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Texas microfungi: Hermatomyces amphisporus
(Pleosporales, Dothideomycetes) revisited
GREGORIO DELGADO1,ONDŘEJ KOUKOL2*, GABRIELA HEREDIA3,
MEIKE PIEPENBRING4
1Eurofins EMLab P&K Houston, 10900 Brittmoore Park Drive Suite G, Houston, TX 77041, U.S.A.
2Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Benátská 2, CZ-128 01 Praha 2,
Czech Republic
3Instituto de Ecología A.C., Carretera Antigua a Coatepec 351, Congregación El Haya,
MX-91070 Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico
4Department of Mycology, Institute of Ecology, Evolution and Diversity, Goethe Universität Frankfurt,
Max-von-Laue-Str. 13, DE-60438 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
*corresponding author: ondrej.koukol@natur.cuni.cz
Delgado G., Koukol O., Heredia G., Piepenbring M. (2020): Texas microfungi:
Hermatomyces amphisporus (Pleosporales, Dothideomycetes) revisited. – Czech
Mycol. 72(1): 95–107.
The pleosporalean anamorph Hermatomyces amphisporus is recorded for the first time from
the U.S.A. based on several specimens collected on Sabal minor (Arecaceae) during mycological sur-
veys carried out in the state of Texas. Phylogenetic analyses of novel DNA sequence data belonging
to four nuclear regions (ITS rDNA, EF1-a,RBP2,b-TUB) revealed its taxonomic position within the
monotypic family Hermatomycetaceae (Pleosporales, Dothideomycetes) in congruence with its mor-
phological features. A description of the fungus in culture is provided here for the first time. Interest-
ingly, apart from the lenticular conidia, also cylindrical conidia were formed together with chlamydo-
sporous structures and pycnidia producing hyaline, nonseptate conidia. Further notes on the mor-
phology on natural substrate, ecology and distribution in the U.S.A. and worldwide of this rare fungus
are provided.
The recently introduced species H. bauhiniae, which presents morphological characteristics dif-
ferent from the typical Hermatomyces spp., is found to be based on a confusing description, thus
a different genus should be found to accommodate it.
Key words: anamorphic ascomycete, phylogenetic placement, saprobic, taxonomy, genotypic vari-
ability, Hermatomyces bauhiniae.
Article history: received 28 April 2020, revised 2 June 2020, accepted 3 June 2020, published online
22 June 2020.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.33585/cmy.72107
Delgado G., Koukol O., Heredia G., Piepenbring M. (2020): Mikroskopické houby
Texasu : Hermatomyces amphisporus (Pleosporales, Dothideomycetes) znovu
zpracovaný. – Czech Mycol. 72(1): 95–107.
Pleosporální anamorfní druh Hermatomyces amphisporus je poprvé zaznamenán z USA z něko-
lika sběrů na Sabal minor (Arecaceae) získaných během mykologických průzkumů ve státu Texas.
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CZECH MYCOLOGY 72(1): 95–107, JUNE 22, 2020 (ONLINE VERSION, ISSN 1805-1421)
Fylogenetické analýzy nově získaných sekvencí ze čtyř jaderných úseků (ITS rDNA, EF1-a, RBP2,
b-TUB) ukázaly jeho pozici v rámci monotypické čeledi Hermatomycetaceae (Pleosporales, Dothideo-
mycetes) ve shodě s jeho morfologickými znaky. Poprvé je u tohoto druhu podán popis morfologie
v kultuře. Je zajímavé, že krom čočkovitých konidií se v kultuře tvořily i válcovité konidie spolu
s chlamydosporními strukturami a pyknidami, které produkovaly hyalinní jednobuněčné konidie.
Zmíněny jsou i další poznámky k morfologii na přirozeném substrátu, ekologii a rozšíření tohoto
vzácného druhu v USA a ve světě.
Nedávno popsaný druh H. bauhiniae, který se odlišuje svou morfologií od typických zástupců
rodu Hermatomyces, je dle našeho zjištění založen na zavádějícím popisu a měl by být přeřazen do
jiného rodu.
SHORT TAXONOMIC REPORT
M a t e r i a l a n d m e t h o d s. The studied specimens were collected during
field trips carried out in forested areas of Harris County, southeastern Texas, in
2019. Plant debris samples such as dead leaves of the palm tree Sabal minor
(Jacq.) Pers. were examined in the field using a hand lens and those showing fun-
gal colonies were briefly washed off under tap water and incubated at room tem-
perature (23–25 °C) for a few days. Further single-spore isolation and morpholog-
ical studies were performed according to Koukol et al. (2018). Fungal structures
were mounted in lactophenol cotton blue and examined under an Olympus BX45
compound microscope. Minimum, maximum, 5th and 95th percentile values were
calculated based on 50 measurements of each structure at 1000× magnification and
outliers are given in parenthesis. Line drawings were made using a drawing tube
(Carl Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany) and improved in Inkscape (inkscape.org).
Specimens are deposited in ILLS (Illinois Natural History Survey Fungarium,
Champaign) and living strains in CBS (Westerdijk Fungal Biodiversity Institute,
Utrecht) and CCF (Culture Collection of Fungi, Charles University, Prague) (Tab. 1).
DNA was extracted from 2-week old cultures grown on MEA using a Zymo Re-
search Fungal/Bacterial Kit (Zymo Research, Orange, CA, USA). Primer set
ITS1F/NL4 (White et al. 1990, O’Donnell 1993) was used to amplify the complete
internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and partial nuclear ribosomal large subunit
(LSU) regions. Fragments of the genes encoding the elongation factor 1a(EF1-a),
the RNA polymerase II second largest subunit (RPB2) and the b-tubulin (b-TUB)
were amplified using the primer sets 983F/2218R (O’Donnell & Cigelnik 1997),
fRPB2-5F/fRPB2-7cR (Liu et al. 1999) and T1/T22 (Rehner & Buckley 2005), re-
spectively. Further procedures for purifying and sequencing PCR products were
carried out following Koukol et al. (2018), and newly obtained sequences were
deposited in GenBank (Tab. 1). They were subjected to BLAST searches to first
confirm their identity and then added to the ITS, RPB2, EF1-aand b-TUB datasets
previously used in Koukol et al. (2018). Model selection and settings for Maxi-
mum likelihood (ML) and Bayesian phylogenetic analyses also followed Koukol
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CZECH MYCOLOGY 72(1): 95–107, JUNE 22, 2020 (ONLINE VERSION, ISSN 1805-1421)
et al. (2018). Analyses were performed using RAxML v8.2.10 (Stamatakis 2014)
implemented on the CIPRES Science Gateway server (Miller et al. 2010) and
MrBayes v3.2.6 (Ronquist et al. 2012), respectively.
Hermatomyces amphisporus R.F. Castańeda & Heredia, Cryptog. Mycol. 21(4):
223, 2000 Figs. 1–3
D e s c r i p t i o n o n n a t u r a l s u b s t r a t e. Colonies forming sporodochial
conidiomata, superficial, more or less circular, oval or irregular, often confluent,
non-subiculate, brown-black, consisting of an orbicular, brown, flattened outer
zone surrounding a glistening, granulose, brownish-black sporulating centre
where the cylindrical conidia are spotted among the lenticular ones; subiculum
lacking or inconspicuous, 200–750 μm diam. which may reach up to 1500 μm
when confluent and form large patches 3–6 mm long. Mycelium mostly superfi-
cial, composed of more or less compact network of repent, branched, septate,
smooth, anastomosing, pale brown to brown hyphae, 2–4.5 μm wide; subicular
hyphae short, ascending or repent, undulate or irregularly flexuous, smooth or
sparsely verrucose. Conidiophores micronematous, mononematous, cylindrical,
erect, subhyaline or pale brown, smooth or finely verrucose, 7–13 × 3–5 μm, often
reduced to conidiogenous cells. Conidiogenous cells monoblastic, integrated,
terminal, determinate, subhyaline to pale brown or brown, cylindrical or slightly
subulate, often arising directly on the superficial mycelium and closely packed
together at the fertile centre, globose, subglobose or ampulliform, 3–7 × 3–5 μm.
Conidia dimorphic, solitary, dry; lenticular conidia muriform, smooth, broadly el-
lipsoidal or disk-shape in front view, central cells brown or dark brown to black,
peripheral cells subhyaline to pale brown, forming a wide and distinct ring
3–5 μm wide, slightly constricted at the septa or not, ellipsoidal to narrow ellip-
soidal in side view with two distinct adpressed halves, each half seen laterally as
a row of 5–8 cells, end cells subhyaline to pale brown, middle cells dark brown to
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DELGADO G. ET AL.: TEXAS MICROFUNGI:HERMATOMYCES AMPHISPORUS REVISITED
Tab. 1. Sequences of specimens and strains of Hermatomyces amphisporus generated in this study
and their GenBank accession numbers.
Specimen Strain GenBank accession numbers
ITS-LSU EF1-aRPB2 b-TUB
ILLS 82991 CBS 146613 LR812662 LR812657 LR812668 LR812673
ILLS 82994 CBS 146611 LR812663 LR812658 LR812669 LR812674
ILLS 82996 CBS 146610 = CCF 6394 LR812664 – – –
ILLS 82997 CBS 146612 LR812665 LR812659 LR812670 LR812675
ILLS 82998 CBS 146614 LR812666 LR812660 LR812671 LR812676
ILLS 82999 CBS 146615 = CCF 6392 LR812667 LR812661 LR812672 LR812677
black, 27–36(38) × 18–29(31) μm, 14–20 μm thick; cylindrical conidia turbinate,
pyriform, cylindrical or subcylindrical, septate, smooth, 22–38(42) μm long, com-
posed of 6–12 hyaline, cylindrical or swollen cells arranged in two (rarely four)
columns, 10–17(21) μm wide, constricted at the septa, sometimes arising from
a single basal cell (6)9–13 μm wide at the top; columns ending in a bulbous apex
divided into 4 or more apical cells, grey when young, brown when older,
16–23(26) μm wide. Sexual morph unknown.
D e s c r i p t i o n i n c u l t u r e. Colonies on MEA at 25 °C reaching 9–16 mm af-
ter 7d, velvety, circular, grey, raised 1–3 mm above the agar surface, margin en-
tire, reverse dull black; sporulation observed after 3 months and only in two (CBS
146611, CBS 146615) out of six strains, conidia similar in size to those on natural
substrate but lenticular conidia showing higher variability and distortions. Hyaline
multicellular chlamydosporous structures produced intercalary and terminally,
potentially originating as strongly distorted lenticular conidia. Coelomycetous
synanamorph produced in strains CBS 146610, CBS 146611 and CBS 146615;
conidiomata pycnidial, superficial or partially immersed in the agar, solitary or
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Fig. 1. Hermatomyces amphisporus (ILLS 82994). A– cylindrical conidia; B– lenticular conidia; C–
young conidia, conidiogenous cells and superficial hyphae. Scale bar = 10 μm. Drawing G. Delgado.
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DELGADO G. ET AL.: TEXAS MICROFUNGI:HERMATOMYCES AMPHISPORUS REVISITED
Fig. 2. Hermatomyces amphisporus on natural substrate (A–J: ILLS 82996; K–M: XAL 862-2). A–
colonies on rachides of dead leaves of Sabal minor;B– subicular hyphae; C– fertile part of the
sporodochium with both types of conidia; D– cylindrical and lenticular conidia, arrow points to a cy-
lindrical conidium with four columns of cells; E–F – lenticular conidia; G–J – cylindrical conidia in
side view; K– envelope with holotype of H. amphisporus;L–M – cylindrical and lenticular conidia in
the permanent slide from the holotype. Scale bars: A = 200 μm; B, F = 10 μm; C–E, G–J = 20 μm; L–M =
10 μm. Photos O. Koukol & G. Heredia.
confluent, globose or subglobose, brown, non-ostiolate, 54–72 μm in diam.;
pycnidial wall pseudoparenchymatous. Conidia subglobose or oval, thin-walled,
smooth, hyaline, aseptate, often produced in white masses covering the tip of
pycnidia, 2–3 × 1.5–2 μm.
N ot e s. A comparison of the Texas specimens with the type material of
H. amphisporus (Fig. 2 K–M) and the species protologue showed that they agree
well in size and shape of cylindrical conidia, the holotype having dimensions of
30–38 × 20–26 μm and 12–13 mm wide at the top of the basal cell (Castańeda &
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Fig. 3. Hermatomyces amphisporus (CBS 146615) in culture. A– colonies on MEA; B–C – develop-
ment of lenticular conidia; D– lenticular conidium still attached to a conidiogenous cell (mounted in
cotton blue); E–F – lenticular and cylindrical conidia; G– both types of conidia with young pycnidia;
H–I – chlamydosporous structures; J–K – pycnidia with conidia. Scale bars: B = 10 μm; C–K = 20 μm.
Photos O. Koukol.
Heredia 2000). However, colony morphology and lenticular conidia differ in
some details from the holotype. The Mexican material has nest-like, olivaceous
brown, subiculate sporodochia, apparently with a well-developed, velvety outer
zone in contrast with the inconspicuous or almost absent subiculum of the Texas
collections (Fig. 2A). Lenticular conidia, on the other hand, are narrower and
thinner according to the protologue, being 20–21 μm wide and 12–15 μm thick.
Moreover, the cylindrical conidia were originally described as composed of 6–11
cells arranged in four columns. The original drawing and our specimens consis-
tently show mostly two columns of cells, rarely four, which divide into four or
more cells at the grey-brown, bulbous apex.
The genus Hermatomyces Speg. has been the subject of intense investigation
in recent years resulting in the consequent addition of several novelties from
Southeast Asia, Panama and Africa together with the introduction of the mono-
typic family Hermatomycetaceae (Pleosporales, Dothideomycetes) to accommo-
date it (Tibpromma et al. 2016, Hashimoto et al. 2017, Koukol et al. 2018, Koukol
& Delgado 2019). The species H. amphisporus was first described based on
a specimen collected on dead decaying branches of Cyathea sp. and on setae of
an unidentified fungus in a cloud forest in Mexico (Castańeda & Heredia 2000).
The fungus is characterised by the presence of dimorphic conidia, the cylindrical
ones turbinate to pyriform or globose-campanulate and composed of 6–11 cells
arranged in 4 rows, usually with only one cell at the base and the rows increasing
toward a grey-brown, leprous apex. Since the original description, it has been
rarely collected worldwide with scattered records from Vietnam on a dead
branch of an unknown tree (Meľnik et al. 2013) and from another rainforest in
Mexico on decaying branches (Martínez et al. 2014). Koukol et al. (2018) consid-
ered that the fungus might have a wider distribution range if closely resembling
specimens identified as H. tucumanensis in the literature are taken into account,
in particular a specimen collected on a dead trunk of an unidentified tree in Cuba
(Mercado 1984) and another specimen on rachides of dead leaves of the palm
tree Acoelorrhaphe wrightii (Griseb. & H. Wendl.) H. Wendl. ex Becc. from the
state of Florida, U.S.A. (Delgado 2013).
In general, the genus Hermatomyces has been poorly documented in the con-
tinental United States with only one specimen identified as H. tucumanensis
(Bates et al. 2018). An online search in Mycoportal (https://mycoportal.org/por-
tal/) showed that the material linked to this name corresponds to the Florida
specimen mentioned above (BPI 884154D) but its examination to confirm iden-
tity remains pending. However, considering that the fungus was found several
times in subtropical Texas, it is likely to occur also in nearby Florida. Its distribu-
tion is therefore expanded from Mexico to the north-east where it is probably
widespread in other locations across the southeastern United States with abun-
dance of palm tree hosts and similar climate. Examination of Texas specimens
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DELGADO G. ET AL.: TEXAS MICROFUNGI:HERMATOMYCES AMPHISPORUS REVISITED
confirmed H. amphisporus to be a variable species, particularly concerning the
morphology of their cylindrical conidia which range from turbinate or pyriform
in the holotype to cylindrical or subcylindrical, often with less distinct bulbous
upper cells and one or two swollen basal cells (Figs. 1, 2 G–J). The lack of a dis-
tinct subiculum surrounding the fertile sporulating centre of conidiomata is prob-
ably due to the influence of very different ecological factors affecting locations in
Texas and Mexico. Both collection sites in Texas were lowland floodplain forests
adjacent to rivers where the palm host Sabal minor tends to occur. They often
experience flooding, which partially or totally covers these understory short
palm trees for certain periods of time, favouring the dispersal of conidia but re-
ducing the production of subicular hyphae. Interestingly, the regularly changing
dry and wet seasons seem to be optimal for Hermatomyces species, as observed
by Koukol et al. (2018) in the lowland tropical forest of Panama. In contrast, the
type locality in the state of Veracruz, Mexico, is in a cloud forest at 1300 m a.s.l.
characterised by high moisture and mild temperatures throughout the year,
which may enhance the development of subicular hyphae as a protection to the
fertile zone of conidiomata.
In culture, two (CBS 146611 and CBS 146615) out of the six strains sporulated on
MEA and surprisingly produced both cylindrical and lenticular conidia (Fig. 3 B–G).
Sporulation in artificial media is rare or intermittent among Hermatomyces spe-
cies and has so far been reported mostly for certain isolates of monomorphic spe-
cies such as H. sphaericus (Sacc.) S. Hughes and H. sphaericoides Koukol &
G. Delgado (Zhang et al. 2009, Koukol et al. 2018). Only Matsushima (1993) previ-
ously reported a dimorphic species which he named ‘H. tucumanensis’ from decay-
ing petioles of a palm tree and a twig of a broadleaved tree in Peru which
sporulated well on corn meal agar. It produced typical lenticular but also cylindri-
cal conidia composed of two columns of 4–6 inflated, hyaline cells which cannot
be referred to H. tucumanensis or any other species described to date.Remark-
ably, the production of a coelomycetous, pycnidial synanamorph in some Texas
strains of H. amphisporus such as CBS 146610, CBS 146611 and CBS 146615
(Fig. 3 J, K) has never been observed before in the genus. Interestingly, production
of similarly looking ‘spermatial state’ forming globose black spermogonia and
hyaline spermatia has been observed in other pleosporalean anamorphs such as
Quadricrura septentrionalis Kaz. Tanaka, K. Hiray & Sat. Hatak when growing
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Fig. 4. Phylogenetic trees inferred from Bayesian and ML analyses showing the position of
Hermatomyces amphisporus (in bold) within Hermatomycetaceae basedonITS,b-TUB, RPB2 and
EF1-a. Numbers above branches represent PP > 0.95 and ML bootstrap support values BS > 95%. Se-
quences of Aquasubmersa japonica,Lophiotrema neoarundinaria,L. vagabundum and Lepido-
sphaeria nicotiae were used as outgroups. Collapsed branches denote multiple sequences of a given
species. For strain codes, refer to Koukol et al. (2018). ¤
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DELGADO G. ET AL.: TEXAS MICROFUNGI:HERMATOMYCES AMPHISPORUS REVISITED
on PDA (Tanaka et al. 2009). The naming given by these authors implies the exis-
tence of a sexual process or at least the capacity to form teleomorphic states.
However, teleomorphs are currently unknown for Hermatomyces although their
discovery in the future is not ruled out considering the numerous pleomorphic
families known in Pleosporales (Wijayawardene et al. 2017, 2018).
The phylogenetic affinities of the fungus based on the novel DNA sequence
data showed that H. amphisporus forms a strongly supported monophyletic
clade among members of Hermatomycetaceae in the ITS, RPB2 and b-TUB
phylogenies, although its position within the family was variable (Fig. 4). More-
over, the H. amphisporus clade was distant from the morphologically similar
H. pandanicola Tibpromma, Bhat & K.D. Hyde, which also produces turbinate
cylindrical conidia (Tibpromma et al. 2016). They can also be separated on mor-
phological grounds with H. pandanicola having smaller conidia, the cylindrical
ones having a lower number of cells with 4 arranged in two short columns, and
a size of 13.2–20.6 × 8.9–11.9 μm. Our study also showed an interesting pattern in
the genotype diversity. The six Texas strains of H. amphisporus have almost
identical ITS-LSU sequences (differing only in 3 indels out of 1400 bps), but differ
to various extent in their coding gene regions. In the case of EF1-a,thestrain
CBS 146614 deviated in 21 bps from the remaining ones, resulting in the place-
ment of this strain outside the H. amphisporus clade (Fig. 4). In the absence of
any phenotypic difference, this divergence reflects intraspecific variability and
the necessity to consider species boundaries based on evidence from multiple
strains and genes.
In the course of the present study, the morphologically atypical species
H. bauhiniae Phukhams., D.J. Bhat & K.D. Hyde (Hyde et al. 2019) came to our
attention and was subject to scrutiny. This dimorphic species was described
based on a single specimen collected on a dried branch of Bauhinia variegata
(L.) Benth. (Fabaceae) in Thailand. According to the illustration and description
in the protologue, the putative lenticular conidia are muriform, smooth, brown to
dark brown, broadly ellipsoidal to oval in front view, often with a distinct
subhyaline, inflated basal cell, and they strongly resemble conidia of several
Berkleasmium-like species (Holubová-Jechová 1987, Qu et al. 2014, Hüseyin et
al. 2014). Cylindrical conidia, on the other hand, are composed of one column,
2–3-septate, doliiform, cylindrical or subcylindrical in shape, with rounded apex
and clavate or doliiform, verrucose apical cells. However, the germinating
conidium illustrated in Fig. 25o strongly resembles the typical lenticular conidia
of Hermatomyces species and is obviously different from the Berkleasmium-like
conidia depicted in the rest of the photographic plate. Sporodochial conidiomata
as seen in Fig. 25 a–c also lack the outer nest-like subiculum surrounding the fer-
tile centre which is characteristic of Hermatomyces species. Further molecular
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CZECH MYCOLOGY 72(1): 95–107, JUNE 22, 2020 (ONLINE VERSION, ISSN 1805-1421)
evidence suggests that sequences attributed to the ‘H. bauhiniae’strainmight
belong to H. indicus Prasher & Sushma (Prasher & Sushma 2014). Hyde et al.
(2019) and our ITS, RPB2 and EF1-aphylogenies showed ‘H. bauhiniae’ grouped
with strains MFLUCC14-1143 and MFLUCC14-1144 of H. indicus from Thailand
with strong support. Moreover, nucleotide sequence comparisons of their ITS,
LSU and EF1-asequences show that they are almost identical. In contrast, the
RPB2 gene exhibited more variation with 21 bp differences, which could be suffi-
cient for a taxonomic novelty but could also reflect intraspecific variability such
as in the case of H. amphisporus and EF1-amentioned above. Hermatomyces
indicus is known from the Paleotropics and has so far been recorded in India,
Thailand and Sierra Leone. Co-occurrence of multiple Hermatomyces species on
the same substrate or together with other sporodochial fungi, e.g. Dictyosporium
hydei Prasher & R.K. Verma, has been previously observed (Koukol & Delgado
2019) and therefore, special attention is needed during isolation of these
anamorphs in pure culture. Apparently, the authors isolated into culture and se-
quenced H. indicus, but described and illustrated a different, probably novel
sporodochial Berkleasmium-like fungus. A proper genus should be found to ac-
commodate it and a new combination be made. On this basis, a lectotype must be
designated for the validly described name H. bauhiniae, which must remain at-
tached to the fungus “that corresponds most nearly with the original description
or diagnosis” (Art. 9.14, Turland et al. 2018), which obviously in this case is the
morphology described in the protologue.
Specimens examined
U n i t e d S t a t e s. Texas, Harris County, Spring, Meyer Park, 30°00'15.9" N, 95°31'35.7" W, 33 m
a.s.l., on rachides of dead leaves of Sabal minor, 29 Sept. 2019 leg. & det. G. Delgado & O. Koukol
(ILLS 82994 = CBS 146611); ibid., 3 Nov. 2019 (ILLS 82996 = CBS 146610, CCF 6394; ILLS 82997 = CBS
146612; ILLS 82991 = CBS 146613). – Houston, Bear Creek Pioneers Park, by Langham Creek,
29°50'04.8" N, 95°37'29.0" W, 30 m a.s.l., on rachides of dead leaves of Sabal minor, 10 Oct. 2019 leg. &
det. G. Delgado & O. Koukol (ILLS 82998 = CBS 146614; ILLS 82999 = CBS 146615, CCF 6392).
M e xi co. Veracruz, Huatusco, Las Cańadas cloud forest, on setae of an unidentified fungus on
decaying branches of Cyathea sp., 20 July 1999 leg. & det. R.F. Castańeda & G. Heredia (XAL 862-2,
Holotype).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
G.D. acknowledges Michael Manning and Kamash Pillai (Eurofins EMLab
P&K) for provision of laboratory facilities. O.K. thanks the institutional support
for science and research provided by the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports
of the Czech Republic.
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