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Understanding the smartphone generation: is problematic smartphone use associated with low body esteem among adolescent girls and boys?

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Gianluca Lo Coco at Università degli Studi di Palermo
Gianluca Lo Coco
Laura Salerno at Università degli Studi di Palermo
Laura Salerno
Cecilia Giordano at Università degli Studi di Palermo
Cecilia Giordano
Marie Di Blasi at Università degli Studi di Palermo
Marie Di Blasi
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Abstract and Figures

Contemporary adolescents increasingly engage with social media via their smartphones, and problematic smartphone use has been identified as a growing concern. The aim of the current study was to examine the association between problematic smartphone use and body esteem among adolescent boys and girls. A sample of 647 adolescents (mean age: 14.15 years; 56.7% females) completed measures of problematic smartphone use, emotional regulation, and body esteem. Findings from hierarchical regression models revealed that problematic smartphone use was weakly associated with body esteem among both adolescent girls and boys. Furthermore, difficulties with emotional regulation were moderately associated with problematic smartphone use and, among girls, moderated the relationship between problematic smartphone use and the evaluation attributed to others about one’s own body, such that problematic smartphone use was more tightly associated with appearance attributions among girls with greater emotion regulation difficulties. This study provides initial support for the relationships between problematic smartphone use and emotional regulation difficulties on the one hand, and body esteem on the other, among both adolescent boys and girls.
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Understanding the smartphone generation: is problematic
smartphone use associated with low body esteem among adolescent
girls and boys?
Gianluca Lo Coco
1
&Laura Salerno
1
&Cecilia Giordano
1
&Maria Di Blasi
1
&Rachel F. Rodgers
2
#Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature 2020
Abstract
Contemporary adolescents increasingly engage with social media via their smartphones, and problematic smartphone use has
been identified as a growing concern. The aim of the current study was to examine the association between problematic
smartphone use and body esteem among adolescent boys and girls. A sample of 647 adolescents (mean age: 14.15 years;
56.7% females) completed measures of problematic smartphone use, emotional regulation, and body esteem. Findings from
hierarchical regression models revealed that problematic smartphone use was weakly associated with body esteem among both
adolescent girls and boys. Furthermore, difficulties with emotional regulation were moderately associated with problematic
smartphone use and, among girls, moderated the relationship between problematic smartphone use and the evaluation attributed
to others about one’s own body, such that problematic smartphone use was more tightly associated with appearance attributions
among girls with greater emotion regulation difficulties. This study provides initial support for the relationships between
problematic smartphone use and emotional regulation difficulties on the one hand, and body esteem on the other, among both
adolescent boys and girls.
Keywords Problematic smartphone use .Body esteem .Body image .Emotion regulation .Adolescents
Introduction
In Western countries the large majority ofthe populationowns
a smartphone with permanent Internet access, and nearly all
adolescents go online daily for browsing, communicating with
peers, and gaming (Panova and Carbonell 2018; Statista
2020). The large amount of available applications fosters the
intensive use of smartphones among adolescents, which in
turn promotes the need to always be online and constantly
interact with others (Fisher-Grote et al. 2019). Thus,
experiencing pressure to not miss out and stay up to date has
become normative for teenagers (Franchina et al. 2018). Girls
are reported to spend more time on their phones per day than
boys, particularly for time-consuming activities such as
texting and using social media sites (Roberts et al. 2014;
Servidio 2019), revealing that smartphone related attitudes
and behaviors are gendered.
It has been shown that daily smartphone use including
engaging with social media, playing video games, online
shopping, viewing TV shows via the Internet, and chatting
and messaging, can increase feelings of dependency among
smartphone users (Lopez-Fernandez et al. 2017). Research on
the addictive potential of smartphones is ever increasing, but
most of the extant literature is characterized by the lack of a
theoretical rationale and mostly based on clinical concepts
borrowed from the area of substance dependence (Billieux
et al. 2015). However, there is still inconsistent support for
the usefulness of considering smartphone use through an ad-
dictions lens and, thus, scholars have moved towards a prob-
lematic smartphone use (PSU) framework (Panova and
Carbonell 2018). PSU (Elhai et al. 2017) refers to an excessive
engagement with one’ssmartphone,whichisassociatedwith
adverse daily-life outcomes and symptoms, such as withdraw-
al, loss of control and tolerance, only in part resembling those
of substance use disorders (Billieux et al. 2015;Kussetal.
2018). Billieux et al. (2015) proposed a three-pathway model
*Gianluca Lo Coco
gianluca.lococo@unipa.it
1
Department of Psychology, Educational Science and Human
Movement, University of Palermo, Viale delle Scienze, Edificio 15,
90128 Palermo, Italy
2
Northeastern University, Northeastern University International
Village Suite 404, 360 Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA 02115,
USA
https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-00847-5
Published online: 10 June 2020
Current Psychology (2022) 41:3173–3184
Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. Rights reserved.
... The statistical data for running the meta-analysis extracted include (1) PSU measures (mean, SD), (2) ER measures (mean, SD), (3) sample size, (4) correlational coefficient together with its 95% Confidence Interval (CI), (5) p-value, and (6) the relevant data for running meta-regression. Relevant authors were contacted [47][48][49][50][51][52][53] for clarification of incomplete data, in which all but 1 author replied to get extra information required for the review and analysis. ...
... In assessing the risk of bias, a modified McMaster Critical Appraisal Tool for quantitative studies was employed and measured in terms of percentage according to the number of criteria fulfilled. As shown in Table S1, most studies have relatively good qualities, whereby 1 study scored 100% [40], 6 studies 91% [49][50][51][56][57][58], 12 studies scored 82% [47,48,52,[59][60][61][62][63][64][65][66][67], and another 2 studies score 73% [53,68] (refer to Table S1 of Supplementary file). ...
... The studies employed the usage of designations such as "emotional dysregulation", "emotional control difficulty", "dysfunctional emotion regulation", and "expressive suppression" to refer to maladaptive ER or ED, whilst the term "cognitive reappraisal" is used to refer to adaptive ER. Nine of the studies used DERS [48][49][50][51]53,58,59,61,65], seven studies used ERQ [40,47,52,56,57,64,68], one study [56] other than using ERQ, also used an additional scale, which is the Ruminative Thought Style Questionnaire (RTSQ), two studies used CERQ [63,67], one study used the Mood Regulation Scale (MR) [60], one study used EMSS [62], and one study used ERSA [66]. All scales are validated. ...
The Relationship between Emotion Regulation (ER) and Problematic Smartphone Use (PSU): A Systematic Review and Meta-Analyses
Article
Full-text available
Emotion Dysregulation (ED) and Problematic Smartphone Use (PSU) are two rising global issues requiring further understanding on how they are linked. This paper aims to summarize the evidence pertaining to this relationship. Five databases were systematically searched for published literature from inception until 29 March 2021 using appropriate search strategies. Each study was screened for eligibility based on the set criteria, assessed for its quality and its level of evidence was determined. The Comprehensive Meta-Analysis software program (CMA) was employed to run further analyses of the data. Twenty-one studies were included in the systematic review. Nine studies with extractable data for meta-analysis had high across-studies heterogeneity, hence subgroup analyses were performed that confirmed a significant moderate positive correlation between ED and PSU (pooled correlation coefficient, r = 0.416 (four studies, n = 1462) and r = 0.42 (three studies, n = 899), respectively) and a weak positive correlation between “expressive suppression” and PSU (pooled correlation coefficient, r = 0.14 (two studies, n = 608)). Meta-regression analysis showed a stronger correlation between ED and PSU (R2 = 1.0, p = 0.0006) in the younger age group. Further studies to establish and explore the mechanisms that contribute towards the positive link between ED and PSU are required to guide in the planning of targeted interventions in addressing both issues.
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... When analysing research findings, it should also be emphasised that very often PSU themes are not shown directly through descriptive statistics that present the scale, but with an emphasis on co-occurring factors (sociodemographic, social determinants, biopsychic characteristics, new media use style) (Lo Coco et al., 2020;Yang et al., 2020;Romero-Rodríguez et al., 2020;Eichenberg et al., 2021). Clearly, research that triangulates multiple tests that measure factors that are determinant variables of PSU is extremely valuable; however, the absence of data on the magnitude of PSU (particularly with representative samples) causes issues, particularly for those involved in the diagnosis and prevention of cyberhazards. ...
Problematic Smartphone Use among Young People and the Use of Additional Social Networking Software—an Example from Bosnia and Herzegovina
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  • Apr 2024
  • CHILD INDIC RES
The aim of the article is to reveal the level of problematic smartphone use (PSU) among young people, with an additional aim being to diagnose the level of use of applications offering ready access to popular social networks (SNS—e.g. Facebook, Instagram, Snapchat, TikTok, Pinterest). The text fills a gap related to the scale and mechanisms of PSUs. The research was conducted in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 2022, and is the first study of its kind in the country. A total of 1,024 young people participated in the study (age range 14–19 years; Female 627, Male 397). From the data collected, it was noted that: 1) Loss of control of the duration of smartphone use is the most common symptom of PSU; 2) Around 40% of respondents report having problems with self-control of duration of smartphone use; 3) 17.19% of the sample have high intensity of almost all diagnostic criteria of PSU; 4) About 1/3 of respondents declare no symptoms of PSU; 5) High intensity of PSU is more common in girls than in boys; 6) Instagram and TikTok are the most frequently used applications on smartphones; 7) More than half of the respondents use Instagram software constantly or almost constantly during the day, while less than 40% use TikTok-enabled software; 8) Girls are slightly more likely to use Instagram-enabled and TikTok-enabled software on smartphones; 9) Frequency of use of SNS software on smartphones is a poor predictor of PSU rates.
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... Our study found significant associations between participants' gender, parental status, occupational status and daily smartphone usage time and smartphone usage related dysregulation. In line with previous research, females reported higher levels of dysregulation than males [95]. Our findings also revealed that non-parents reported higher smartphone use-related dysregulation than parents, which has not been investigated in the past. ...
Validation of a modified problematic use of mobile phones scale to examine problematic smartphone use and dependence
Article
Full-text available
  • Jan 2024
Over the past decade, the world population has experienced rapid and widespread adoption of smartphones due to their usefulness and convenience. However, researchers have identified a range of adverse behaviours associated with the adoption of smartphones and their higher use. These behaviours are collectively described as Problematic Smartphone Use and Dependence (PSUD). Despite growing research, the underlying processes and drivers leading to these behaviours are inadequately understood. This can partly be attributed to the absence of developed statistical tools and measures that allow researchers to build a comprehensive conceptual understanding of PSUD. To address this issue, this study proposes and evaluates a validated extension to the Problematic Use of Mobile Phones (PUMP) scale. The extension of this tool incorporates factors associated with substance dependence outlined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), including additional items to measure PSUD accurately, referred to as the modified problematic use of mobile phones (MPUMP) scale. The newly developed tool was used in a cross-sectional online survey during September and October 2022, drawing on 1018 adult Australian participants. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) were conducted to derive the underlying factors. The EFA revealed two distinct factors: Distraction and Dysregulation. Both factors exhibited high internal consistency, with Cronbach's Alpha coefficients of 0.92 and 0.86, respectively. A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) revealed significant variations inthe identified factors' mean scores across different socio-demographic characteristics. The study provides evidence that the MPUMP scale is a validated and reliable measure for accurately assessing PSUD. The study findings offer novel insights into the psychosocial and physical aspects of PSUD, providing a foundation for exploring the causes and potential interventions for PSUD.
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... Finally, meta-analytic results showed a small and negative association between the dysfunctional use of digital media and sleep health subjectively measured over time. These findings confirm those of previous research that reported how dysfunctional use of digital media was associated with negative outcomes in both social well-being (e.g., Ko et al., 2009) and psychological well-being (Lo Coco et al., 2022;Steele et al., 2020;Wartberg et al., 2021). In addition, the current findings extend previous works that had only examined smartphone addiction as a dysfunctional behavior that impacts sleep (Mac Cárthaigh et al., 2020;Randler et al., 2020;Zhang et al., 2022). ...
“Using digital media or sleeping … that is the question”. A meta-analysis on digital media use and unhealthy sleep in adolescence
Article
Full-text available
  • May 2023
  • COMPUT HUM BEHAV
This systematic review with meta-analysis aims to examine the relation between different aspects of digital media use and sleep health patterns. Eligible studies had to be longitudinal and with adolescents' sample. Multiple search strategies were applied until January 28, 2023 in order to identify relevant research published in peer-reviewed journal articles or available grey literature. A final set of 23 studies (N = 116,431; 53.2% female; Mage at baseline = 13.4 years) were included. The quality of the studies, assessed with an adapted version of the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale, was high with a consequent low risk of bias. Meta–analytic results showed that traditional media use (r = −0.33 [-0.44; −0.22]), social media use (r = −0.12 [-0.22; −0.01]), prolonged use (r = −0.06 [-0.11; −0.01]), and dysfunctional use (r = −0.19 [-0.29; −0.09]) are negatively related to adolescents’ sleep health at a later time point. Conversely, sleep patterns were not related to social media use (r = −.05 [-0.10; 0.00]) and utilization time (r = −0.13 [-0.30; 0.04]), but they were related to dysfunctional use of media (r = −0.22 [-0.33; −0.10]). Overall, this review highlights the presence of a vicious cycle between digital media use and sleep health in adolescence.
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... Online, individuals with social anxiety can obtain easier and more satisfactory social interaction because their anxiety level is reduced (Hwang et al., 2022;Zou et al., 2021;Lee & Staplinski, 2012). Social interaction through smartphones replaces the face-to-face contact that makes individuals more anxious, and the sense of anonymity can reduce individuals' concerns about their appearance (Lo Coco et al., 2020;Yang et al., 2020;Weidman et al., 2012). ...
The relationship between social anxiety and problematic smartphone use: a chain mediation model
Article
Full-text available
  • Apr 2023
  • CURR PSYCHOL
Socially anxious individuals avoid face-to-face communication by increasing their use of mobile phones. The relationship between anxiety and problematic smartphone use (PSU) severity has been studied; however, the association between social anxiety and problematic smartphone use, especially regarding psychological, cognitive and behavioral risk factors, requires further verification. The aim of the current study was to investigate the mediating role of smartphone use and rumination in the relationship between social anxiety and PSU. We recruited 825 Chinese undergraduate students by convenience sampling via a web-based survey that measured social anxiety (Social Interaction Anxiety Scale, SIAS), PSU(Smartphone addiction scale-short version, SAS-SV), smartphone use (two questions about smartphone use time) and rumination (Rumination scale). Seven hundred twenty-one valid questionnaires were obtained (74.5% male). A significant positive correlation between social anxiety and PSU (β = 0.1001, p < 0.001) was observed. Smartphone use and rumination mediated social anxiety and PSU severity. In the final model, smartphone use and rumination played a serial mediating role in the social anxiety and PSU relationship. Thus, future research should focus on rumination and its association with smartphone use.
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... Building upon these prior studies, this study further establishes smartphone addiction as a novel mediator in the association between body dissatisfaction and the three disordered eating behaviors. According to the compensatory satisfaction theory, the problematic use of smartphones could be considered a compensatory strategy to satisfy psychological demands that cannot be met in reality [34,45], because in the virtual world, an individual may temporarily be able to mitigate dissatisfaction by selectively presenting the positive aspects of themselves [46] and constantly seeking reassurance from others [47]. Thus, habitual behaviors are reinforced and, in the long term, the risk of other detrimental behaviors such as disordered eating may be increased. ...
Body Dissatisfaction and Disordered Eating Behaviors: The Mediation Role of Smartphone Addiction and Depression
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Full-text available
  • Mar 2022
This study aimed to determine whether smartphone addiction and depression sequentially mediate the relationship between body dissatisfaction and disordered eating behaviors (e.g., restrained eating, emotional eating and external eating). A total of 5986 participants (54.1% females, average age = 19.8 years, age range = 17–32) completed the Satisfaction and Dissatisfaction with Body Parts Scale, the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire, the Smartphone Addiction Scale and the Patient Health Questionnaire-9. Mediational analysis showed that, after controlling for age, sex and body mass index, body dissatisfaction was related to disordered eating behaviors through (a) the mediating effect of smartphone addiction, (b) the mediating effect of depression, and (c) the serial mediating effect of smartphone addiction and depression. In conclusion, our study showed for the first time that smartphone addiction and depression can be sequential mediator variables in the association between body dissatisfaction and disordered eating. However, this study is a cross-sectional study; future longitudinal studies could further test the causal associations between these study variables.
View
... For example, Pivetta, Harkin, Billieux, Kanjo, and Kuss [6] reported that smartphone addiction was directly related to antisocial behaviours. Other traits, such as low self-esteem [7] or lack of empathy [8,9], are directly related to addiction problems, too. ...
Relationship between Prosocial Behaviours and Addiction Problems: A Systematic Review
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  • Jan 2022
The relationship of addiction problems with other pathologies or with different problematic factors has often been studied by psychology. Positive psychology is also currently approaching to these problems and their relationship with positive factors, such as prosocial behaviours. The purpose of this research is to carry out a systematic review of the scientific literature that has studied this relationship from 1900 to 2020. After the screening process with the inclusion and exclusion criteria, a total of 15 articles were selected. The main characteristics found in this relationship and the problems or limitations of investigations that have found relationships other than the mainstream, which show a negative relationship between prosocial behaviours and addiction problems, are discussed.
View
Emotion Regulation Strategies and Symptoms of Depression, Anxiety, Aggression, and Addiction in Children and Adolescents: A Meta-Analysis and Systematic Review
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  • Jul 2023
Emotion regulation has been put forward as an important transdiagnostic process. However, previous analyses of the relationships between emotion regulation strategies and symptoms of psychopathology in children and adolescents have produced mixed results. The present meta-analysis examines the relationships between youth’s habitual use of three adaptive (acceptance, problem-solving, and cognitive reappraisal) and three maladaptive (rumination, avoidance, and suppression) strategies with symptoms of depression, anxiety, aggression, and addiction. A total of 181 articles with 386 effect sizes were analyzed. Rumination, avoidance, and acceptance showed the largest effect sizes across all symptoms. Maladaptive strategies showed, in general, larger effect sizes than adaptive strategies. Effect sizes were generally larger for internalizing compared to externalizing symptoms. The findings underscore the importance of emotion regulation for mental health in youth.
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The Use of Social Networking Sites and Its Impact on Adolescents’ Emotional Well-Being: a Scoping Review
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  • Sep 2022
Purpose of Review The rapid development of social networking sites (SNSs) has affected adolescents’ well-being with great impact on social experience. In this scoping review, we aimed to map out what is known from the most recent literature about adolescents’ emotional well-being and the role of emotional regulation skills in preventing problematic SNS use. We used the Arksey and O’Malley methodological framework, and we based the study selection procedure on the PRISMA process. Then, we selected 52 English and peer-reviewed papers from PubMed, MEDLINE, PsycARTICLES, PsycINFO, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection, Wiley Online Library, and Web of Science. Recent Findings We found both positive and negative effects of SNS use on adolescents’ emotions with online self-presentation and social comparison as key mechanisms to explain differences in subjective well-being. The risk of developing problematic use of SNSs is influenced by time spent on SNSs, active or passive use, and adolescents’ social and emotional skills. Summary This review suggested the importance of emotional experiences and social support in both in-person and online interactions. Future research is needed to provide the basis for a better forthcoming classification of problematic SNS use.
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Evaluating Gender Differences in Problematic Smartphone Use
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The Smartphone Addiction Inventory (SPAI) is widely used to measure problematic smartphone use (PSU). Although the SPAI has been translated and validated in different countries, its measurement invariance across gender has received little research attention. This study aimed to examine whether men and women interpreted the Italian version of the SPAI (SPAI-I) similarly and, consequently, whether the observed gender differences in SPAI scores, which have been shown in previous studies, could be due to true differences, rather than to differences in measurement. Six hundred nineteen Italian young adults (Mage = 22.02 ± 2.63; 55.7% women) took part in the study and completed the SPAI-I. Multigroup CFA was applied to test the measurement invariance across gender, and the item parameter invariance was investigated with the item-response theory (IRT) differential item functioning (DIF) method for multidimensional models. Evidence of measurement invariance across gender was found. Only one item (i.e., item 14, “The idea of using smartphone comes as the first thought on mind when waking up each morning”) out of 24 items of the SPAI-I showed DIF with a large effect size. Gender-related differences found with the SPAI-I reflect true differences in smartphone overuse rather than specific characteristics of the measure.
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Self-control and problematic smartphone use among Italian University students: The mediating role of the fear of missing out and of smartphone use patterns
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  • Aug 2021
  • CURR PSYCHOL
The aim of the study was to investigate the mediating role of the fear of missing out (FoMO) and of smartphone use patterns (SUP) on self-control and problematic smartphone use (PSU) among Italian university students. This study involved 405 students (mean age 22.11 years). The data were collected by using a paper-pencil method. The hypotheses of the study were tested by using the Person correlation analysis and a structural equation model (SEM). The results of the study showed that females exhibited higher scores in PSU, self-control, and socializing patterns in smartphone use, whereas males scored higher in information-seeking and entertainment. No significant differences emerged between gender and FoMO. We found a partial mediation only by FoMO on the relationship between self-control and PSU and none by SUP. A significant indirect effect, however, emerged when SUP was related to FoMO. The current findings not only confirm the previous results but also provide new evidence regarding the association between self-control and PSU.
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Multiple exposure to appearance-focused real accounts on Instagram: Effects on body image among both genders
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  • Jun 2021
  • CURR PSYCHOL
This study experimentally investigated the effects of a multiple exposure to appearance-focused real Instagram profile images on body image among both genders. Experimental group participants were 54 young non-Instagram users (F = 50%) who were assigned to view a set of appearance-focused real Instagram profiles for a one-week period and were compared with the same-age non-exposed group (n = 76; F = 50%). Results showed that a multiple exposure to appearance-focused real Instagram profiles of attractive same-sex people led to greater body dissatisfaction among women. Moreover, women in the experimental group showed an increase in the extent to which they define themselves and their self-worth by their physical appearance. Among men, we did not find an effect of exposure to same-sex attractive images on muscular dissatisfaction, fat dissatisfaction, and investment in body image, even when a tendency toward an increment of the scores was observed for all the dependent variables. Implications for future research on Instagram use and body image are also discussed.
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A Brief Report on the Associations Amongst Social Media Use, Gender, and Body Esteem in a UK student sample
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  • Apr 2019
  • CURR PSYCHOL
Research into the effects of social media on personal wellbeing have been controversial in recent years, with research highlighting links between social media use and body esteem. This conceptual replication study aimed to explore relationships amongst social media use, body esteem, and gender amongst UK university students (n = 100). Participants completed measures of social media use and body esteem. It was hypothesized that social media intensity and usage would negatively predict body esteem, with high social media intensity relating to lower body esteem. We find that gender was the only significant predictor of body esteem, with women having lower body esteem compared to men. We were unable to replicate previous findings, as our findings show no relationships amongst social media intensity, use, and body esteem.
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Fear of Missing Out as a Predictor of Problematic Social Media Use and Phubbing Behavior among Flemish Adolescents
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Fear-of-missing-out (FOMO) refers to feelings of anxiety that arise from the realization that you may be missing out on rewarding experiences that others are having. FOMO can be identified as an intra-personal trait that drives people to stay up to date of what other people are doing, among others on social media platforms. Drawing from the findings of a large-scale survey study among 2663 Flemish teenagers, this study explores the relationships between FOMO, social media use, problematic social media use (PSMU) and phubbing behavior. In line with our expectations, FOMO was a positive predictor of both how frequently teenagers use several social media platforms and of how many platforms they actively use. FOMO was a stronger predictor of the use of social media platforms that are more private (e.g., Facebook, Snapchat) than platforms that are more public in nature (e.g., Twitter, Youtube). FOMO predicted phubbing behavior both directly and indirectly via its relationship with PSMU. These findings support extant research that points towards FOMO as a factor explaining teenagers’ social media use.
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Is smartphone addiction really an addiction?
Article
Full-text available
  • Jun 2018
Aims In light of the rise in research on technological addictions and smartphone addiction in particular, the aim of this paper was to review the relevant literature on the topic of smartphone addiction and determine whether this disorder exists or if it does not adequately satisfy the criteria for addiction. Methods We reviewed quantitative and qualitative studies on smartphone addiction and analyzed their methods and conclusions to make a determination on the suitability of the diagnosis “addiction” to excessive and problematic smartphone use. Results Although the majority of research in the field declares that smartphones are addictive or takes the existence of smartphone addiction as granted, we did not find sufficient support from the addiction perspective to confirm the existence of smartphone addiction at this time. The behaviors observed in the research could be better labeled as problematic or maladaptive smartphone use and their consequences do not meet the severity levels of those caused by addiction. Discussion and conclusions Addiction is a disorder with severe effects on physical and psychological health. A behavior may have a similar presentation as addiction in terms of excessive use, impulse control problems, and negative consequences, but that does not mean that it should be considered an addiction. We propose moving away from the addiction framework when studying technological behaviors and using other terms such as “problematic use” to describe them. We recommend that problematic technology use is to be studied in its sociocultural context with an increased focus on its compensatory functions, motivations, and gratifications.
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Examining bi-directionality between Fear of Missing Out and Problematic Smartphone Use. A two-wave panel study among adolescents
Article
  • Jul 2020
  • ADDICT BEHAV
Background. In recent years, the Fear of Missing Out (FoMO) construct has been the object of growing attention in digital technology research with previous studies finding support for the relationship between FoMO and problematic smartphone use (PSU) among adolescents and young adults. However, no previous studies clarified the causal link between FoMO and PSU using a longitudinal design. Methods. An auto-regressive, cross-lagged panel design was tested by using a longitudinal dataset with two waves of data collection (T0 and T1, one year apart). Participants included two hundred and forty-two adolescents (109 males and 133 females), with a mean age of 14.16 years, who filled out the Fear of Missing Out scale (FoMOs) and the Smartphone Addiction Scale (SAS). Moreover, participants filled out the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS), at the first time-point of data collection. Results. The findings of the study show that FoMO (both FoMO-Fear and FoMO-Control subscales) and PSU are positively related at both time-points (i.e. at a cross-sectional level). However no cross-lagged associations between them were longitudinally supported. Females and older adolescents show higher FoMO-Fear at T1. Conclusions. The findings of the present study suggest caution when causal links between FoMO and PSU are inferred. Available here: https://authors.elsevier.com/c/1afsH_6zzLsbcJ
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Problematic cell phone use, depression, anxiety, and self-regulation: Evidence from a three year longitudinal study from adolescence to emerging adulthood
Article
  • Feb 2019
  • COMPUT HUM BEHAV
For a small percentage of cell phone users, cell phone use becomes problematic or addictive, characterized by excessive time spent on the cell phone, interference with social relationships and responsibilities, and difficulty disengaging from cell phones. Researchers have argued that depression, anxiety, and self-regulation may be risk factors or outcomes of problematic cell phone use, but there are few longitudinal studies on problematic cell phone use, making it unclear if these behaviors are predictors or outcomes of problematic cell phone use. The current study examined these factors during late adolescence and the transition to emerging adulthood. Participants included 385 individuals between the ages of 17 and 19 who completed a series of questionnaires once a year over a three year period. Problematic cell phone use, anxiety, depression, and self-regulation were all moderately associated at the cross-sectional level. Early problematic cell phone use predicted later depression when these variables were examined longitudinally, as opposed to the converse. There were no longitudinal associations between problematic cell phone use and anxiety or self-regulation. In sum, problematic cell phone use was fairly stable across the transition from adolescence to emerging adulthood and was associated with depression in the future.
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The role of childhood emotional maltreatment and body image dissatisfaction in problematic smartphone use among adolescents
Article
  • Jan 2019
  • PSYCHIAT RES
Growing empirical evidence has identified specific psychological and contextual risk factors associated with problematic smartphone use (PSU). However, the potential direct and indirect impact of childhood emotional maltreatment (CEM) on PSU remains largely unexplored, despite the established role of CEM in the onset of other excessive, problematic, and addictive behaviors. Consequently, the purpose of the present study was to test the direct and indirect relationships of emotional abuse and neglect (two facets of CEM) with PSU via specific mediational pathways including body image dissatisfaction (BID), social anxiety, and depression. The sample comprised 443 adolescents who completed a questionnaire that included assessment tools of aforementioned variables. Multiple mediation model results indicated that CEM was directly and indirectly associated with PSU via BID, depression, BID-related depression, and BID-related social anxiety. Results suggested that emotionally traumatic experiences were associated with PSU in adolescents and that this relationship may partially be explained by BID and psychosocial risk factors. The present study draws caution to the amplifying roles of CEM and BID on increased PSU. The results of the study have important clinical and public health implications, but additional research is needed before interventions can be developed and implemented on the basis of present results.
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Narcissistic Adolescents’ Attention-Seeking Following Social Rejection: Links with Social Media Disclosure, Problematic Social Media Use, and Smartphone Stress
Article
  • Oct 2018
  • COMPUT HUM BEHAV
In line with a Dynamic Self-Regulatory Processing Model of narcissism (Morf & Rhodewalt, 2001), the present study adopted a motivated self-construction perspective to examine longitudinal associations from adolescent narcissism to youth's social media disclosures, problematic social media use, and smartphone stress, respectively. Adolescents' attention-seeking motives were examined as a mediator of these over-time associations. In line with this model's account of self-image failure, we also expected that narcissistic youth's attention-seeking should increase following experiences of ego threat, such as social rejection. These hypotheses were tested with two waves of self-report data, spaced one year apart, among 307 adolescents aged 12–15 at T1 (Mage = 12.87, SD = 0.75). In line with predictions, earlier adolescent narcissism predicted later social media disclosure, problematic use, and smartphone stress, via increased attention-seeking. Furthermore, a significant interaction between narcissism and perceived social rejection at T1 predicted adolescents' outcomes at T2, via attention-seeking; Participants with a combination of higher narcissism and higher rejection at T1 reported higher levels of attention-seeking at T2. These longitudinal results suggest that narcissistic adolescents' attention-seeking on social media, particularly as a way to recover from social rejection, might backfire and ultimately contribute to an ongoing pattern of self-defeating behavior.
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Examining latent classes of smartphone users: Relations with psychopathology and problematic smartphone use
Article
  • Feb 2018
  • COMPUT HUM BEHAV
Little is known about how people use their smartphones, and whether usage patterns are related to psychopathology and problematic smartphone use. We sampled 296 college students, and administered self-report scales to assess frequency of using various smartphone features, and problematic smartphone use. We also assessed psychopathology constructs (ruminative thinking and emotion regulation deficits), and demographics (age and gender) as potential covariates of smartphone use patterns. Using latent class analysis, we identified two distinct classes of smartphone feature use, with one class representing especially heavy use (particularly that of social networking, audio and visual entertainment, and image- and video-taking), and the other class involving light use (particularly that of social networking, audio entertainment and image- and video-taking). Higher levels of rumination, and higher levels of cognitive reappraisal as an emotion regulation strategy, were related to the heavy use class. The heavy use class scored higher on all problematic smartphone use outcome variables. Results aid in understanding the nature and relation of smartphone usage patterns to psychopathology and problematic smartphone usage.
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