. The shift in
economic policies leads to increased costs of production so the only way for the employer
to reduce overheads is to make cuts in labour costs further leading to contract based jobs
with low wages (Sayeed, 2001). Statistics shows that population living below poverty
line is increasing, according to a news report, in 2011, 40 percent of the population is
living below the poverty line.15 Given the conditions of high inflation, low wages, less
opportunities, household responsibilities, poor health conditions and work burdens in
women are doing paid jobs but not feeling empowered because it is fulfilling their basic
needs only. The promises of globalisation defined as everything free to access and
people have more choices in free market economies is a dream because reality is different
and increasing the differences in the power relationship, globally and locally. Secondly,
these policies are interconnected to other dimensions and give shape to them. A gender
analysis in this case becomes very important because men and women have different
roles in the society. In the four domains of society i.e. production, reproduction,
community, and decision making men and women play different roles, which vary from
culture to culture and region to region. It was, therefore important to analyse, what are the
results on the economy, employment, and domestic activities with reference to women.
With weak economy and low income generating activities in the formal sector, the
increased work burden is leading to further exploitation of women. An empirical study by
200 Ascertaining Impact of Economic Conditions of Pakistan on Women Working in Industrial Sector
of Karachi
Yasmin (2009) found an increasing gender pay gap during the period of trade
liberalisation. But the study does not link it to trade liberalisation rather, it is suggested
that the labour supply needs to be adjusted according to the needs of the market. The
study shows that the average wage in all educational categories is successively higher
than that of workers with no formal education and the rate of return also tends to increase
from lower to higher with the degree of education over time. It is therefore suggested that
literacy levels must be in accordance with the new demands of technically-induced trade
liberalisation (Yasmin, 2009). Some researchers also identify that the wage gap and
limitations of women to some jobs is not due to ‘glass ceilings’ because there is little
evidence for it. However, the major hindrances in the way women are moving upward are
gender discrimination on account of cultural restrictions, household responsibilities and
low levels of education and skills (Hyder, 2005).
The roles of women are changing in present day Pakistan. This change is brought by
many factors and globalisation is one of it. Although the study is not showing a direct
negative or positive impact due to trade liberalization, privatization and fiscal austerity on
women workers but the reality is that, not just women, but people in general do not
consider the intensity of the policies that are planned for them by governments or
international institutions. For many their first priority has become the survival for which
they accept all conditions of employment. Women are the ones who are more affected.
In discharging her dual role at home and work place and to strike an optimal balance
amongst them, her satisfaction level varies. They are victims of poverty that has a central
role to join industries. They are concerned about bad working conditions, bad
environment, and harassment but they have no choice rather than accepting it due to
poverty. They are not usually active in labour unions. Policy makers continue to stand by
liberalisation, fiscal austerity and privatisation because they think it is the only way to
improve the economy. But in this process they do not count women in labour force
participation rates. At the time of decision making or budgeting the priority is not centred
on gender but an increase in GDP growth and other macroeconomic indicators.
End notes
1. The goal of GRAP is to bring about such changes in the structure and process of the
government that it promotes equity among men and women, and to enable it to
deliver on the rights and entitlements of women. http://grap.gop.pk/index.htm
2. Globally, 52.6 percent of women in working age were economically active (employed
or unemployed) in 2007. Furthermore, the regional average labour force participation
of women in South Asia was with 35.6 percent, much higher than Pakistan’s labour
force participation rate for women.
Shagufta Nasreen, Nasreen Aslam Shah, Aliyah Ali 201
3. Vulnerable employment means the sum of own account workers and contributing
family workers. For details see Pakistan Employment Trends for Women, 2009
4. The name of North West Frontier Province (NWFP) is renamed as Khyber-
Pakhtunkhwa (KPK).
5. Karachi has an projected population of 15 million, which is at present growing at
about 5% per year, mainly because of rural-urban internal migration.( For details see
City District Government Karachi, http://www.karachicity.gov.pk/).
6. Karachi accounts for the majority share of national GDP and revenue. Seventy
percent (70%) of income tax and 62% of sales tax collected by the Government of
Pakistan comes from Sindh Province and of this 94% is generated in Karachi, while it
produces about 42 percent of value added in large scale manufacturing. In its formal
sector, the city has 4,500 industrial units. However, there are no estimates available
for the informal sector. For details see (Hasan, 2003)
7. For details visit
http://www.findpk.com/yp/Biz_Guide/html/industrial_zones_sindh.html
8. See for example this news report about protest against GST in 1998
http://www.gapcpakistan.com/G.S.T%20in%20Pakistan.php
9. http://dailymailnews.com/0910/29/Business/index.php?id=4
10. http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_23-8-2005_pg5_1
11. http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2010%5C05%5C14%5Cstory_14-5-
2010_pg5_8
12. “Ifraat-e-zar, Mulk ki Chaalis fi sad aabadi khat-e-ghurbat say neechay chali
gayee”( Translation. Inflation: 40 per cent population is living below poverty line)
July 19 2011, Daily Jang, p. 4
13. Mahr: Under Muslim law is the exclusive right of the wife. It is the sum of money or
property which becomes payable by the husband to the wife in terms of marriage
contract or as subsequently agreed to.
14. In Statistical year book 2010 the data is mentioned till 2007 only. For more detailsSee
www.statpak.gov/fbs/sites/default/files/other/yearbook2010/labour/12-18.pdf
15. “Ifraat-e-zar, Mulk ki Chaalis fi sad aabadi khat-e-ghurbat say neechay chali
gayee”( Translation. Inflation: 40 per cent population is living below poverty line)
July 19 2011, Daily Jang, p. 4
202 Ascertaining Impact of Economic Conditions of Pakistan on Women Working in Industrial Sector
of Karachi
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_______________
Dr. Shagufta Nasreen is Co-operative Teacher in the Centre of Excellence for Women’s
Studies, University of Karachi.
Dr. Nasreen Aslam Shah is Professor in the Department of Social Work & Director of
the Centre of Excellence for Women’s Studies, University of Karachi.
Dr. Aliyah Ali is Co-operative Teacher in the Centre of Excellence for Women’s Studies,
University of Karachi.
