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Weizen, Linsen, Opferbrote — Archäobotanische Analysen bronze- und eisenzeitlicher Brandopferplätze im mittleren Alpenraum
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Burnt-offering places are an archaeologically heterogeneous group of finds in the Alps, predominantly occurring during Late Bronze Age and Iron Age. Plant macrofossil and charcoal analyses were carried out at nine of these sites, targeting at the assessment of the offerings and the firewood used for the altars. A total of 99 taxa are represented by carbonised remains. One constant component in the finds are fragments of a cereal product, characterised by small-grained (< 300 µm) cereal bran and close structural resemblance to archaeological bread finds. Further classification (grain-paste, porridge or bread) was however not possible. In opposite to the processed cereals, grain finds (mainly hulled barley, hulled wheats, broomcorn millet) are rather scarce. Older sites (LBA) show the under-representation of main crops as documented for contemporary settlements. Finds of legumes were found mainly in north Italian sites. Oilseeds occur punctually. The useful plants spectrum, together with the archaeozoological record, confirms an "agrarian" character of the rituals postulated earlier: domesticated plants and animals dominate over gathered plants and game. Four hypotheses are suggested to explain the role of wild plants in the rituals, however not allowing definite conclusions. Fuel wood choice was guided by local availability, only two sites indicating specific selection. Dendrological and taphonomical parameters of the charcoal point to a predominance of gathered deadwood. Both aspects (deadwood use, no specific selection) clearly differentiate the Alpine burnt-offering from the ancient Greek ritual, which is often used as a basis for comparison.
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... When reconstructing human impact and interaction with mountain landscapes, considering proximate archaeological sites is imperative and a key to proper interpretation. The mire Piller Moor (Tyrol, Austria, Fig. 1) is one of the rare, well-preserved ombrotrophic peatlands in direct vicinity to well-known archaeological sites, which are a bronzehoard and a ritual fire site (Heiss, 2008;Tomedi, 2012Tomedi, , 2002aTschurtschenthaler and Wein, 2002). Palynological data is available for the site (Hubmann, 1994), while nearby palaeovegetation studies give a good perspective on regional developments (e.g. ...
Humans have occupied the Alps over most of the Holocene. Yet, continuous records on the impact of using montane resources and landscapes are scarce or confined to segregated areas or periods. We present a high-resolution geochemical record of the last 4800 years from the ombrotrophic peatland Piller Moor in the Central Alps (Tyrolean Oberland, western Austria), using inductively coupled mass plasma spectrometry (ICP-MS) and highly efficient inter-calibrated portable X-ray fluorescence analysis (pXRF). Fluctuations of metal enrichment factors (EF) for lead (Pb), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) and antimony (Sb), accumulation rates of anthropogenic lead (Pbanth AR) and mineral matter (MAR), based on titanium (Ti), are in line with archaeological and pollen evidence for human presence and environmental change. Periods of intensified, erosive land use are indicated by MAR around 4400 cal BP, 3400 cal BP and, very prominently, at 2400 cal BP. After low MAR in the early Middle Ages, soil disturbances reappear around 1200 cal BP (750 AD), after 200 cal BP (1750 AD) and during the 20th century AD. We found evidence that metallurgy was practised in the area as early as 4450 cal BP, again from 3500 to 2900 cal BP and episodically between 2400 and 1400 cal BP. The Central Alps were presumably a source of increased Pb-emissions in the post-Roman period from 1500 to 1400 cal BP (450–550 AD). Generally, our findings suggest that mining predates archaeological and historical evidence. Following a continuous increase since the Middle Ages, atmospheric Pb EF and Pbanth AR peak around 1980 AD. The record of mineral atmospheric input illustrates the notable impact of human activities on soil erosion and dust entrainment in the Central Alps. Furthermore, links between Little Ice Age cold phases and reduced human impact and mining are established. Our high-resolution peat-geochemistry data quantifies atmospheric deposition of mineral matter and Pb, which act as proxies for landscape evolution and metallurgy on a local and regional scale. It provides new insights and a deeper understanding of the interaction of climate, environment and humans in mountainous landscapes like the Central Alps.
... Lentil, one of the most desirable legumes of the Old world due to its protein percentage (25%), was discovered in all periods, aside from the late phase of the Middle Bronze Age. Lentil finds are also characteristic of (the Neolithic and) Bronze and Iron Ages in the wider area of South-Eastern Europe and beyond (Croatia: Mareković et al. 2015;Reed et al. 2021;Serbia: Kroll, Borojević 1988;Medović 2002;Slovenia: Culiberg, Šercelj 1995;Italy: Giachi et al. 2010;Austria: Kohler-Schneider 2001;Heiss 2008;Hungary: Gyulai 2010;Filatova et al. 2018). Out of useful trees, remains of oak acorn (Quercus sp.) were discovered, and a probable find of danewort seed (Sambucus cf. ...
Arheološkim istraživanjima na lokalitetu Osijek – Ciglana i Zeleno polje utvrđeni su ostaci naselja iz brončanoga i željeznoga doba. Najstarije naselje, osnovano tijekom srednjega brončanog doba, kontinuirano je živjelo do starije faze kasnoga brončanog doba. Nakon dužega hijatusa, položaj je ponovno naseljen u mlađoj fazi starijega željeznog doba te zatim ponovno u kasnolatenskome razdoblju. Istraženost veće površine omogućila je praćenje promjena u strukturi i organizaciji naselja, dok provedene arheozoološke i arheobotaničke analize svjedoče o privredi stanovništva naseljenoga na istome prostoru tijekom dužega vremenskog razdoblja. Na brončanodobnom naselju najveće su promjene primjetne na prijelazu starije u mlađu srednjobrončanodobnu fazu, što se poklapa s nestankom inkrustirane keramike srednjega brončanog doba te nešto češćom pojavom materijala kakav se pripisuje kulturi grobnih humaka. Rezultati arheozooloških i arheobotaničkih analiza pokazuju kako se, bez obzira na promjene arheoloških kultura i razdoblja, privreda stanovništva naseljenoga na istome mjestu nije bitno mijenjala.
... H. vulgare, T. dicoccum, P. miliaceum and V. faba are among the most frequently evidenced and major crops of the Eastern Alps during the Iron Age (Werneck 1949;Oeggl 1992Oeggl , 2015Oeggl , 2019Küster 1995;Schmidl et al. 2007;Außerlechner 2021a, b). Processed plant food such as 'baked' cereals, pulp and bread-like charred amorphous objects have often been found in archaeological contexts (Petrucci-Bavaud and Jacomet 1997; Kreuz and Boenke 2001;Heiss 2008;Castiglioni 2016;Primavera et al., 2019;Außerlechner 2021a, b). Statements concerning the consumption of porridge or bread at Piperbühel are not reliable, however, because the microstructures of the 'baked' Panicum/Setaria caryopses have not yet been analysed. ...
From the Neolithic onwards, prehistoric human land use is testified by various archaeological records in the area around Piperbühel (South Tyrol, Italy). This archaeobotanical study involves a rare archaeological record, a Late Iron Age smithy which was evidenced by the smiths’ hearth and the smithing waste. The aim of this research was to broaden knowledge about the composition of finds, the plant diet and the environment of the smiths. There was a special focus on the edible fruits and nuts in the Eastern Alps during the Iron Age. Ten stratigraphic units with a total weight of 101 kg or a bulk volume of 92 l were archaeobotanically processed and analysed. The samples contained archaeological, archaeozoological and archaeobotanical finds. Cultivated plants such as Hordeum vulgare (barley), Triticum dicoccum (emmer), Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) and Vicia faba (faba bean) were evidenced. They belonged to the most commonly cultivated plants during the Iron Age. The edible wild fruits and nuts of Cornus mas (cornel cherry), Corylus avellana (common hazel), Prunus cf. padus (probably bird cherry), Prunus cf. spinosa (probably sloe), Sambucus nigra (black elder), and Vitis vinifera (grapevine) were consumed. Recovered herbs and weeds such as Arenaria serpyllifolia (thyme-leaved sandwort), Chenopodium hybridum (maple-leaved goosefoot), Myosotis sylvatica (wood forget-me-not), Polygonum lapathifolium (curlytop knotweed), Rumex acetosa (common sorrel), Silene vulgaris (bladder campion) and Solanum nigrum (black nightshade) demonstrate different habitats. The wild plants reflect a cultural landscape characterised by low-density deciduous stands, hoe weed, ruderal plant and pastureland communities. The correlation of the edible fruits and nuts from 24 Iron Age settlements in different geographic regions of the Eastern Alps resulted in varying fruit compositions, which were due to different local growth and taphonomic conditions. The most frequently found fruits and nuts at the settlement sites during the Iron Age were C. avellana, V. vinifera, P. spinosa, Rubus (raspberry/blackberry) and Sambucus.
... The Bronze Age also sees the intensification and diversification of agricultural practices, with the development of new tools and production techniques, as well as an increase in wool production and intensified animal management (Kroll 1990;Medović 2002;Gyulai 2010;Bökönyi 1971;Sabatini, Bergerbrant, and Brandt 2019;Zavodny et al. 2019). In the river lowlands of northern Italy and the southern and western edges of the Pannonian plain (extending roughly between Vienna (Austria) in the northwest, Košice (Slovakia) in the northeast, Zagreb (Croatia) in the southwest, Novi Sad (Serbia) in the south and Satu Mare (Romania) in the east) the archaeobotanical evidence is relatively patchy (Benac 1951;Bandini Mazzanti, Mercuri, and Barbi 1996;Castelletti and Montella de Carlo 1998;Castelletti 1972;Costantini and Costantini Biasini 2007;Culiberg and Šercelj 1995;Follieri 1981;Giachi et al. 2010;Hänsel, Mihovilić, and Teržan 1997;Heiss 2008Heiss , 2010Kroll and Borojević 1988;Kroll and Reed 2016;Mariotti Lippi et al. 2009;Medović 2002Medović , 2012Mercuri et al. 2006;Pals and Voorrips 1979;Rottoli 1997;Reed 2013;Schmidl and Oeggl 2005;Šoštarić 2001). A recent study by Filipović et al. (2020) suggests that by the mid-fifteenth century BC, broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum) was present in the middle Danube region-in the territory of modern-day Romania (Corneşti-Iarcuri), Hungary (Fajsz 18) and perhaps Croatia (Mačkovac-Crišnjevi). Similarly broad bean (Vicia faba), and the oil plant gold-of-pleasure (Camelina sativa) and safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) are also not seen until the middle Bronze Age, at sites such as Feudvar in Serbia (Kroll and Reed 2016). ...
Bronze Age agriculture in Europe is marked by the adoption of new crops, such as broomcorn millet (Panicum miliaceum), broad bean (Vicia faba) and gold-of-pleasure (Camelina sativa). Yet, at a regional level, it is sometimes unclear when, where and why these crops are adopted and whether they were all adopted at the same time. Croatia is one such region where archaeobotanical research is limited, making it difficult to discuss Bronze Age agriculture and diet in more detail. The discovery of a burnt-down house with crop stores at Kalnik-Igrišče provides a unique archaeobotanical assemblage and snapshot of late Bronze Age agriculture (1000–800 BC). From the carbonised plant remains discovered at Kalnik-Igrišče we see a dominance in the crops broomcorn millet, barley (Hordeum vulgare), free-threshing wheat (Triticum aestivum/durum/turgidum) and broad bean. Emmer (Triticum dicoccum), spelt (Triticum spelta), and lentil (Lens culinaris) were also found, suggesting they were probably minor crops, while spatial analysis indicates distinct crop storage areas within the building. Overall, these finds support the adoption and integration of these new crops within northern Croatia by the late Bronze Age, while highlighting implications for seasonal strategies, risk management, and cultural dietary choice.
... d wesentlich geeigneter zum Brotbacken als alle anderen bronzezeitlich kultivierten Getreide. Der Einfluss der Wahl des angebauten Getreides für Brot oder andere Zubereitungsmethoden liegt auf der Hand und bestimmt ihre Repräsentanz in den archäobotanischen Proben. Direkte Hinweise hierzu ergeben sich aus Analysen von Brei-/Brotresten (Hansson 1994. Heiss 2008131 ff. Valamoti u. a. 2008) sowie aus Bier-/Malznachweisen (Stika 1996 b). Bier in der Vorgeschichte wird auch von vielen anderen Autoren diskutiert s.a. van Zeist (1991, 118 ff.), b) und Procopiou/Treuil (2002. ...
Burnt offering sites reflect the physical and spiritual aspects of human life in the inner Alps during the Bronze and Iron Ages. Burnt offerings were made in ceremonies with various parts including fire rites, from which the carbonised macro-remains testify to a significant use of plants. The individual finds and records provide information about diet, firewood supply, economic and social behaviour, faith, skills, crafts, and trade. In this study, the focus was on plant uses and in rites at 25 Bronze and Iron Age burnt offering sites in the Eastern Alps. Wood was the basis for the burnt offering rite, similar to the cremation rite, which was also beginning in the Bronze Age. The most consistently found fuel remains were charcoal from coniferous wood, especially Picea/Larix-type (most probably Picea, spruce), probably due to its burning qualities and easy availability during this period. Corylus avellana (hazel) was the commonest deciduous wood. All identified wood taxa correspond with the local natural vegetation types of the time. Overall, they suggest low-density woodland stands and more or less sustainable human land use near the burnt offering sites, in the hill and mountain vegetation zone. The wood for the pyre was collected near the offering sites, so there are variations in firewood taxa resulting from the differences in the local natural landscape, (micro)climate, geology and edaphic conditions. The charred wood, crops and wild fruit and nut remains were ritually deposited in pits after the fire rite, which is another link to cremation. Food plant remains were usually present in low quantities due to the nature of burnt offerings, but their consistent records at the burnt offering sites point to a deep spiritual connection to nature and a high appreciation for plants as sources of food, raw materials and energy. They show that essentials were central elements of the burnt offering rite and that everyday matters overlapped with spiritual or religious concerns. Altogether, the finds of 15 different crops and 15 different edible plant taxa demonstrate a fairly high food plant diversity at the sites during the Bronze and Iron Ages. Hordeum vulgare (barley), Triticum dicoccum (emmer), Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn millet) and Vicia faba (broad bean) were the most consistent and important crops. They reflect a common food trend, which most probably resulted from climate extremes and deterioration. Plants naturally growing outside the Eastern Alpine vegetational zones were nearly absent, showing a lack of trade in food at the time, while native fruits and nuts were often used as ritual plants and played an important role as food plants. They are an argument for local agriculture and economy. Of the wild plants, Corylus avellana (hazel) was the most often found by far, followed by Fragaria vesca (strawberry), Rubus idaeus (raspberry), R. fruticosus (blackberry) and Sambucus nigra (elder). Like the wood taxa, the fruits and nuts indicate a human influenced environment and point to woodland edges, margins and clearings. Some of the firewood and food plants may also have been elements of the offering rite due to their medicinal and psychedelic effects, burning characteristics and symbolic background.
The site of Parkhaus Opéra is located on the north-eastern shore of Lake Zürich (Switzerland) and was documented during a rescue excavation in 2010 and 2011 by the Office for Urbanism, City of Zürich. Two charred bread-like objects were found in late Neolithic Layer 13 of the pile-dwelling, and are investigated using a novel set of analyses for cereal-based foodstuffs. Tissue remains of barley and wheat were identified, as well as a schizocarp of celery (cf. Apium graveolens), providing the first evidence for the use of bread condiments in the Neolithic. Cereal particle sizes were recorded and used to draw conclusions regarding milling and sieving of the raw material. Gas bubbles in the charred objects were measured in order to evaluate possible leavening of the dough. The outcomes of this research significantly advance the understanding of the production traits of cereal-based food during the Neolithic. The analytical techniques proposed by this study open up new possibilities for systematic and consistent investigations of cereal-based archaeological foodstuffs.
This paper reviews the remains of plants (cereals, pulses, fruit and vegetables) used as offerings in cremation burials in
northern Italian Roman cemeteries between the 1st century b.c. and the 3rd century a.d. The custom of burning plant offerings on the funeral pyre was widespread in the Iron Age, but in the Roman Empire such offerings
became more frequent and abundant, with fruit being prevalent and also the recurrent use of various prepared foods (bread,
cakes and suchlike). In each cemetery this general scheme exhibits variations probably due to individual, social, ritual and
economic differences, but this impression must be still confirmed. The absence of a systematic sampling strategy does not
permit a statistical approach to offering data. The aim of this article is to encourage archaeologists and archaeobotanists
to pay more attention to methodology in sampling. This would also permit careful comparison of the archaeobotanical data with
archaeological, anthropological and historical information and that from written sources. The consistently recorded presence
of fruit in cemeteries makes it possible to investigate some aspects of the introduction, cultivation and marketing of certain
food plants in northern Italy.
KeywordsPlant offerings–Cemetery–Cremations–Roman period–Northern Italy–Fruit
