No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
The Possibilities of Aloneness and Solitude: Developing an Understanding Framed Through the Lens of Human Motivation and Needs
Abstract
We review literature and experimental data to distinguish solitude from other situations where people are alone but preoccupied by external activities or presence of other people. We further explore meaningful factors shaping solitary experiences, including the reasons for which we find ourselves alone, the activities that we engage in, and the characteristics of solitude that feel authentic and true to ourselves. Thus, this chapter aims to advance understanding of the nuances around our solitary experiences and emphasizes the importance of exploring the nuances of solitude instead of treating it as a unidimensional phenomenon.
... Furthermore, conceptualizing solitude as physical aloneness fails to account for the availability of communication that shapes the modern landscape of social connection. In the same way that physical copresence renders present others available for face-to-face communication (Nguyen et al., 2021), communication technologies render absent others available for mediated communication. Being available for communication with others fosters an orientation to the social world, providing a sense of social connection between moments of active engagement (Campbell & Ross, 2022;Licoppe, 2004;Ling, 2012;Reinecke et al., 2018). ...
... In addition to its definitions, the benefits and costs of solitude are also heterogenous. Research has linked positive or negative outcomes of solitude to personality traits (e.g., extraversion) and orientations toward being alone (e.g., preference for solitude), among a wide variety of constructs (Coplan et al., 2018;Nguyen et al., 2021;Thomas et al., 2021). However, extant work lacks unified frameworks that systematically link such individual differences to beneficial or detrimental outcomes of solitude. ...
... Future theorizing could extend that level of nuance to the lack of social interaction. Just as social interactions expend more or less social energy, different types of solitude could restore more or less social energy (see Nguyen et al., 2018;Nguyen et al., 2021). Experiences of solitude could be further distinguished along similar lines as striving behaviors, including whether they render social, psychological, or physiological benefits. ...
The relationship between solitude and well-being is complicated by heterogeneity in definitions and effects of solitude. This study offers an understanding of solitude that shifts focus from physical to social aloneness – unavailability to communicate with others through face-to-face or mediated channels – while situating it in Communicate Bond Belong (CBB) theory to predict which individuals experience its benefits or costs. The current study utilizes secondary data (N = 985) from participants in United States and China to test predictions derived from CBB theory. Findings suggest solitude may be beneficial for highly connected individuals in the United States but not China. In the United States (but not China), there were significant interactions between solitude and meeting up with others in-person, maintaining relationships through mobile media, and self-disclosure through mobile media to predict well-being. Critically, the interactions between solitude and self-disclosure through mobile media and solitude and friendship quality significantly differed between the United States and China. These results received full support for chosen solitude, but also partial support for unchosen solitude. The discussion offers theoretical implications for CBB theory and future research on solitude.
... In recent years, both positive and negative aspects of solitude have been discussed by scholars in the field of psychology (Coplan et al., 2019(Coplan et al., , 2021Lay, 2018;T. T. Nguyen et al., 2021Palgi et al., 2021;Thomas, 2021;Weinstein et al., 2022). Notably, scholars have found that positive solitude can have specific psychological advantages because the capacity to appreciate a solitary experience can improve life quality . However, there is limited research on the effect of spatial design on demand for positive solitude, par ...
... Coplan et al. (2017) identified this distinction as a 'state of mind' rather than a 'state of being'. Based on this distinction, Nguyen et al. (2021) distinguished between 'public solitude', where several individuals are present but do not actively interact, and 'private solitude', where individuals are physically isolated from others. The state of private solitude has been understood as real solitude in psychological studies where potential connections have been prevented . ...
Environmental design to facilitate positive solitude (PS) has been increasingly emphasised. This PhD research will examine the concept of positive solitude and its relevance to public open space design in densely populated urban areas, with a focus on Hong Kong. More than half of Hong Kong residents visit public open spaces on a solitary basis, but there is a lack of appropriate public space design to support and improve the quality of solitary activities. This research will develop a theoretical framework combining self-determination theory and PERMA theory that can assist designers in supporting and improving the quality of solitary activities in such spaces. A mixed-methods approach is planned involving direct observation, on-site interviews, on-site questionnaires and spatial analysis. The PhD research will generate design recommendations and guides, provide new perspectives on public open space design and help designers cater to the diverse needs of users.
... Research on solitude has been somewhat equivocal about whether this construct is defined by physical separation. T. V. T. Nguyen et al. (2021) reserve the term solitude, which they consider a specific type of aloneness, for times when individuals are intentionally spending time alone with themselves, without the social presence of others (physical or virtual) and without engaging in externally motivated activities. Larson (1990) also defined solitude as a separation from others, but deemed that the cybernetic separation from others was more important than physical separation; he described this term as "the severance of immediate exchange of information and affect" (p. ...
... Based on prior research with these measures (T. V. T. Nguyen et al., 2021;Smith et al., 2023;Thomas & Azmitia, 2019), we could predict that those who perceive solitude as Full would show enhanced well-being in these domains, but this remains speculative until empirically investigated. ...
To clarify whether, and for whom, solitude is beneficial, this mixed-methods study examined how emerging adults perceive the space of solitude, and whether such perceptions influence utilization of solitude and correspond with psychosocial outcomes. College students (n = 43), balanced in gender and ethnically diverse, completed an online survey followed by a semi-structured interview that explored their attitudes about being alone. Qualitative analysis yielded identification of three types, those who perceived solitude as Empty, Limited, or Full of meaning and activity. Full experienced solitude as enjoyable and multi-dimensional, Empty perceived it as pointless and isolating, and Limited expressed ambivalence or exhibited a one-dimensional capacity for solitude. The Full type was significantly more likely to utilize solitude for self-actualizing purposes such as self-reflection and spiritual connection; however, in terms of adjustment, Full and Empty showed similarly high levels of well-being, though Full was more self-determined in their motivations for solitude. The Limited type showed comparatively modest decreases in well-being. Findings suggest a bifurcation of resources for well-being in emerging adulthood, with solitude serving the Full type and social relationships better serving the Empty type, albeit at the potential cost of self-actualizing experiences. Implications for the Limited type are discussed.
... One disruption came in the form of the lockdowns imposed internationally, which extended the time spent in solitude for many [17]. Solitude-defined as the state of being alone and not physically with another [18]-can be understood to be a challenging (i.e., undermining well-being) or beneficial (i.e., increasing well-being) experience as a function of the circumstances in which it takes place [19]. During national lockdowns and periods of quarantine, solitude took the form of self-isolation, giving rise to the view that it reflected a pandemic of loneliness [20][21][22]. ...
... During national lockdowns and periods of quarantine, solitude took the form of self-isolation, giving rise to the view that it reflected a pandemic of loneliness [20][21][22]. Findings have also suggested that the COVID-19 pandemic heightened the risk of loneliness for groups who were already at risk of feeling lonely (low-income households, [18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30] year olds, single-person households, and people over 65) before the pandemic [21,22], findings that were identified in a number of different countries [23]. ...
There has been growing interest in the ways that individuals connected with nature during the COVID-19 pandemic, particularly when they were alone in solitude. This study explored key themes describing individuals’ relationships with nature during this period and, more specifically, when individuals were relating to nature during time spent alone. Sixty participants (aged 19–80 years) discussed solitude during in-depth interviews. Participants were from different backgrounds and 20 different countries of origin. Thematic analysis was conducted by two architects (who may have been sensitive to the functional interaction of spaces in connecting people and nature) and identified descriptions of nature from broader narratives of solitude and time spent alone. Extracts from interview transcripts were coded using hierarchical thematic analysis and a pragmatist approach. The results showed that natural spaces were integral to experiencing positive solitude and increased the chance that solitude time could be used for rest, rejuvenation, stress relief, and reflective thought. Being in their local natural spaces also allowed participants to more spontaneously shift from solitude to social connection, supporting a sense of balance between these two states of being. Finally, solitude in nature, in part because of attention to shifting weather, gave a new perspective. As a result, participants reported increased species solidarity—the awareness that humans are part of an ecosystem shared with other species. We interpret the results in terms of the implications for built environments and the importance of accessing nature for well-being.
... Solitude -the state of being alone and not physically with another (Nguyen et al., 2021) -is increasingly understood to confer benefits. Until now, research in social, developmental, and clinical psychology, and in medicine, has mainly examined drawbacks of solitude and certain negative psychological states broadly associated with it, such as loneliness and social anxiety (e.g., Heinrich and Gullone, 2006;Cacioppo and Hawkley, 2009;Hawkley and Cacioppo, 2010;Coplan et al., 2015). ...
... As such, future research should consider experimental interventions to change participants' framing for solitude in light of the themes that emerged here. For example, Nguyen et al. (2021) have done similar work manipulating motivational framing of solitude in terms of self-determined or non-self-determined motivation. FIGURE 2 | Interaction effects: means of peaceful mood (y axis) as a function of each theme [absent (white) or present (gray)], and separately adolescents, adults, and older adults (x axis). ...
Solitude – the state of being alone and not physically with another – can be rewarding. The present research explored the potential benefits of solitude from a pragmatist approach: a ground-up, top-down perspective that is receptive to new knowledge but informed by theory. Participant recruitment was stratified by age and gender, and the sample involved 2,035 individuals including adolescents (13–16 years), adults (35–55 years), or older adults (65+ years). Data were analyzed with a mixed-methods approach. Coded themes from brief narratives about solitude were extracted, and their frequencies (i.e., their salience to participants) were compared across the lifespan. Themes were then correlated with two indicators of well-being in solitude: self-determined motivation for solitude and peaceful mood. Several prominent themes emerged when talking about time spent in solitude. With the exception of feeling competent in solitude, which was described frequently but consistently unrelated to self-reported well-being regardless of age, benefits of solitude tended to shift over the lifespan. Some qualities, such as a sense of autonomy (self-connection and reliance; absence of pressure), were salient and consequential for everyone, but increasingly so from adolescence to older adulthood. Older adults also reported feeling most peaceful in solitude and described their social connection and alienation less frequently, suggesting they see solitude and social time as more distinct states. Findings are discussed in light of existing work on solitude across the lifespan, and theoretical frameworks that spoke well to the data (e.g., self-determination theory).
... Öz Belirleme Teorisi ayrıca güdülenmeyi özerk ve kontrollü güdülenme olarak ikili bir ayrımda incelemektedir. Kontrollü güdülenme genellikle tükenme ve olumsuz etki gibi daha olumsuz deneyimlerle ilişkilendirilirken, özerk güdülenme daha fazla keyif ve memnuniyet duygusuyla ilişkilendirilmektedir Nguyen, Weinstein, & Ryan 2021). İçsel güdülenme özerk güdülenmeyi tanımlarken, dışsal yansıtılmış, tanımlanmış ve içselleştirilmiş güdülenme kontrollü güdülenmeyi tanımlamaktadır. ...
... Diğerlerinin beklentileri esasında içsel olarak değerli olmadığı gibi anlamlı da değildir. Çünkü bu durum diğerlerinin baskılayıcı davranışlarından kaynaklanan beklentilerin bir birikintisidir Nguyen, Weinstein, & Ryan 2021). Kişi yalnız kaldığında, etrafında ona ne yapacağını söyleyecek kimse yokken, yaşamış olduğu deneyimler itici bir güç olarak içe yansıtılmış düzenlemeyi ortaya çıkarabilmektedir. ...
Bu çalışmada, Tremblay, Blanchard, Taylor, Pelletier ve Villeneuve (2009) tarafından geliştirilen İçsel ve Dışsal Güdülenme Ölçeğinin Türkçeye uyarlaması, güvenilirlik ve geçerliliğinin test edilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Araştırmada çalışanlardan oluşan iki farklı örneklem (Şirket çalışanı n1= 123 ve Akademisyen n2= 518) kullanılmıştır. Analizler sonucunda ölçeğin alt boyutlarının birinci örneklemde güvenilirlik katsayılarının .53 ile .86 arasında, ikinci örneklemde ise .58 ile .89 arasında değiştiği gözlemlenmiştir. Ölçeğin altı faktörlü yapısı (tanımlanmış, içsel, içselleştirilmiş, yansıtılmış, dışsal ve güdülenmeme) yapılan doğrulayıcı faktör analizleriyle doğrulanmıştır. Ölçeğin ölçüt bağımlı geçerliliği rol performansı ile test edilmiştir. Ayrıca ölçeğin cinsiyet açısından yapısal ve ölçümsel olarak ayrışmadığı tespit edilmiştir. Tüm bu bulgular, içsel ve dışsal güdülenme ölçeğinin gelecekte yapılacak çalışmalarda güvenilir ve geçerli bir ölçüm aracı olarak kullanılabileceğini göstermiştir.
... Flow can be seen as an emotional state that encompasses the person as a whole due to the interaction with an immersive activity (Csikszentmihalyi, 2000;Leroy, 2021). This leads to a person's attention being directed toward the activity they are engaged in, bringing them high levels of enjoyment (Csikszentmihalyi, 2000;Nguyen et al., 2021;Özhan & Kocadere, 2020). Also, flow can be beneficial in the educational context because students have a positive experience with the class content, and, consequently, with their learning (Bressler et al., 2021;Nakamura & Csikszentmihalyi, 2014). ...
The purpose of this study was to explore the effects of an educational video game on high school students’ motivation, self-efficacy and knowledge. The game tells the story of Mariano Melgar, a Peruvian thinker, patriot and hero. The authors used a quasi-experimental design and conducted pre- and post-tests to estimate the effect of the video game. The sample consisted of 67 students from two schools in Lima. The students were randomly assigned to one of two conditions: playing a video game or watching a documentary. Results show that playing the video game was more effective in increasing students’ knowledge, whereas watching a documentary increased demotivation and decreased self-efficacy through vicarious experience. In view of this, it is important to explore further video games’ usefulness as educational materials.
... Solitude has been defined as being intentionally, physically alone (Nguyen, Weinstein, & Ryan, 2021;Thomas, 2021). In some instances, solitude has also been framed as being alone despite the presence of others , such as when one is in their own mental space and not interacting. ...
The aim of this white paper is to contribute to a wider
understanding of, and stimulate conversations about,
what it means to be alone. We provide a review
of the multi-dimensional experiences of aloneness,
which include (1) the challenges of loneliness, and (2)
the benefits of solitude. It is designed to guide policy
through examining the convergence and divergence
points between enjoyable and distressing moments of
aloneness. The mapping of these broader concepts of
aloneness highlights how solitude interventions might
be relevant for the many people who are isolated, feel
lonely, and have poor psychological health.
The paper discusses what is already known and
understood within both loneliness and solitude
research, taking note of the current policy direction
for alleviating loneliness. We encourage anyone who is
involved in research, delivery, or policy on loneliness
and mental health to read and consider the findings
from this paper. The literature on solitude benefits
contributes more nuanced and balanced understanding
and insights to the existing work on loneliness,
supporting community mental health across the UK.
The findings highlight the importance of positive and
meaningful connections. This means social, community,
environment, and self-connection. For instance, it
is important that we have authentic and enjoyable
relationships and interactions with others, both close
and loose ties, and to feel safe where we live, and to
enjoy the natural environment and community we live
in. Significantly, research also indicates that we need to
enjoy our own company and be able to spend some
time alone. There is a higher likelihood of helplessness,
alienation, distrust, loneliness, and isolation when
such positive and meaningful connections with others
and ourselves are not of good quality or are missing
altogether. A key message from this paper is to value
both alone time and social interactions, both of which
need to be self-determined and embedded in safe and
healthy communities.
https://pospsychbucks.files.wordpress.com/2023/08/alonenesswhitepaperjonesetal.2023.pdf
... Studies of solitude have commonly defined the experience as involving being physically alone as well as free from specific, focused activities (Nguyen et al., 2021), a state to which humans are generally averse. One way to enhance pleasure during experiences of solitude is to approach them with a sense of choice and autonomy (Nguyen et al., 2019;Thomas & Azmitia, 2019). ...
Objective
Further investigate the application of self‐determination theory (SDT) to experiences of solitude by examining the effects of recalling intrinsic versus non‐intrinsic memories.
Background
SDT research indicates that recalling memories associated with intrinsic goals (e.g., personal growth, relationships, altruism) enhances present moment wellness by satisfying basic psychological needs.
Method
Two studies were conducted with American adults. Study 1 included 465 participants (age = 49.49 [ SD = 19.01], 49.46% female) and Study 2 comprised 490 participants (age = 54.16 [ SD = 18.89], 51.84% female). Both studies assessed the impact of recalling intrinsic versus non‐intrinsic memories prior to a five‐minute solitude session.
Results
Study 1 found intrinsic memories were linked to more basic psychological need satisfaction than non‐intrinsic memories, but both memory types resulted in similar wellness improvements. Contrary to expectations, Study 2 revealed extrinsic memories (e.g., wealth, fame, image) led to the highest basic psychological need satisfaction and least need frustration compared to intrinsic and neutral memories, with all memory conditions showing similar wellness gains.
Conclusions
Solitude appears beneficial regardless of memory content. While different memories vary in need satisfying quality, this does not seem to impact the benefits of solitude. These findings suggest further exploration is needed before developing a “solitude skill set” for use during inevitable periods of solitude.
... Issues surrounding solitude have recently received empirical attention, but the conditions that predict when individuals prefer to be alone remain poorly understood (see Nguyen et al., 2021, for a review). Individuals reporting relatively stronger preferences for solitude may simply enjoy spending time alone rather than having a general aversion to social interactions (e.g., Burger, 1995;Coplan et al., 2019). ...
Objective
To examine the associations that narcissistic personality traits had with the preference for solitude.
Background
Preference for solitude may be impacted by various characteristics. Narcissism may be one such characteristic given its association with specific motivations for engagement with other individuals (e.g., status attainment).
Method
We examined whether the associations that narcissism had with the preference for solitude were moderated by perceived attainment of status or instability of status.
Results
Across three studies ( N = 627/479/675), extraverted narcissism had the expected aversion to solitude. Antagonistic narcissism and neurotic narcissism did not have consistent associations with the preference for solitude across these studies, nor did the perceived attainment of status consistently moderate the links between narcissistic personality features and the preference for solitude. However, perceived instability of status moderated the associations that extraverted narcissism and antagonistic narcissism had with the preference for solitude. More specifically, the more stable status was perceived to be, the greater the aversion to solitude for those high in extraverted narcissism and the greater the preference for solitude for those high in antagonistic narcissism.
Conclusions
This pattern of results suggests that the motivations underlying preferences for solitude differ depending on particular narcissistic traits that predict whether one is more concerned with maintaining, gaining, or losing status. These results build upon what is known about the connections that narcissism has with the preference for solitude.
... The "force majeure" of COVID-19 gives these students an excuse to "recharge" for a while without having to cancel appointments. These accounts are in line with the literature which suggests that being physically alone (being allowed to be alone) can have positive effects on well-being (De Jong-Gierveld and Havens, 2004;De Jong-Gierveld et al., 2006;Cacioppo and Patrick, 2009;Nguyen et al., 2021). However, these surprisingly positive narratives do not take away from the fact that overall, the qualitative results support the quantitative results, which indicate more frustration in relatedness and more loneliness. ...
The COVID-19 outbreak forced higher education students to study online-only. Previous research indicates that forced solitude or loneliness can cause a variety of problems for students, among which is reduced academic engagement. The Basic Psychological Needs Theory, a sub-theory of Self-Determination Theory, relates academic engagement to three basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence and relatedness), whereas varying theories on loneliness highlight the complexities of engaging in a learning environment whilst feeling lonely. As university staff members have been struggling to keep students on task since the COVID-19 outbreak, the need arose for more knowledge about to what extent students have felt lonely, frustrated or satisfied in their need for relatedness and to what extent this affected their academic engagement. A convergent Mixed Methods research study was conducted among university students (N = 228) and an online questionnaire was administered to collect both quantitative and qualitative data. A series of multiple hierarchical regression analyses were performed, considering demographic characteristics, to analyze the quantitative data. Qualitative data was coded using a hybrid approach of deductive and inductive coding. Themes were generated that depicted in-depth issues of relatedness, loneliness, and academic engagement. Quantitative analysis demonstrated the importance for academic engagement of both (a) ‘basic need satisfaction and frustration’ of relatedness in life and in ‘social study context’, and (b) feeling (emotionally) lonely. The negative impact of frustration of relatedness seemed to be dominant but also overlapped with the effects of loneliness. The qualitative outcomes support and complement these quantitative results. The results showed that students’ academic engagement suffered from the loss of a shared physical space and from uncertainty about university policies. For a minority of students, however, the relief from social obligations that came along with social distancing was a blessing in disguise.
... While suicide rates in the United States showed an overall decline during the early stages of the pandemic compared to prior years (Ahmad and Anderson, 2021), several studies have shown that individuals carrying a high burden of risk factors for suicide have remained at elevated or even increased risk for suicidal thoughts and behaviors during the COVID-19 pandemic (Berardelli et al., 2021;Montalbani et al., 2021). In pre-pandemic studies, evidence for associations between increased time spent alone in and of itself and adverse health outcomes including suicide has been mixed (Cacioppo and Hawkley, 2009;Calati et al., 2019;Meehan et al., 2014;Steptoe et al., 2013;Nguyen et al., 2021). Individuals who are prone to feelings of distress in relation to feeling disconnected from others often report co-occurring difficulties in interpersonal and personality functioning, such as pathological dependency (or under-dependency) on others for a sense of emotional safety (Mikulincer and Shaver, 2007), a limited capacity for emotion regulation (Preece et al., 2021), and a tendency to rely on maladaptive coping strategies when facing increased stress and adverse events (Rönkä et al., 2013;Savci and Aysan, 2016). ...
Social distancing has been essential in mitigating the spread of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. Evidence regarding the impact of reduced social contact on mental health during the pandemic has been mixed, however, with studies suggesting that enduring personality traits and affect regulation impairments may together increase risk for suicidal distress during periods of lockdown. The present study utilized experience sampling and longitudinal follow-up methods to evaluate intolerance of aloneness (IA) as a predictor of suicidal ideation (SI) during the pandemic. Method: A general adult sample (n=184) recruited online completed an 8-week experience sampling protocol via smartphone between April and September 2020. A subset of n=69 participants completed a follow-up assessment of SI six months after the initial study period. Results: IA was associated with suicidal ideation both at baseline and prospectively during the experience sampling period. Individuals with greater IA were more likely to report SI in the short-term context of reduced daily in-person social contact. Higher IA at baseline furthermore prospectively predicted the occurrence of SI during the 6-month follow-up period. Limitations: The sample was relatively homogenous in terms of demographic characteristics and excluded individuals with limited access to communication technology. While statistical models accounted for current mental health treatment status, other factors that were not assessed (such as adverse events or psychiatric symptoms in non-treatment-seeking subjects) may have contributed to the development of SI.
Conclusion: Findings enhance understanding of how personality-based factors may contribute to suicide risk during periods of social distancing, informing both clinical treatment, risk assessment, and public health intervention approaches.
... Indeed, while maintaining social connections with others brings a multitude of benefits for wellbeing, experiencing social overload (i.e., being exposed to more social contacts than one can handle; McCarthy & Saegert, 1978) could be detrimental when employees do not have the necessary resources to tackle this overload. One promising avenue for taming social overload could be incorporating brief periods of solitude (i.e., the state of being alone and not physically with others; Nguyen et al., 2021) into employees' workday. Recent studies (Nguyen et al., 2018(Nguyen et al., , 2022 demonstrated that even a brief solitude experience (which is distinct from loneliness) is accompanied by a deactivation effect that decreases high-arousal affects that typically characterize the nursing occupation. ...
Using data from 708 French-Canadian nurses, the present study relies on self-determination theory (SDT) and its proposed motivation mediation model to examine the associations between need satisfaction, work motivation, and various manifestations of psychological wellbeing (work satisfaction, emotional exhaustion, and turnover intentions). To increase the precision and accuracy of these analyses, we relied on
analytic approaches that explicitly account for the dual global/specific nature of both work motivation and need satisfaction. Results revealed that nurses’ global psychological need satisfaction, and their specific autonomy and competence satisfaction, were positively associated with their global self-determined work motivation and specific intrinsic motivation. In turn, global self-determined work motivation and specific intrinsic motivation were associated with more desirable outcome levels. Nurses’ global need satisfaction and specific autonomy satisfaction were also directly associated with more desirable outcome levels. Our results provided support for a partially mediated version of SDT’s motivation mediation model.
What leads to peaceful and enjoyable solitude? Little is known about which personality and mindset qualities benefit individuals during time spent alone. The current study was designed to build a foundation for future quantitative and qualitative research making a priori predictions about well‐being (e.g., relaxation) or ill‐being (e.g., loneliness) when individuals are in solitude. Semi‐structured interviews of n = 60 participants, aged 19–80, were analyzed into themes. Exposure to the benefits of solitude early in life and personality characteristics that cross life's domains (capacity for introspection and self‐reflection and optimism) were associated with enjoying solitude. Mindsets recognizing that solitude benefits self‐connection, as well as in situ factors of creativity and curiosity, appeared to play important roles. In a final theme, self‐compassion, a present focus and perspective taking helped to alleviate discomfort during difficult moments of solitude. These findings deepen our understanding of which qualities individuals bring forward to enhance their moments of solitude.
This study aimed to investigate the ways subtypes of social withdrawal and dimensions of solitude are related to existential concerns in emerging adulthood. The links between social withdrawal/solitude and existential well-being are a highly neglected research issue. Participants were 774 emerging adults (50.4% males) aged 18–25 (M = 20.07) from Greece. They completed measures on social withdrawal, solitude, authenticity, meaning in life, existential anxiety, and existential loneliness. We used structural equation modeling to analyze the data. Results indicated that shyness, avoidance, and isolation were associated with more existential concerns, whereas unsociability was associated with less existential concerns. The solitude dimensions—enlightenment, freedom, intimacy, and loneliness—were differentially associated with existential concerns, with enlightenment exhibiting the most existential benefits. Findings showed that existential well-being is dependent on emerging adults’ quality of withdrawal experiences and ability to make constructive use of solitude.
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is a broad theory of psychological growth and wellness that has revolutionized how we think about human motivation and the driving forces behind personality development. SDT focuses on people’s basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness and how social environments that support these needs foster more volition, vitality, and full functioning. SDT has supplied the basis for new and more effective practices in parenting, education, business, sport, healthcare, and other areas of life, fostering higher-quality motivation, engagement, and satisfaction. Drawing on over four decades of evidence-based research and application, The Oxford Handbook of Self-Determination Theory delivers a truly integrative volume by the top researchers and experts within the field of SDT. Edited by SDT co-founder Richard M. Ryan, this Handbook not only provides the theory’s historical and scientific underpinnings but also draws together the latest research and insights, covering topics from the social and biological underpinnings of motivation and wellness to practical applications in all aspects of life. This volume will be an invaluable resource for both researchers and practitioners, as well as any student of human nature, with practical research and guidance.
The slim but growing literature on solitude relies heavily on survey and experimental designs but lacks a substantive understanding of the lived experiences of time spent alone, and by extension, what those experiences might reveal about the psychological functions of time in solitude. Following Gibson’s (1979) theory of affordances, solitude was viewed as an environment that offers various meaningful possibilities for action. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 43 emerging adults who shared positive and negative experiences of solitude, motivations for being alone, and perceived benefits of time spent by themselves. Narratives were examined using thematic analysis, revealing five positive affordances (focused attention, restoration, reflection, freedom, transcendence), two negative affordances (loneliness, rumination), and one mixed affordance (emotional expression). Affordances as an interactive match between environment and person, and the importance of purpose and the capacity to perceive such affordances, are discussed in relation to the benefits of solitude for emerging adults.
Contrary to loneliness and isolation, alone time that is chosen and intrinsically motivated has been correlated with well-being. This study investigated whether self-determined solitude was a useful predictor of well-being in older adults, building upon research with younger populations. A sample of 689 older adults (Mage = 77.64) completed a survey that assessed self-determined and not self-determined motivations for solitude (SDS and NSDS) and four outcomes: life satisfaction, loneliness, psychological distress, and psychological well-being. Multiple regression analyses revealed that greater SDS was positively related to life satisfaction and psychological well-being and showed no relationship with loneliness or distress. In contrast, greater NSDS was positively associated with psychological maladjustment and negatively related with well-being indicators. The relationships between NSDS and maladjustment were attenuated by higher levels of SDS. These findings underscore the developmental importance of solitude, showing that older adults experience increased well-being when their alone time is self-determined, and further suggest that the ability to spend time alone in enjoyable and meaningful ways buffers some of the detrimental effects of negative solitude.
What does it mean to be in solitude? Researchers building this nascent field are learning much about the potential affordances of solitude, but lack an agreed-upon definition or set of definitions. Arriving at that meaning is crucial to forming a solid foundation for studies that use both naturalistic and laboratory designs to explore outcomes of solitude. This study identified themes from semi-structured interviews with adults aged 19 to 80 from diverse backgrounds. We concluded that solitude is a state in which the dominant relationship is with the self. If not physically alone, people in solitude are mentally distanced from others and away from active technology-mediated interactions. Complete solitude involves both physical separation and inner focus, but solitude is best defined through a taxonomy that recognizes physical separation and internal focus as independent, sufficient characteristics. An internal focus benefits from (but is not defined by) balancing solitude with social time, quiet, and choice.
The phenomenon of problematic mobile phone use (PMPU) has been incredibly increasing, especially in Asian countries. Prior studies have argued that negative emotion is linked to PMPU. Based on the cognitive‐behavioural model of pathological Internet use and the buffering model of social support, our purpose is to identify the nuanced mediators of the rumination subtypes (i.e., reflection and brooding) and examine the moderator of social support in the relation between negative emotion and PMPU. A sample of 1,014 college students was recruited to complete the scales of PMPU, depression, anxiety, rumination (i.e., reflection and brooding), and social support. Results showed that (a) reflection did not mediate a link between negative emotion and PMPU whereas brooding partially mediated the link, and (b) both the direct association between negative emotion and PMPU and the mediated effect of brooding were moderated by social support, and they were stronger when social support was low rather than high. The study distinguishes the mediated effect of rumination subtypes and incorporates social factor in the relationship between negative emotion and PMPU, which deepens our understanding of how and when negative emotion relates to PMPU.
Background: With the increasing incidence of mobile phone addiction, mobile phone addiction has been considered to be related to adolescents’ psychological distress. However, the underlying mechanisms of this relation were still unclear. The present study tested the mediating role of rumination and the moderating role of the capacity to be alone in the relation between mobile phone addiction and psychological distress.
Methods: 754 middle school students were recruited to complete measures of mobile phone addiction, rumination, the capacity to be alone, psychological distress and demographic variables.
Results: Mobile phone addiction was significantly and positively associated with psychological distress, and this link could be mediated by rumination. Moreover, the direct effect of mobile phone addiction on psychological distress and the indirect effect of rumination in this link were moderated by the capacity to be alone. Both these two effects were stronger for adolescents with lower capacity to be alone.
Limitations: The present study is limited in terms of its sample selection, cross-sectional design, and self-reported instruments.
Conclusions: The present study advances our understanding of how and when or for whom mobile phone addiction is related to serious psychological distress. Education professionals and parents should pay special attention to the psychological distress of adolescents suffering from mobile phone addiction, particularly for those with lower capacity to be alone.
Assessing the motivational responses of 328 secondary school students, this study examined a model of student motivation in physical education that incorporated constructs from achievement goal and self-determination theories. The focus was on the prediction of students' intention to partake in physical activity outside of physical education. Structural equation modeling analysis supported a model in which an autonomy-supportive climate, and to a lesser extent perceptions of a mastery climate, positively impacted hypothesized mediating variables (i.e., autonomy, competence, relatedness) to foster self-determined motivation. Self-determined motivation was found to positively predict, whereas amotivation was a negative predictor of leisure-time physical activity intentions.
This study aimed to examine the temporal dynamic of the affective trajectories of participants exposed to a self-help mindfulness-based intervention (MBI) compared to those in the control condition. This interventional study employed an experience sampling method with two nonrandomized groups: a control group (n = 44, M = 37.04) on the waiting list for the MBI and an experimental group (n = 45, M = 39.90) that practiced mindfulness meditation 20 min a day for 42 days. All participants completed a self-observation affect scale twice daily. The MBI participants’ trajectories for activated (ANA) and deactivated (DNA) negative affect revealed an important decrease during the first week compared with those of participants in the control condition. ANA continued to decrease until the end of the MBI, whereas DNA showed a slight rise before decreasing again in the last week. Deactivated positive affects increased linearly across the MBI, while activated positive affects slightly decreased. This study offers promising insight into how an MBI induces changes in affective life.
Grounded in self-determination theory's (SDT; Ryan & Deci, 2017) organismic perspective, we present a process view of integrative emotion regulation. SDT describes three general types of emotion regulation: integrative emotion regulation, which focuses on emotions as carrying information that is brought to awareness; controlled emotion regulation, which is focused on diminishing emotions through avoidance, suppression, or enforced expression or reappraisal; and amotivated emotion regulation, in which emotions are uncontrolled or dysregulated. We review survey and experimental research contrasting these emotion regulation styles, providing evidence for the benefits of integrative emotion regulation for volitional functioning, personal well-being, and high-quality relationships, and for the costs of controlled emotion regulation and dysregulation. The development of emotion regulation styles is discussed, especially the role of autonomy-supportive parenting in fostering more integrative emotion regulation, and the role of controlling parenting in contributing to controlled or dysregulated emotion processing. Overall, integrative emotion regulation represents a beneficial style of processing emotions, which develops most effectively in a nonjudgmental and autonomy-supportive environment, an issue relevant to both development and psychotherapy.
The present research examined the role of university students’ motivation for spending time alone in their adjustment to college life, as well as the parenting correlates of students’ healthy motivation for solitude. Two studies were conducted on first-year college students in the United States (n = 147) and Canada (n = 223). In Study 1, data was collected at three different time points, separated by two-week intervals. In Study 2, data was collected at two different time points, separated by a month. The results revealed that, for those who reported perceiving lower social belonging, approaching solitary time for autonomous reasons was linked to greater self-esteem (Study 1), and greater sense of relatedness to others and lower loneliness (Study 2). These findings suggest that endorsing a healthy motivation for solitude is not necessarily indicative of social ill-being. Additionally, students’ autonomous motivation for spending time alone was associated with having parents that are autonomy supportive and that promote a sense of independence.
According to Blatt’s theory on personality development, adolescents with high levels of self-criticism and dependency are more vulnerable to diverse types of psychopathology. However, relatively little is known about intervening processes involved in this personality-based vulnerability. The goal of this study is to examine, on the basis of Self-Determination Theory, the explanatory role of the psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness in associations between self-criticism and dependency on the one hand and adolescents’ internalizing and externalizing problems on the other hand. In this cross-sectional and multi-informant study, 284 adolescents (58,5% female; mean age = 14.15; SD = .93) and their parents reported about the adolescent’s internalizing and externalizing problems. Adolescents also completed measures assessing self-criticism, dependency, and psychological needs experiences. Data were analyzed using structural equation modeling. Self-criticism and dependency were significantly related to higher levels of both internalizing and externalizing problems, with psychological need frustration fully mediating these associations. This study suggests that psychological need frustration is an important explanatory mechanism in personality-related vulnerability for adolescent psychopathology. More generally, it provides further evidence for the integration between two major theoretical approaches in the domain of adolescent development and psychopathology.
In this paper we define questionable measurement practices as decisions researchers make that leave questions about the measures in a study unanswered. This makes it impossible to evaluate a wide range of potential validity threats to the study’s conclusions. We demonstrate that psychology is plagued by a measurement schmeasurement attitude: QMPs are common, offer a stunning source of researcher degrees of freedom, pose a serious threat to cumulative psychological science, but are largely ignored. We address these challenges by providing a set of questions that researchers and consumers of scientific research can consider to identify and avoid QMPs. Transparent answers to these measurement questions promote rigorous research, allow for thorough evaluations of a study’s inferences, and are necessary for meaningful replication studies.
Introduction
Motivation is an overlooked but crucial factor in determining whether solitude is psychologically beneficial or risky. This paper describes the development and validation of the Motivation for Solitude Scale ‐ Short‐Form (MSS‐SF), a measure grounded in Self‐Determination Theory that differentiates between intrinsic versus extrinsic motivations for solitude.
Methods
Emerging adult (N = 803) and adolescent (N = 176) participants were recruited in four successive samples from the United States for the purposes of scale development and validation. Participants completed an on‐line survey that included the MSS‐SF and various well‐being and personality measures.
Results & conclusions
Confirmatory Factor Analyses resulted in a two‐factor solution, selfdetermined solitude (SDS) and not self‐determined solitude (NSDS), and showed the MSS‐SF to be reliable with adolescents and emerging adults, with satisfactory convergent and discriminant validity. Engaging in solitude for extrinsic, not self‐determined reasons was associated with loneliness, social anxiety, and depressive symptomatology; in contrast, solitude chosen for intrinsic, self‐determined reasons was positively correlated with well‐being, for emerging adults in particular. The MSS‐SF goes beyond preference for solitude to distinguish two distinctly different motivations for solitude, and in so doing, allows researchers to better understand the affordances and risks of being alone for adolescents and emerging adults.
Which is more enjoyable: trying to think enjoyable thoughts or doing everyday solitary activities? Wilson et al. (2014) found that American participants much preferred solitary everyday activities, such as reading or watching TV, to thinking for pleasure. To see whether this preference generalized outside of the United States, we replicated the study with 2,557 participants from 12 sites in 11 countries. The results were consistent in every country: Participants randomly assigned to do something reported significantly greater enjoyment than did participants randomly assigned to think for pleasure. Although we found systematic differences by country in how much participants enjoyed thinking for pleasure, we used a series of nested structural equation models to show that these differences were fully accounted for by country-level variation in 5 individual differences, 4 of which were positively correlated with thinking for pleasure (need for cognition, openness to experience, meditation experience, and initial positive affect) and 1 of which was negatively correlated (reported phone usage).
Objective
Solitude is a ubiquitous experience, often confused with loneliness, yet sometimes sought out in daily life. This study aimed to identify distinct types of solitude experiences from everyday affect/thought patterns and to examine how and for whom solitude is experienced positively versus negatively.
Method
100 community‐dwelling adults aged 50‐85 years (64% female, 56% East Asian, 36% European, 8% Other/Mixed heritage) and 50 students aged 18‐28 years (92% female, 42% East Asian, 22% European, 36% Other/Mixed) each completed approximately 30 daily life assessments over 10 days on their current and desired social situation, thoughts, and affect.
Results
Multilevel latent profile analysis identified two types of everyday solitude: one characterized by negative affect and effortful thought (negative solitude experiences) and one characterized by calm and the near‐absence of negative affect/effortful thought (positive solitude experiences). Individual differences in social self‐efficacy and desire for solitude were associated with everyday positive solitude propensity; trait self‐rumination and self‐reflection were associated with everyday negative solitude propensity.
Conclusions
This study provides a new framework for conceptualizing everyday solitude. It identifies specific affect/thought patterns that characterize distinct solitude experience clusters, and it links these clusters with well‐established individual differences. We discuss key traits associated with thriving in solitude.
This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
What is boredom? We review environmental, attentional, and functional theories and present a new model that describes boredom as an affective indicator of unsuccessful attentional engagement in valued goal-congruent activity. According to the Meaning and Attentional Components (MAC) model, boredom is the result of (a) an attentional component, namely mismatches between cognitive demands and available mental resources, and (b) a meaning component, namely mismatches between activities and valued goals (or the absence of valued goals altogether). We present empirical support for four novel predictions made by the model: (a) Deficits in attention and meaning each produce boredom independently of the other; (b) there are different profiles of boredom that result from specific deficits in attention and meaning; (c) boredom results from two types of attentional deficits, understimulation and overstimulation; and (d) the model explains not only when and why people become bored with external activities, but also when and why people become bored with their own thoughts. We discuss further implications of the model, such as when boredom motivates people to seek interesting versus enjoyable activities. (PsycINFO Database Record
Cross-sectional studies of attitude-behavior relationships are vulnerable to the inflation of correlations by common method variance (CMV). Here, a model is presented that allows partial correlation analysis to adjust the observed correlations for CMV contamination and determine if conclusions about the statistical and practical significance of a predictor have been influenced by the presence of CMV. This method also suggests procedures for designing questionnaires to increase the precision of this adjustment.
Objectives:
Despite a basic need for social connection, individuals across the adult lifespan sometimes seek solitude - a phenomenon that is not well understood. This study examined the situational and affective correlates of solitude-seeking and how they may differ between middle-aged and older adults.
Method:
100 community-dwelling adults aged 50-85 years (64% female, 56% East Asian, 36% European, 8% other) completed approximately 30 electronic daily life assessments over 10 days regarding their current location, affect, activities, and current and desired social context.
Results:
Solitude was common; 86% of solitude instances happened by individuals' own choosing. When desiring solitude, older adults were more likely to be at home and less likely to be outdoors, compared to other locations. Middle-aged adults showed no such solitude-location associations. Among middle-aged adults, desire for solitude was associated with decreased positive affect. Older adults experienced no such dip in affect.
Discussion:
Findings suggest that compared to middle-aged adults, older adults are more likely to go to locations that match their desired social context, and also that solitude-seeking has more positive ramifications for older adults. Findings are discussed in the context of age differences in activities, social preferences, and emotion regulation.
Private self-consciousness and the subordinate constructs of self-reflection and insight are key factors in the self-regulatory process underpinning the creation of behavior change, both in clinical practice with clinical populations, and in performance enhancing coaching with ...
A distinction between ruminative and reflective types of private self-attentiveness is introduced and evaluated with respect to L. R. Goldberg's (1982) list of 1,710 English trait adjectives (Study 1), the five-factor model of personality (FFM) and A. Fenigstein, M. F. Scheier, and A. Buss's(1975) Self-Consciousness Scales (Study 2), and previously reported correlates and effects of private self-consciousness (PrSC; Studies 3 and 4). Results suggest that the PrSC scale confounds two unrelated motivationally distinct disposition-rumination and reflection-and that this confounding may account for the "self-absorption paradox" implicit in PrSC research findings: Higher PrSC sources are associated with more accurate and extensive self-knowledge yet higher levels of psychological distress. The potential of the FFM to provide a comprehensive Framework for conceptualizing self-attentive dispositions, and to order and integrate research findings within this domain, is discussed.
Contrary to self-determination theory (SDT) tenets, research indicates that controlled motivation towards sport may not be associated with maladaptive outcomes, if accompanied by high autonomous motivation. However, the measures of controlled motivation employed in many of these studies have been criticised for the lack of content validity (i.e. Sport Motivation Scale [SMS]). This study examined the influence two different measures (SMS and Behavioural Regulation in Sport Questionnaire [BRSQ]) have on empirical support for competing hypotheses concerning the influence of controlled motivation on athletes' sport experiences. A cross-sectional design was employed. Gaelic football players (N = 395, M = 13.36 years) answered questionnaires to assess motivation, flow, and burnout. Multivariate analysis of variances indicated that when the SMS was employed, controlled motivation appeared adaptive, or at least innocuous, when autonomous motivation was high. When the BRSQ was used, controlled motivation appeared maladaptive, or at best innocuous, when autonomous motivation was high. While these findings do not indicate that one measure produces controlled motivation scores that are more valid than the other, compared with the SMS-based results, the BRSQ-based findings are more in line with SDT tenets.
Don't leave me alone with my thoughts
Nowadays, we enjoy any number of inexpensive and readily accessible stimuli, be they books, videos, or social media. We need never be alone, with no one to talk to and nothing to do. Wilson et al. explored the state of being alone with one's thoughts and found that it appears to be an unpleasant experience. In fact, many of the people studied, particularly the men, chose to give themselves a mild electric shock rather than be deprived of external sensory stimuli.
Science , this issue p. 75
The study examined how chronic loneliness influenced local news and soap opera viewing. We hypothesized that chronic loneliness relates to reduced interpersonal interaction, increased electronic media use, and passive television use. The discriminant analysis distinguished chronic loneliness from nonloneli‐ness by: (a) lesser use of interpersonal channels and greater use of electronic media channels, especially television and movies; and (b) pass time viewing motivation. We discussed the implications of the results and related the findings to the links between personal and mediated communication.
The home environment that parents provide their gifted children can have a significant impact on academic motivation, yet limited research has focused on this topic. Self-determination theory, a comprehensive framework of motivation, was used in the current study to explore two research questions: (a) What attitudes do parents of gifted students have toward the academic motivation of their children? (b) What approaches do parents of gifted students use at home to develop academic motivation? Interviews with 30 parents of gifted children from across the United States revealed three higher order themes including Parents as Experts, Scaffolding, and Behavior Modification. From a self-determination theory perspective, results suggest that despite good intentions, the parents of this study were inconsistent in providing home environments that support their children’s development of internalized forms of academic motivation.
Does intense engagement with entertainment media programs and characters reflect a psychological need for companionship? The research findings to date have been equivocal. The present study investigates how parasocial interaction (PSI) with media characters and transportation into media programs are related to specific kinds of solitude experiences, as well as to the need to belong (NTB). Results of a questionnaire study (N = 301) show that solitude experienced as self-expansion (e.g., self-discovery), diversion (e.g., engaging in distracting activities), and Other orientation (e.g., loneliness) each contribute to increased PSI with favorite TV characters. Self-expansion and Other-oriented solitude each also predicts increased tendency to transport into media programs and identify with characters. Furthermore, Other-oriented solitude appears to account for the significant association between NTB and PSI. Results provide new evidence for both compensatory and complementary uses and gratifications of entertainment media.
Two analyses were conducted to examine the discriminant validity of 30 facet scales from the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PIR). To examine cross-observer validity of specific variance in the facet scales, partial correlations between self-reports and peer (N = 250) and spouse (N = 68) ratings on the facets were calculated, controlling for the five common factors. All 60 convergent partial correlations were positive, and 48 (80%) were significant. In the second analysis, Adjective Check List (Gough and Heilbrun, 1983) correlates of the facet scales were identified in a sample of 305 adults. Judges correctly matched scales to correlates in most cases, providing additional evidence for discriminant validity.
Social withdrawal has been associated with adjustment difficulties across development. Although much is known about shyness, little is known about preference-for-solitude; even less is known about its relations with adjustment across different periods of adolescence. We examined whether preference-for-solitude might be differentially associated with adjustment difficulties in early and late adolescence. Self- and parent-reports of withdrawal motivations and adjustment were collected from 234 eighth graders (113 boys; M age = 13.43) and 204 twelfth graders (91 boys; M age = 17.25). Results from structural equation modeling demonstrated that above and beyond the effects of shyness, preference-for-solitude was more strongly associated with adjustment difficulties in 8th grade than in 12th grade. Preference-for-solitude was associated with greater anxiety/depression, emotion dysregulation, and lower self-esteem in 8th grade; these relations were not found in 12th grade. Although preference-for-solitude was associated with lower social competence in both 8th and 12th grades, this relation was significantly stronger in 8th grade than in 12th grade. Findings suggest preference-for-solitude has closer ties to maladjustment in early adolescence than in late adolescence. Interventions targeting preferred-solitary youth in early adolescence may be particularly fruitful.
(from the journal abstract) The purpose of this study was to provide an in-depth account of amotivation in compulsory school physical education by examining its major causes, the way it is displayed, and how it can be tackled. From an initial participant pool of 390 British schoolchildren ages 14 to 15 years, 21 of them (15 girls and 6 boys) were selected to participate in semi-structured interviews. They were categorized as being amotivated based on their responses to a questionnaire measuring motivation in physical education. Three main perceived causes of amotivation were identified in the interviews: learned helplessness beliefs, low need satisfaction, and contextual factors. Amotivation was mainly displayed by nonattendance, low involvement in the class, and low intention to be physically active after leaving school. Students' suggestions for reducing amotivation focused on the enhancement of positive affect, need satisfaction, and structural/organizational changes. The findings are discussed in conjunction with contemporary motivation theories and models of amotivation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2004 APA, all rights reserved)
Private self-consciousness and the subordinate constructs of self-reflection and insight are key factors in the self-regulatory process underpinning the creation of behavior change, both in clinical practice with clinical populations, and in performance enhancing coaching with nonclinical populations. This paper reports the construction and validation of the Self- Reflection and Insight Scale (SRIS) which is designed to be an advance on the Private Self-Consciousnes Scale (PrSCS; Fenigstein, Scheier, & Buss, 1975). Previous work has found the PrSCS to comprise two factors, self-reflection and internal state awareness. In a series of studies two separate factor analyses found the SRIS comprised two separate factors labeled Self-Reflection (SRIS-SR) and Insight (SRIS-IN). “Need for self-reflection” and “engagement in self-reflection” loaded on the same factor. Test-retest reliability over a 7-week period was .77 (SRIS-SR) and .78 (SRIS-IN). The PrSCS correlated positively with the SRIS-SR and negatively with the SRIS-IN. The SRIS-SR correlated positively with anxiety and stress, but not with depression and alexithymia. The SRIS-IN was negatively correlated with depression, anxiety, stress and alexithymia, and positively correlated with cognitive flexibility and self-regulation. Individuals who had kept diaries had higher SRIS-SR scores but lower SRISIN scores than did those who had not kept diaries. Implications of these findings for models of self-regulation and goal attainment are discussed.
Notes that self-awareness theory has generated a considerable amount of research activity; however, the most widely used manipulation of self-focus—the mirror—has not been satisfactorily validated. Exp I was an attempt to do so. At the same time an attempt was made to validate the Self-Consciousness Scale (SCS), an instrument designed to measure chronic dispositions to be self-attentive. 79 female undergraduates responded to a sentence completion blank either in an empty room or while facing a mirror. Results indicate that the mirror does manipulate, and the private subscale of the SCS does measure, self-attention. Exp II, with 81 female undergraduates, was a replication of the 1st study, but using an audience instead of a mirror. Results indicate that audience presence also heightens self-attention. Implications for attentional analyses of social behavior are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies investigated the relationship between shyness (tension and inhibition with others) and sociability (preference for being with others rather than being alone) using 952 undergraduates. A factor analysis of shyness and sociability items revealed 2 distinct factors, indicating that shyness and sociability are distinct personality dispositions. Self-reported shyness showed only a moderate negative correlation with self-reported sociability. Furthermore, the measures of shyness and sociability had different patterns of correlations with other personality scales (e.g., the Public and Private Self-Consciousness scales of the Self-Consciousness Inventory, Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and the EASI [Emotionality, Activity, Sociability, Impulsivity] Temperament Survey). On the basis of these findings, it is concluded that shyness is not just low sociability. Next, 4 groups of Ss were selected: shy–sociable, shy–unsociable, unshy–sociable, and unshy–unsociable. Pairs of these Ss, matched for both traits, interacted for 5 min. Shy–sociable Ss talked less, averted their gaze more, and engaged in more self-manipulation than did the other 3 groups. In studying social behavior, it should be known whether Ss are shy but also whether they are sociable. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved).
Three studies were conducted to examine the correlates of adult attachment. In Study 1, an 18-item scale to measure adult attachment style dimensions was developed based on Hazan and Shaver's (1987) categorical measure. Factor analyses revealed three dimensions underlying this measure: the extent to which an individual is comfortable with closeness, feels he or she can depend on others, and is anxious or fearful about such things as being abandoned or unloved. Study 2 explored the relation between these attachment dimensions and working models of self and others. Attachment dimensions were found to be related to self-esteem, expressiveness, instrumentality, trust in others, beliefs about human nature, and styles of loving. Study 3 explored the role of attachment style dimensions in three aspects of ongoing dating relationships: partner matching on attachment dimensions; similarity between the attachment of one's partner and caregiving style of one's parents; and relationship quality, including communication, trust, and satisfaction. Evidence was obtained for partner matching and for similarity between one's partner and one's parents, particularly for one's opposite-sex parent. Dimensions of attachment style were strongly related to how each partner perceived the relationship, although the dimension of attachment that best predicted quality differed for men and women. For women, the extent to which their partner was comfortable with closeness was the best predictor of relationship quality, whereas the best predictor for men was the extent to which their partner was anxious about being abandoned or unloved.
Cognitive evaluation theory, which explains the effects of extrinsic motivators on intrinsic motivation, received some initial attention in the organizational literature. However, the simple dichotomy between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation made the theory difficult to apply to work settings. Differentiating extrinsic motivation into types that differ in their degree of autonomy led to self-determination theory, which has received widespread attention in the education, health care, and sport domains. This article describes self-determination theory as a theory of work motivation and shows its relevance to theories of organizational behavior. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
In this article, we define questionable measurement practices (QMPs) as decisions researchers make that raise doubts about the validity of the measures, and ultimately the validity of study conclusions. Doubts arise for a host of reasons, including a lack of transparency, ignorance, negligence, or misrepresentation of the evidence. We describe the scope of the problem and focus on how transparency is a part of the solution. A lack of measurement transparency makes it impossible to evaluate potential threats to internal, external, statistical-conclusion, and construct validity. We demonstrate that psychology is plagued by a measurement schmeasurement attitude: QMPs are common, hide a stunning source of researcher degrees of freedom, and pose a serious threat to cumulative psychological science, but are largely ignored. We address these challenges by providing a set of questions that researchers and consumers of scientific research can consider to identify and avoid QMPs. Transparent answers to these measurement questions promote rigorous research, allow for thorough evaluations of a study’s inferences, and are necessary for meaningful replication studies.
There are times when sitting alone without distraction from devices or daily activities could be valuable, as it offers us the opportunities to relax and clear our mind. Yet, the extant literature suggests individuals do not enjoy those moments, and often seek out distraction to reduce the salience of aloneness. In the present research, we examined one circumstance in which individuals might gain the ability to refrain from the urge to seek out distraction and enjoy more emotional benefits from solitude – moments of undistracted aloneness without communications, activities, or devices. In two preregistered experiments (N = 266, N = 369), we manipulated supported versus thwarted autonomy for solitude and gave participants the opportunity to distract with a banal diversion task. The results showed that autonomy-supported participants would value solitude and ignore the banal, diversion task, whereas autonomy thwarted ones would dislike their solitude and engage more in this task.
Authenticity entails autonomy, congruence, and genuineness. In this article, we use a self-determination theory framework to discuss a critical aspect of social environments that facilitates these aspects of authenticity, namely the experience of autonomy support. Although authenticity is often studied as a trait or individual difference, we review research demonstrating that authenticity varies within individuals and predicts variations in well-being. Next, we show that perceiving autonomy support within a relational context is associated with people feeling more authentic and more like their ideal selves and displaying constellations of Big 5 personality traits indicative of greater wellness in that context. To explore another important part of authenticity, being genuine in interactions with others, we review evidence linking autonomy support to situational variation in identity disclosure among lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals. This research suggests that perceiving autonomy support within a context or relationship helps lesbian, gay, and bisexual individuals be more open about their sexual orientation and identity, which in turn affords greater opportunities for the satisfaction of not only autonomy, but competence and relatedness needs as well, facilitating well-being. We conclude by highlighting future directions in the study of authenticity’s dynamic nature, and the importance of the situation in its expression and its relation to well-being.
Unsociability is a characteristic that refers to individual differences in the non-fearful preference for solitude.
There is continued debate pertaining to the potential costs and benefits of solitude for our well-being. In this
essay, we consider various approaches to the conceptualization and measurement of unsociability, and explore its implications for socio-emotional functioning. Further, we propose a somewhat speculative theoretical model of developmental timing effects for unsociability, which postulates non-linear variations in the implications of a heightened preference for solitude from early childhood to emerging adulthood. After considering the existing empirical support for this model, we outline remaining topics of concerns and suggest the most pressing directions for future research.
In this research we showed that solitude generally has a deactivation effect on people’s affective experiences, decreasing both positive and negative high-arousal affects. In Study 1, we found that the deactivation effect occurred when people were alone, but not when they were with another person. Study 2 showed that this deactivation effect did not depend on whether or not the person was engaged in an activity such as a reading when alone. In Study 3, high-arousal positive affect did not drop in a solitude condition in which participants specifically engaged in positive thinking or when they actively chose what to think about. Finally, in Study 4, we found that solitude could lead to relaxation and reduced stress when individuals actively chose to be alone. This research thus shed light on solitude effects in the past literature, and on people’s experiences when alone and the different factors that moderate these effects.
The present study examines antecedents of university students' academic emotions (Pekrun, Goetz, Titz, & Perry, 2002) in the context of self-determination theory (SDT; Deci & Ryan, 1985; 2000), using real-time assessment and intra-individual analyses. We investigated whether daily autonomous and controlled-motivated educational goals predicted students' academic emotions. University students (N = 55) completed smartphone diaries over 14 consecutive days. The two-week intensive longitudinal data were organized in a hierarchical three-level structure, with situations (Level 1) nested within days (Level 2) nested within students (Level 3). Students' goal motivation was assessed in morning questionnaires, and academic emotions in three daytime questionnaires. The results of the multilevel structural equation models showed that setting self-determined autonomous educational goals predicted positive emotions, whereas controlled motivation predicted negative emotions in everyday academic situations, applying both to within-person processes and between-person differences. Both kinds of goal motivation, autonomous and controlled, were associated with determination in students’ daily lives.
Aim:
Experience-sampling studies on Big Five-related behavior show that people display the whole spectrum of each trait in their daily behavior, and that desirable Big Five states - especially state Extraversion - are related to positive mood. However, other research lines suggest that extraverted and conscientious behavior may be mentally depleting. The present research examined this possibility by extending the time frame of the measured personality processes.
Method:
A 12-day experience-sampling study (N = 48, No. of observations = 2328) measuring Big Five states, mood, stress, and fatigue five times a day.
Results:
Extraverted and conscientious behavior were concurrently related to positive mood and lower fatigue, but to higher fatigue after a 3-hour delay. These relations were not moderated by personality traits. The relation between extraverted behavior and delayed fatigue was mediated by the number of people the person had encountered. Whether the person had a goal mediated the relation between conscientious behavior and delayed fatigue.
Conclusion:
Extraverted and conscientious behavior predict mental depletion after a 3-hour delay. The results help reconcile previous findings regarding the consequences of state extraversion, and provide novel information about the consequences of state conscientiousness. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
Interest in the problem of method biases has a long history in the behavioral sciences. Despite this, a comprehensive summary of the potential sources of method biases and how to control for them does not exist. Therefore, the purpose of this article is to examine the extent to which method biases influence behavioral research results, identify potential sources of method biases, discuss the cognitive processes through which method biases influence responses to measures, evaluate the many different procedural and statistical techniques that can be used to control method biases, and provide recommendations for how to select appropriate procedural and statistical remedies for different types of research settings.
The present research demonstrates that consumers often feel inhibited from engaging in hedonic activities alone, especially when these activities are observable by others. When considering whether to engage in a hedonic and public activity such as going to a movie alone, individuals anticipate negative inferences from others about their social connectedness, which reduce their interest in engaging in the activity. Notably, consumers seem to overestimate how much their enjoyment of these activities depends on whether they are accompanied by a companion. Cues that attenuate consumers' anticipation of negative inferences by making an activity seem more utilitarian or by reducing the anticipated number of observers systematically increase interest in engaging in unaccompanied public activities.
Social anhedonia is characterized by decreased interest in and pleasure from social contact and intimate relations. The construct represents a fundamental disruption in the basic need to belong. It involves trait-like deficits, in contrast to transient social withdrawal seen in conditions such as dysphoria and depression. Social withdrawal and isolation in social anhedonia is associated with marked diminution of positive affect, in contrast to the social withdrawal in social anxiety that involves fear of criticism or humiliation. Social anhedonia's conceptual roots are linked to conceptualizations of schizotypy, schizoid personality, and schizophrenia, and it has primarily been operationalized, measured, and investigated within the field of clinical psychology. The present chapter presents the theoretical bases of social anhedonia, reviews cross-sectional, longitudinal, and daily life research findings, and considers issues and directions for future study of the construct.
A tablet may be the best media device to use to spend time alone or enjoy a moment of solitude to release stress. The goal of this study is to examine how the desire for aloneness and leisure boredom play a role in influencing diverse activities when using the tablet and how these socio-psychological states, tablet activities, and location of tablet use may affect the perception of stress reduction, especially when the tablet is used alone. Data were gathered from a probability sample of 948 respondents, of which 348 were tablet users, through a telephone survey. Results indicate that people with a high preference for aloneness were more active tablet users of utility-, information-, social-, and fun seeking-oriented activities, while those who were leisurely bored did not show any significant difference. People with a high desire for aloneness and the leisurely bored tended to have a higher perception that using the tablet in solitude can help them reduce stress. Heavy users of both social- and fun seeking-oriented activities on the tablets also significantly predicted the perception of stress reduction in tablet use alone, particularly in the privacy of their bathroom. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
This paper introduces a new approach to the conceptualization and measurement of experimental conditions and to the assessment of the meaning of dependent-variable responses in a given condition. By simulating the results of a series of "insufficient justification" experiments, contradictory and inexplicable findings are accounted for. The implications of the situation and of available response alternatives for the "situated identity" of the subjectactor are related to subject behavior. With the simple hypothesis that subjects attempt to create the most favorable situated identities in experimental encounters, we are able to explain why they answred the dependent-variable questions as they did and as observers estimated they would do. Focusing on the salience of situated identity attributes enables this approach, unlike others, the specify the differences that distinguish one experimental condition from another. We discuss the implications of these findings and recommend a new theoretical and methodological approach to experimentation in social psychology.
This study extends the U&G theoretical perspective to account for the situated, adaptive, and dynamic nature of mediated cognition and behavior. It specifies dynamic uses and gratifications of social media (compared to other media) in the everyday lives of college students using experience sampling data across 4 weeks. The study tests and quantifies reciprocal causal relationships between needs, social media use, and gratifications, as well as their self-sustaining endogenous (i.e., feedback) effects. Social media use is significantly driven by all four categories of needs examined (emotional, cognitive, social, and habitual), but only gratifies some of them. Ungratified needs accumulate over time and drive subsequent social media use. Interpersonal social environments also affect social media use. In particular, solitude and interpersonal support increase social media use, and moderate the effects of needs on social media use.
A growing interest in the functional importance of dispositional autonomy led to the development and validation of the Index of Autonomous Functioning (IAF) across seven studies. The IAF provides a measure of trait autonomy based on three theoretically derived subscales assessing authorship/self-congruence, interest-taking, and low susceptibility to control. Results showed consistency within and across subscales, and appropriate placement within a nomological network of constructs. Diary studies demonstrated IAF relations with higher well-being, greater daily satisfaction of basic psychological needs, and more autonomous engagement in daily activities. Using an experimental approach, the IAF was shown to predict more positive interactions among dyads. The studies provided a systematic development and validation of a measure of autonomy that is brief and reliable.
Prior research suggests that, on average, disclosing sexual identity (being “out”) yields wellness benefits for lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) individuals. LGB individuals vary, however, both in how much they disclose their sexual orientation in different social contexts and in the experiences that follow from disclosure. The present research examines this within-person variation in disclosure and its consequences as a function of the autonomy supportive versus controlling character of social contexts. LGB individuals rated experiences of autonomy support and control in the contexts of family, friends, coworkers, school, and religious community, as well how “out” they were, and their context-specific self-esteem, depression, and anger. Findings from multilevel modeling revealed that LGB individuals were more likely to disclose in autonomy supportive contexts. Additionally, whereas disclosure was associated with more positive well-being in autonomy supportive contexts, in controlling contexts it was not. Practical and research implications are discussed.
This study explored the relationships among dispositional self-consciousness, situationally induced-states of self-awareness, ego-involvement, and intrinsic motivation Cognitive evaluation theory, as applied to both the interpersonal and intrapersonal spheres, was used as the basis for making predictions about the effects of various types of self-focus Public self-consciousness, social anxiety, video surveillance and mirror manipulations of self-awareness, and induced ego-involvement were predicted and found to have negative effects on intrinsic motivation since all were hypothesized to involve controlling forms of regulation In contrast, dispositional private self-consciousness and a no-self-focus condition were both found to be unrelated to intrinsic motivation The relationship among these constructs and manipulations was discussed in the context of both Carver and Scheier's (1981) control theory and Deci and Ryan's (1985) motivation theory
Christopher R. Long and James R. Averill, Solitude: An Exploration of Benefits of Being Alone, pp. 21–44.
Historically, philosophers, artists, and spiritual leaders have extolled the benefits of solitude; currently, advice on how to achieve solitude is the subject of many popular books and articles. Seldom, however, has solitude been studied by psychologists, who have focused instead on the negative experiences associated with being alone, particularly loneliness. Solitude, in contrast to loneliness, is often a positive state—one that may be sought rather than avoided. In this article, we examine some of the benefits that have been attributed to solitude—namely, freedom, creativity, intimacy, and spirituality. In subsequent sections, we consider the environmental settings and personality characteristics conducive to solitude, how time spent alone is experienced differently across the life span, and the potential dangers related to the attractiveness of solitude. We conclude with a brief discussion of the theoretical and practical implications of solitude.