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C O M M E N T A R Y Open Access
Surgery in COVID-19 patients: operational
directives
Federico Coccolini
1,20*
, Gennaro Perrone
2
, Massimo Chiarugi
1
, Francesco Di Marzo
3
, Luca Ansaloni
4
,
Ildo Scandroglio
5
, Pierluigi Marini
6
, Mauro Zago
7
, Paolo De Paolis
8
, Francesco Forfori
9
, Ferdinando Agresta
10
,
Alessandro Puzziello
11
, Domenico D’Ugo
12
, Elena Bignami
13
, Valentina Bellini
13
, Pietro Vitali
14
, Flavia Petrini
15
,
Barbara Pifferi
13
, Francesco Corradi
9
, Antonio Tarasconi
2
, Vittoria Pattonieri
2
, Elena Bonati
2
, Luigi Tritapepe
16
,
Vanni Agnoletti
17
, Davide Corbella
18
, Massimo Sartelli
19
and Fausto Catena
2
Abstract
The current COVID-19 pandemic underlines the importance of a mindful utilization of financial and human
resources. Preserving resources and manpower is paramount in healthcare. It is important to ensure the ability of
surgeons and specialized professionals to function through the pandemic. A conscious effort should be made to
minimize infection in this sector. A high mortality rate within this group would be detrimental.
This manuscript is the result of a collaboration between the major Italian surgical and anesthesiologic societies:
ACOI, SIC, SICUT, SICO, SICG, SIFIPAC, SICE, and SIAARTI. We aim to describe recommended clinical pathways for
COVID-19-positive patients requiring acute non-deferrable surgical care. All hospitals should organize dedicated
protocols and workforce training as part of the effort to face the current pandemic.
Keywords: Coronavirus, COVID-19, Epidemic, Pandemic, Mass casualties, Management, Resources, Criticalities, WSES
Background
The current COVID-19 pandemic, “when the destructive
effects of natural or man-made forces overwhelm the
ability of a given area or community to meet the demand
for health care”[1], demands the best disaster/mass cas-
ualty incident (MCI) response. During MCIs, preserving
financial and human resources is crucial. A good
organization and a preventive approach are mandatory
in the phase of MCI response called mitigation. In order
to minimize resource exhaustion, the use of surgical ap-
pliances and staff must be well pondered and balanced
[2]. Surgeons and sub-specialized workers in general are
a valuable resource during MCI. Infection or death of
sub-specialized staff must be minimized to preserve the
ability to face surgical emergencies and associated activ-
ities that will continue to occur or perhaps increase dur-
ing MCI. In fact, any lack of specialized teams occurring
during a pandemic cannot be easily addressed by reinte-
grating retirees or replenishing the ranks with new staff,
which would also be inevitably associated with a lowered
standard of care, hence, the requirement to skeletonize
surgical activities during a pandemic. When possible, all
surgical procedures on all suspected COVID-19 patient
should be postponed until confirmed infection clearance.
Minimal staff should be involved when deferral is not
possible. If a large number of senior surgeons is exposed
to infected patients, the possibility for them to become
infected and require self-isolation is real and could po-
tentially result in a dangerous shortage of senior expert-
ise within surgical teams. Resource usage should be
carefully considered when planning scheduled proce-
dures, particularly with regard to materials, staff, devices,
intensive care beds, blood components, etc. Caring for
© The Author(s). 2020 Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License,
which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give
appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if
changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons
licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons
licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain
permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the
data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.
* Correspondence: federico.coccolini@gmail.com
1
Emergency Surgery Unit & Trauma Center, Pisa University Hospital, Pisa, Italy
20
General, Emergency and Trauma Surgery, Pisa University Hospital, Via
Paradisia 1, 56100 Pisa, Italy
Full list of author information is available at the end of the article
Coccolini et al. World Journal of Emergency Surgery (2020) 15:25
https://doi.org/10.1186/s13017-020-00307-2
resource-intensive patients might be controversial dur-
ing MCIs.
This manuscript is the result of a collaboration be-
tween the major Italian surgical and anesthesiologic so-
cieties: ACOI, SIC, SICUT, SICO, SICG, SIFIPAC, SICE,
and SIAARTI. We aim to describe recommended clinical
pathways for COVID-19-positive patients requiring
acute non-deferrable surgical care.
Main text
All known or suspected COVID-19-positive patients re-
quiring surgical intervention must be treated as positive
until proven otherwise in order to minimize infection
spread. Protocolized clearly defined pathways must be
available to healthcare professionals caring for these pa-
tients. Allocating dedicated senior staff to key manage-
ment roles is crucial to minimize COVID-19 spread. All
staff must be specifically trained to don, doff, and dis-
pose of personal protection equipment (PPE) including
masks (level 2 or 3 filtering face piece (FFP) depending
on the aerosol-generating risk level), eye protection,
double non-sterile gloves, gowns, suites, caps, and socks
(Table 1).
In-transit surgical patients proceeding through the
theater block must not stop in the anesthetic bay, recov-
ery room, or any place other than the COVID-dedicated
operating room (OR). They must be taken directly to a
designated OR that must be adequately marked with
clearly visible door signs. In the event that the scheduled
surgical procedure does not require a general anesthetic
and if the clinical situation allows, patients should con-
tinue to wear a protective mask for the entire duration
of the procedure (Fig. 1).
It is important to underline how all non-COVID pa-
tients must be protected. Established separate pathways
must exist to keep suspected/infected patients apart
from non-COVID ones. PPEs or at least masks must be
enforced for all non-COVID patients during all in-
hospital transfers in order to minimize infection risk in
the event that they cross the path or come in proximity
of a COVID patient. Careful planning and segregation of
infected patients may help minimize staff shortages re-
lated to uncontrolled viral spread.
Location
Designated COVID operating areas (COA) must be allo-
cated to COVID patients’urgent/emergent operating.
The OR closest to the entrance of the theater block en-
trance should be the first one designated to COVID pa-
tients. When multiple procedures must be
simultaneously performed, operating rooms must be uti-
lized in order of proximity to the theater block entrance
in order to minimize environmental contamination in
the theater block.
Patient transport
Patient transit to and from the COA must be as quick as
possible. A pre-defined direct path must be kept as short
as possible and away from other patients and people in
general within the hospital in order to minimize the
chances of infection. If inter-hospital patient transfer or
transfer from other buildings within the hospital is re-
quired, a dedicated vehicle should be used. Transfer
personnel should be specifically trained and equipped
with PPEs. The patient’s compartment in the transport
vehicle is ideally kept separate from the driver. A Bio-
containment unit may be utilized. If a patient is taken to
the COA from any adjacent premise, a stretcher might
be used for transport. All precautionary measures apply
to the use of the stretcher and to the personnel respon-
sible for the transfer (Table 1, Fig. 1) both during and
after transport is completed, with immediate sanitization
required (Tables 2and 3). Utilized lifts must be sani-
tized. If any unexpected contamination occurs during
transport (i.e., patient vomiting or else), adequate dedi-
cated sanitization should take place. A dedicated specif-
ically trained 24/7 cleaning team from the local
contracted cleaning service might prove a valuable
resource.
Any non-intubated patient must wear a surgical mask,
disposable waterproof gloves, disposable cap, and shoe
covers during transport. When possible, the patient’s
hands should be sanitized before transport. Transport
operators must sanitize hands and wear PPEs before
transfer and should minimize contact with patients.
Coded routes should be followed and hospital public
areas avoided. Anyone crossing the path of an infected
patient should be preemptively alerted in order to
minimize contact. Well-organized logistics will contrib-
ute to minimizing disposables wastage. Dedicated well-
identifiable containers for infectious-risk health waste
(IRHW) should be used for potentially infected dispos-
ables. Lastly, COVID patients should be transported in
the most professional and confidential way possible in
Table 1 Necessary personal protection equipment
Personal protection equipment
FFP2 facial mask
FFP3 facial mask (in case of maneuvers at high risk of generating
aerosolized particles)
Disposable long sleeve waterproof coats, gowns, or Tyvek suits
Disposable double pair of nitrile gloves
Protective goggles or visors
Disposable head caps
Disposable long shoe covers
Alcoholic hand hygiene solution
FFP filtering face piece
Coccolini et al. World Journal of Emergency Surgery (2020) 15:25 Page 2 of 7
order to minimize unjustified alarmism. Dedicated areas
allocated to infected patients awaiting transfer to the
COA must be preemptively identified in the emergency
department. The patient’s transfer from the emergency
department to the COA should be streamlined in order
to avoid all unnecessary contacts. Each hospital should
provide a step by step, well-defined path pre-allocating
some corridors and elevators to COVID patients.
COVID operating area
It is important to minimize the total number of opera-
tors working in the designated COA. Whenever possible,
it is important to minimize to number of people working
on a single infected case; ideally, this should also apply
to cases spanning over multiple shifts. Operations for
COVID patients might be organized with a dedicated
on-call shift. This might require overnight or out of
hours activities to optimize resource usage. This ap-
proach might facilitate segregation between COVID and
non-COVID patients, who will continue to require
surgical care. PPEs and stock required for hand hygiene
must be constantly replenished within the COA. A spe-
cifically allocated filter area designed for COVID patients
to enter the COA must be equipped with PPEs, hand hy-
giene station, and a dedicated IRHW bins. Handling of
potentially infected linen should be adequately managed
too. The use of machinery intended to facilitate moving
and transferring patients should be minimized. All COA
doors must be kept closed (including accessory rooms,
sterilization spaces), and any equipment not necessary
for the intervention must be moved away from COVID
patients transit route.
Taking charge of the patient in COVID operating area
Special attention should be given to what, in non-
COVID times, is routine practice. Staff taking responsi-
bility for positive or suspected infected patients must be
limited to those who need to be primarily involved in
each operation. A record must be kept of all operators
involved in procedures on potentially infected patients.
Personnel equipped with full PPEs must receive the pa-
tient in the COA, transfer the patient to the operating
room minimizing environmental contamination and,
after time-out, proceed to move the patient on the oper-
ating table in the allocated OR. All non-intubated pa-
tients must wear a surgical mask. Medical records must
remain outside the OR and must be consulted and up-
dated there after adequate doffing. Intraoperative
Fig. 1 COVID-19 surgical patients management flowchart
Table 2 Sanitization sequence
Surface and electromedical sanitization sequence
1. Clean with chloro-derivate solution
2. Rinse and dry
3. Disinfect with chloro-derivate solution in a concentration ≥0.1% or
1000 ppm; time of contact must be superior to 1 min
ppm parts per million
Coccolini et al. World Journal of Emergency Surgery (2020) 15:25 Page 3 of 7
document consultation is discouraged and should be
minimized.
Operating room preparation
Negative pressure ORs would be ideal to minimize infec-
tion risk [3,4]. However, ORs are normally designed to
have positive pressure air circulation. A high air ex-
change cycle rate (≥25 cycles/h) contributes to effect-
ively reduce the viral load within ORs [2]. Equipment
kept in each OR must be minimized to what is strictly
necessary on a case to case basis. Once the operation
starts, all efforts must be made to use what is available
in the room and minimize staff transiting in and out the
OR, in order to minimize infection risk. Standard
anesthetic trolleys should be replaced with dedicated
pre-prepared ones with minimal but adequate stock. All
required surgical material (i.e., stitches, scalpel blades)
must be preemptively prepared in a sterilizable steel wire
basket. Dedicated IRHW containers must be used for in-
fected and sharp disposable instruments. Alcoholic solu-
tion for hand hygiene must always be available. Avoiding
non-strictly necessary commonly used non-disposable
devices is recommended. Disposable material in general
should be preferred, including linen. All operators (i.e.,
surgeon, anesthetist, nurses, technicians) should enter
the OR timely, aiming to minimize time spent within the
OR itself. Once in the OR, they should not leave until
the operation is completed, and once out they should
not re-enter.
Personnel dressing
All operators must wear the required PPE before meet-
ing the infected patient. The patient’s receiving
personnel inside the COA filter area must perform hand
hygiene and wear full PPE.
While taking care of infected patients, gloves should
be changed immediately after contact with infected ma-
terial (objects, surfaces, etc.) or if any damage occurs.
Operator with a beard should exert special attention to
the fit of the mask ensuring adequate protection.
Some procedures likely to generate aerosolized parti-
cles have been associated with increased coronavirus
transmission: tracheal intubation, non-invasive ventila-
tion, tracheostomy, cardiopulmonary resuscitation, and
manual ventilation before intubation and bronchoscopy
[5,6]. An FFP3 mask should be therefore worn by oper-
ators working closer to the patient during these
procedures.
Given the conjunctiva’s susceptibility to viral transmis-
sion, it is important to wear visors or goggles to protect
the eyes from potential exposure of viral particles [7].
Anesthesiologic consideration
Careful anesthesiologic planning is recommended to
minimize any infection potentially associated with unex-
pected complex endotracheal intubation procedures. A
more liberal use of intubation might be justified in pa-
tients with acute respiratory failure, bypassing non-
invasive ventilation techniques (e.g., CPAP or biPAP) in
order to minimize the transmission risks [5]. Disposable
airway equipment should be preferred. Medical and
nursing staff must be equipped with FFP3 filters during
laryngoscopy and intubation [5]. Intubations techniques
with the highest chance of first-time success should be
preferred to avoid repeated airway instrumentation [4,
5]. Awake intubation techniques should be avoided. At
the end of these procedures, all staff directly performing
the procedure must immediately replace the first pair of
gloves and other PPEs in case heavy contamination risk
exists (i.e., in the event that vomiting, coughing, or else
has occurred). Fiberscope intubation, unless specifically
Table 3 COVID-19 surgical patients’management
Key aspects in COVID-19 surgical patient management
All suspected or infected patients must be managed with the maximum
attention.
All personnel in contact with the patient must wear PPE.
Transfers must be protected.
Infected patients must be moved as little as possible through the
hospital.
Transfer routes must be precisely planned and be as short as possible.
The COVID operating area should be in a dedicated and possibly
separate area.
COVID operating room must be dedicated and as close as possible to
the entrance of the theater block.
Disposable material should be preferred.
Minimal material should be used for each intervention.
Transport personnel should be the same from transport origin to
destination.
Once the patient has entered, the OR doors must be closed.
Operators (i.e., surgeon, anesthetist, nurses, technicians) should enter the
OR in a timely manner to minimize exposure to infected patients.
Personnel involved in the intervention should not leave the OR during
the procedure.
High OR air exchange cycles are recommended (> 25 exchanges/h).
Clinical documentation must remain outside the OR
At the end of each intervention all disposable materials must be
disposed of and all surfaces and electromedical devices accurately
cleaned and disinfected.
PPE must be removed and disposed of outside the OR in dedicated
doffing areas ensuring the virus is not transmitted to the healthcare
worker.
OR and surrounding donning/doffing areas must be sanitized as soon as
possible after each procedure.
After each procedure, all involved personnel, whenever possible, should
shower.
Recovery phase after surgery must be done in OR, before transfer the
ward/ICU.
Coccolini et al. World Journal of Emergency Surgery (2020) 15:25 Page 4 of 7
indicated, should be avoided as it may generate aerosoli-
zation [5]. Rapid sequence intubation (RSI) should be
considered to avoid manual ventilation and potential
aerosolization. If manual ventilation is required, small
current volumes should be used. If available, a closed
suction system should be preferred during airway aspir-
ation. Disposable covers should be used whenever pos-
sible to reduce equipment contamination. If a patient is
transferred directly from the intensive care unit, a dedi-
cated transport ventilator should be utilized. In order to
reduce aerosolization risks, the gas flow should be
turned off and the endotracheal tube clamped with for-
ceps when switching from the portable device to the OR
ventilator [4]. When possible, a dedicated ventilator
should be used in the OR for general anesthesia in posi-
tive or suspected positive COVID-19 patients. Invasive
procedures like for example the placement of intercostal
catheters, central venous catheters, or similar should be
performed at the patient’s bedside, rather than in the
OR. When a general anesthetic is required, a HEPA
(high-efficiency particulate air) filter should be con-
nected to the patient end of the breathing circuit and
another one between the expiratory limb and the
anesthetic machine [2,6]. Alternatively, for pediatric pa-
tients or other patients in whom additional dead space
or the weight of the filter may be problematic, the HEPA
filter must be placed at the expiratory end of the circuit
(before the exhalation re-enters the ventilator). The gas
sampling tube must also be protected by a HEPA filter.
Both HEPA filters and soda lime must be changed after
each case [4]. At the end of the surgery, during the re-
covery phase, the patient must be assisted directly in the
OR until ready to be transferred back to the inpatients
place of stay. The time patients spend returning to wards
must be reduced in order to minimize contact between
COVID-positive patients and the surrounding
environment.
Intraoperative management
The OR door must be kept closed at all times and clear
signs should discourage unnecessarily entering the room.
Supplying materials to the OR during surgery should
also be discouraged. The scout nurse, in collaboration
with the operating surgeon, should anticipate what is
needed during the operation before the same starts. Sur-
geons should preferably perform the operation with
what is available in the OR once the operation started.
Any essential retrieval of necessary equipment should be
done by staff outside the OR. Personnel present in the
OR during surgery must not leave the room. Electrome-
dical devices (i.e., ultrasound) and surfaces must be used
with adequate protective cover and adequately sanitized
at the end of the operation. The surgical team will drape
the patient according to the surgical procedure,
replacing the surgical mask with FFP2 filter and wearing
long shoe covers before doing so. All personnel in direct
contact with the patient must wear a double pair of
gloves at all times, even while operating. After the pa-
tient left the OR, logistics should allow as much time as
possible before the next procedure takes place, to reduce
possible air contamination. This time depends on the
number of air exchanges/hour of the specific room. Air
exchange cycles should be increased whenever possible
to ≥25 exchanges/h [2]. After the case, all areas at risk
of contamination must be cleaned and disinfected (Table
2). Efforts should be made to minimize the contamin-
ation risk associated with specimens sent to the path-
ology department. No data currently exist on COVID-19
viral load in bodily fluids or tissue samples.
PPE undressing/removal
Staff not directly involved in the patient’s care should
leave the OR at the end of the operation and remove all
PPEs in a dedicated doffing area following the sequence
described below. A clean area should be accessed only
after the doffing procedure is complete. All used PPEs
must be disposed of through IRHW containers. Scrubs
must be replaced after each procedure following shower-
ing, whenever possible. Personnel responsible for trans-
ferring the patient away from the operating room must
follow separate access routes and wear PPEs different
from the ones worn in the OR.
Instructions for PPE removal
The healthcare professional must take all care not to be-
come infected while removing PPE; this must be done
through an adequate procedure preventing re-
contamination of the operator's clothing and hands. The
first pair of gloves is likely to be heavily contaminated
and must be removed first. All other PPEs must be con-
sidered infected as well and removed with care during
the doffing procedure, especially if the patient had a
cough. Protective suite, shoe cover, and head cap must
be subsequently removed. Face mask and glasses must
be then removed, taking care to handle the face mask by
the ear laces and without touching its external side. The
second pair of gloves must be removed as the very last
PPE and hands disinfection with hydro-alcoholic solu-
tion must be accurately performed immediately after.
Environmental sanitization
The OR and surrounding exchange areas must be sani-
tized as soon as possible after each procedure, with par-
ticular attention to all objects used when caring for
infected patients. Similarly, all areas where COVID pa-
tients have transited must be carefully sanitized too. All
personnel must contribute to maintain a clean environ-
ment including floors and surfaces in general. All
Coccolini et al. World Journal of Emergency Surgery (2020) 15:25 Page 5 of 7
potentially infected single-use materials should be dis-
posed of through IRHW containers. Reusable materials
should be decontaminated, washed, dried, and or disin-
fected/sterilized, based on the likelihood of infection.
Electromedical equipment (i.e., ventilator, radiological
equipment) must be cleaned with chloro-derivate solu-
tion, rinsed and dried, and then disinfected with chloro-
derivate solution in a concentration ≥0.1% or 1000 ppm
(parts per million) with contact time superior to 1 min
[8,9] (Table 2). Full PPE must be worn during the sani-
tizing procedure. Disposable materials only (i.e., double
gloves, paper towel) should be used for cleaning. Any-
thing disposable kept inside the OR during the operation
must be disposed of through IRHW containers, even if
not used.
Waste disposal
It is advisable to set up a dedicated container for hazard-
ous medical waste immediately outside the OR, to im-
mediately dispose of all contaminated disposable
material and PPEs. Containers should be closed and
sealed before being transferred to the collection point.
All sharps should be disposed of in a dedicated rigid
plastic container. PPE should be worn when closing and
transporting containers and removed immediately after.
Any visibly damaged or contaminated container must be
promptly replaced.
Linen management
Linen can be contaminated and must therefore be han-
dled and transported with care, aiming to prevent infec-
tion spread. Disposable laundry should be preferred,
when possible. All linen (sheets, pillowcases, crossbars,
etc.) should be handled wearing PPE during collection,
not placed on surfaces or floors, but directly inside dedi-
cated containers. These must be sealed and immediately
sent for cleaning and sterilization, limiting them being
left outside the OR.
Conclusion
Instituting precise well-established plans to perform
undeferrable surgical procedures and emergencies on
COVID-19-positive patient is mandatory. Hospitals must
prepare specific internal protocols and arrange adequate
training of the involved personnel.
Abbreviations
MCIs: Mass casualty events; PPE: Personal protection equipment;
FFP: Filtering face piece; COA: COVID operating area; IRHW: Infectious-risk
health waste; HEPA: High-efficiency particulate air; RSI: Rapid sequence
intubation
Acknowledgements
None
Authors’contributions
FC, GP, MC, FdM, LA, IS, PM, MZ, PdP, FF, FA, AP, DD, EB, VB, PV, FP, BP, FCo,
AT, VP, EB, LT, VA, DC, MS, and FCa contributed to manuscript conception
and draft, critically revised the manuscript, and contributed important
scientific knowledge and to giving the final approval.
Funding
None
Availability of data and materials
Not applicable
Competing interest
All authors declare to have no competing interests.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Not applicable
Consent for publication
Not applicable
Author details
1
Emergency Surgery Unit & Trauma Center, Pisa University Hospital, Pisa, Italy.
2
Emergency and Trauma Surgery, Maggiore Hospital, Parma, Italy.
3
General
Surgery Dept., Sansepolcro Hospital, Sansepolcro, Italy.
4
General, Emergency
and Trauma Surgery Dept., Bufalini Hospital, Cesena, Italy.
5
General Surgery
Dept., Busto Arsizio Hospital, Busto Arsizio, Italy.
6
General Surgery Dept.,
Ospedaliera San Camillo Forlanini, Rome, Italy.
7
General and Emergency
Surgery Dept., A. Manzoni Hospital, Lecco, Italy.
8
General Surgery Dept.,
Ospedale Gradenigo, Torino, Italy.
9
ICU Dept., Pisa University Hospital, Pisa,
Italy.
10
General Surgery Dept., Ospedale Civile, Adria, Italy.
11
General Surgery
Dept., Salerno University Hospital, Salerno, Italy.
12
General Surgery Dept.,
Policlinico Gemelli University Hospital, Rome, Italy.
13
ICU Dept., Parma
University Hospital, Parma, Italy.
14
Igiene and Public Health Dept., Parma
University Hospital, Parma, Italy.
15
ICU Dept., Chieti University Hospital, Chieti,
Italy.
16
ICU Dept., San Camillo Forlanini Hospital, Rome, Italy.
17
ICU Dept.,
Bufalini Hospital, Cesena, Italy.
18
Neuro ICU Dept., Papa Giovanni XXIII
Hospital, Bergamo, Italy.
19
General and Emergency Surgery, Macerata
Hospital, Macerata, Italy.
20
General, Emergency and Trauma Surgery, Pisa
University Hospital, Via Paradisia 1, 56100 Pisa, Italy.
Received: 20 March 2020 Accepted: 31 March 2020
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