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Arms & Armour
ISSN: 1741-6124 (Print) 1749-6268 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/yaaa20
A New Halberd Typology (1500-1800): Based on the
Collection of the National Military Museum, The
Netherlands
Casper J. Van Dijk
To cite this article: Casper J. Van Dijk (2020) A New Halberd Typology (1500-1800): Based on
the Collection of the National Military Museum, The Netherlands, Arms & Armour, 17:1, 1-26, DOI:
10.1080/17416124.2020.1728905
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/17416124.2020.1728905
© 2020 The Author(s). Published by Informa
UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis
Group
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A New Halberd Typology (1500-1800):
Based on the Collection of the National
Military Museum, The Netherlands
CASPER J. VAN DIJK
Independent Researcher, Vrijheidslaan 820, 232DX, Leiden
European halberds as the subject of research has been partly neglected in
mainstream historical academic discourses. The research that has been pri-
marily focused on trends in development of halberd design from the 14
th
to the 18
th
century. However, this research does not provide insight into
the large variety of halberd design present in collections around the world.
To examine this variety, this article offers a classification system for hal-
berds and provides insight into the factors influencing their design during
the 16
th
and 17
th
centuries. The first part of the article presents a halberd
typology based on the collection of 131 examples in the National Military
Museum, the Netherlands, to provide a system to classify and simplify
communication. This typology is based on a hierarchical system, from
classes, based on the design of the point and socket of the halberd, to
types and subtypes, based on the blade and beak design. In total 4 classes,
14 types and 5 subtypes could be recognised. The second part of the article
provides insight into the dating and use of the recognised types based on
art and historical texts. Using this method, a trend could be recognised in
halberd design: straight-edged halberds were presumably being used by
larger groups of individuals, for example during battles. While concave
edged halberds were probably used by smaller groups, for example per-
sonal guards, and were designed to control the opponent’s weapon and
inflict trauma primarily with the point.
KEYWORDS halberd, typology, development, weapon use, National Military
Museum, Netherlands, medieval, pollaxe
Introduction
When examining late medieval and early modern European art depicting warfare, or
even social events, the halberd is ubiquitous. For example, in the famous 16
th
century
#2020 The Author(s). Published by Informa UK Limited,
trading as Taylor & Francis Group DOI 10.1080/17416124.2020.1728905
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/), which permits non-commercial re-use, distribution, and reproduction in any
medium, provided the original work is properly cited, and is not altered, transformed, or built upon in any way.
ARMS & ARMOUR, Vol. 17, No. 1, April 2020, 1–26
pendrawingsbyHansD
€
urer, or the 16
th
and 17
th
century Schutterstukken, such as
The Night Watch (1642).
1
Halberds are not only often depicted in art but the term
halberd is also often mentioned in historical documents, especially those from the
16
th
century. For example, Frisian muster rolls state that half of the combatants in
the Peoples Armies were armed with halberds (hallebart) during the first half of the
16
th
century, and in his dictionary the landsknecht soldier Paul Dolnstein (pre-1513)
mentions 45 halberdiers (halbartn)aspartofa400manfieldarmy.
2
Many of the
types of halberds depicted or possibly mentioned in historical documents have sur-
vived the ravages of time and are presented in museum collections around the world.
Even with the ubiquitous presence of halberds during the later middles ages and
the early modern period, and the large collections of them surviving to our modern
times, research and literature concerning halberds is scarce. Often, literature concern-
ing historical weapons only devote a short chapter on halberds or staff weapons,
whereas swords, for example, receive far more attention.
3
Nevertheless, a great var-
iety of halberd designs existed. The few examples of literature dealing with halberds
more in depth, such as the works Hafted Weapons by Waldman (2005), The
Halberd and other European Polearms 1300-1650 by Snook (1998), or Le Armi in
Asta by Troso (1988), predominantly provide a general overview of the development
of them through time. These overviews can be a tool to quickly observe the develop-
ment but lack the scope to do justice to the vast number of differences in halberd
design, and often only partly cite the sources used to determine the provenance or
dating of the examined halberds.
The first step in the continuation of halberd research should be recognising the var-
iety in their design. The creation of a typology can be the basis to recognise this vari-
ation. A typology can be used to identify different designs of halberd, classify them
and can condense large amounts of data to a few pages within an article or book.
4
Furthermore, the recognition and classification of different types can be the starting
point for dating halberds, it can provide insight into local variations, and it can pro-
vide insight into the use of halberds. Therefore, the primary aim of this article is to
create an initial typology to map out the different designs of halberds and create a
system simplifying communication on these different designs. The typology only
encompasses the head of the halberd, due to the high variety in halberd head design.
Creating a typology can be a daunting task. In order, to facilitate the creation of
this typology, it has been based on a single collection: the collection of 131 halberds
stored in the National Military Museum (NMM) in the Netherlands. This collection
of halberds has primarily been established through the purchase of examples from
collectors or receiving them as gifts, and is not based on a single or several large his-
torical collections, such as the acquisition of arsenals or noble collections.
Consequently, a large array of different halberd designs, possibly originating from all
over Europe, is present in the collection. Because the typology presented in this paper
is only based on a single collection it should be considered as a basis or incipiency for
future expansion and research, and probably needs to be extended with more types
2C.J.VAN DIJK
present in other collections. It can be best viewed as a framework within which
future data can be lodged.
Before data can be used by social or humanistic scientists for larger societal
research, it should be placed in a context of time and space; where and when was an
object made and used.
5
However, these are precisely the two elements often missing
with historical artefacts such as halberds. Because this data is not usually contained
within the objects themselves, placing these objects within a defined context of time
andspaceisbasedonsupportingevidence.
6
For example, the dating of a halberd
according to the appearance of a similar halberd in a work of art, or dating an arch-
aeological excavated example using other dateable material culture from the site.
Since these interpretations are often contingents on different opinions or new data, I
have opted to differentiate between the objects, i.e. halberds, and interpretations con-
cerning the placement of the object in time and space. Therefore, this article is split
into two. The first part (PART A) will merely describe the physical shape of the hal-
berds in the collection of the National Military Museum and classify them without
the use of interpretative terms. While the second part (PART B), will provide some
interpretations of the described types in terms of dating and use.
The definition of a halberd
Before a typology can be devised the concept of a halberd should be defined, and
especially a differentiation should be made between the historical and the modern
concept. Commonly within modern literature, and not only in the Anglo-Saxon trad-
ition, a halberd is a weapon composed of a three-part head. This consists of an axe-
like blade, surmounted by a spike or point with a beak on the back, the head being
fastened to a staff with two or more langets, a socket, or two eyes on the back edge
(Figure 1).
7
This definition is based on the work of 19
th
or early 20
th
century schol-
ars. Historically the term halberd is derived from the Middle-High German words
halm and baerd/bart.Thewordhalm refers to a long shaft, for example, the shaft of
a straw, while the word baerd refers to a large axe type, often translated in English as
broad or side axe.
8
Consequently, the original term refers to a large axe on a long
staff. Generally, a poem written by Konrad of W€
urzburg (?1287) on the Trojan
Warisrecognisedasthefirsttimethetermhallenbarten is mentioned,
9
but similar
termswereusedthroughoutthelatemiddleagesandearlymodernperiod.For
example: helnbarten, is mentioned in 1348 by the Franciscan John of Winterthur
describing the battle of Mortan (1315).
10
In the Zeugbuch of Emperor Maximilan
(1502) the term Helmparten is used to describe a depiction of a halberd-like object.
11
In 1590 Cornelis Ghijsbetsz, a citizen of Utrecht, Netherlands, purchased 100 helle-
baarden as part of a large order of weapons.
12
What form of object was implied by these different historical terms, and whether
they match the modern definition of a halberd, is problematic. For example, the
helmparten depicted in the Maximilian Zeugbuch do seem to match the modern
A NEW HALBERD TYPOLOGY (1500-1800) 3
description of a halberd; however, it is unclear what objects both W€
urzburg and
Winterthur were describing. Possibly the object they referred to would not be recog-
nised as a halberd by modern scholars. Obviously, the historical term was applied to
different objects over time, and the term could have implied different objects in dif-
ferent geographical areas.
To overcome the possible discrepancy between the historical term hallenbart,and
all its derivatises, and the modern definition of a halberd, I propose a clear distinction
between research into the surviving halberds and the historical concepts, according
to the research methodology used within archaeology; getrennt marschieren, vereint
schlagen.
13
This methodology, originating from historical-archaeological research,
proposes that historical objects and historical texts should be researched apart from
one another before systematically comparing and combining individual aspect of
both sources.
14
For example, this would mean not directly linking the term helmbart
to an object that according to our modern definitions is a halberd and dates to the
same period the term is used in, without clear evidence linking the object and term
together. For the term helmbaert could merely refer to an axe on top of a long shaft,
and not the weapon with a three-part head, we define as a halberd. Therefore, within
this article when the term halberd is used, I will refer to the modern definition of a
FIGURE 1. Definition of a halberd, #The author.
4C.J.VAN DIJK
staff weapon composing of a three-part head presented earlier, unless I specifically
mention historical terms or concept concerning halberds.
Pollaxe versus halberd
Another weapon closely resembling the halberd in design is the pollaxe. The pollaxe,
and its close derivative the Lucerne hammer, is also described within modern litera-
ture as a weapon with a three-part head, composed of an axe blade or hammer sur-
mounted by a spike or point, with a spike or hammer on the back of the head.
15
It
differs from a halberd due to the hammer or the hammer/spike on the back. Again,
as with the halberd a historical object called the pollax existed. For example, in 1386
Geoffrey Chaucer mentions the use of a pollax.
16
Conforming to the earlier distinc-
tion proposed between historical and modern concepts, I propose to create a precise
modern definition for the pollaxe and differentiate it from the historical concept of
the pollax.
My definition: a pollaxe is a staff weapon also consisting of a three-part head-
which comprises an axe-like blade or hammer surmounted by a spike or point, with
a beak, spike or hammer on the back, and fastened to a staff with two or more lan-
gets and/or a socket (Figure 2). The construction of the head of a pollaxe differs
from that of a halberd. While, the head of a halberd is composed of a single piece of
metal (although exceptions exist), pollaxe heads are composed of at least two pieces
of metal, and usually three or more. The first piece is the spike or point of the
weapon and the langets, while the second piece is the blade/hammer and the back
spike/hammer. The first metal piece (the point or spike) can either be placed over the
FIGURE 2. Definition of a pollaxe, #The author.
A NEW HALBERD TYPOLOGY (1500-1800) 5
second piece, then the hammer/axe also functions as a form of socket, or the second
metal piece can be placed over the first piece. The first piece then functions as a
socket. A third piece often passes horizontally through both pieces in the form of a
double-ended spike. This piece than functions as a large rivet, fastening the first and
second metal pieces together (Figure 2).
PART A - the typology
The typology is based on a hierarchal system from more general classes to more
detailed types and subtypes. Because a halberd is, by definition, based on the pres-
ence of a blade, point, and beak placed on top of a wooden shaft, these elements are
the primary distinctions between different types. Therefore, the most fundamental
classification should be based on one or a combination of these elements. The first
classification is based on different types of sockets and points and their interrelation-
ship, as there is the least variation in these two elements. Four classes could be recog-
nised.
17
These four classes are linked to different types of sockets. The four classes
are (Figure 3):
1. Class I has a socket with a rectangular profile. It develops into the
blade and the blade in turn develops into the point. In some examples,
the end of the socket and the beginning of the point touch. Often, the
point is not located directly in line with the socket. In addition, the
point can consist of a spike with a diamond-shaped profile or can con-
sist of a flat top spike with no thickening. Socket types: S.I and S.II.
2. In Class II the socket and point are in line with one another, and the
socket directly transforms into the point, instead of transforming first
into the blade as with Class I. Often, the socket becomes thinner before
thickening towards the point. The point consists of a spike with a dia-
mond-shaped profile, and the socket itself has a rectangular or hexa-
gon-shaped profile. Socket type: S.III.
3. In Class III the socket transforms into a medial ridge running along the
halberd point. From this ridge, the point flattens out to the sides and
forms a spear-like point. Often, the point has sharp edges and is hollow
ground. A number of halberds have a thickening at the end of the
point. Socket type: S.V.
4. In Class IV the socket has either a rectangular, hexagonal, octagonal, or
circular shaped profile. The point is in line with the socket and can be
of spike or spear point design. A defining feature is a transitional elem-
ent, for example, a sphere, between the point and socket. Commonly,
the head is not constructed from one piece of metal but two. The blade
and beak form one piece, while the socket and point form the second
piece, although, examples exist constructed from one piece of metal.
Socket type: S.IV.
6C.J.VAN DIJK
Types and subtypes
These four classes can be further divided into types, and subtypes. Types are based
on overlapping elements in blade and beak design, often linked to a particular socket
or point type. Subtypes are defined by one or more elements present in types. For
example, it can be based on the presence of a certain protrusion, or cut-out in the
blade or beak. However, it should be realised classifications of historical artefacts are
often not defined by absolute boundaries, but by stated norms and an ideal type. The
deviation from the stated norm differentiates between different types, from types
with almost no deviation to types with a largely known deviation from the stated
norm or ideal type.
18
The same applies to this typology. It is derived from halberds
serving as archetypes. The halberds illustrated here are these archetypes. Some types
are homogeneous in design, while others are far more heterogeneous with more var-
iations within the same type.
FIGURE 3. The different classes and their respective socket types, #The author.
A NEW HALBERD TYPOLOGY (1500-1800) 7
Class I (Figure 4):
Type I.A halberds are composed of a large blade with an angled edge,
forming a point on top of the blade. The beak is triangular in shape
and is relatively short, approximately 3
=
4length of the blade. Type A
halberds have a type SI socket.
Subtype I.A-1 is defined by half round cut-outs on the top and bottom
of the halberd blade.
Type I.B halberds are composed of a triangle-like blade forming a sharp
point on top of the blade with a slightly concave edge, and type SII
sockets. Defining type B halberds are the half round cut-outs at the
beginning of the point at both the side of the blade and the beak. Some
FIGURE 4. Class I and its respective types and subtypes, #The author.
8C.J.VAN DIJK
examples have a similar half round cut-out on the attachment between
the socket and the blade on the bottom of the blade (Figure 4).
Class II (Figure 5):
Type II.A halberds are defined by a large blade with a concave shaped
edge. Both at the top and bottom of the blade edge two points are
formed. The point on top of the blade protrudes forward compared to
the bottom point, placing the blade edge at an angle. From these points
on the blade, the blade narrows towards the socket, following largely
the shape of the blade edge, forming a crescent shape. Type C halberds
have a type SIII socket.
Subtype II.A-1 is defined by a wide blade with straight lines and slightly
concave edge. Subtype II.A-1 halberds have a type SIIIa socket. This sub-
type has a triangle shaped beak, pointing downward, and ending in a
sharp point.
Subtype II.A-2 is similar in design to subtype II.A-1. It has, however, a
far more concave shaped blade edge and has small protrusions on the
corner of the blade, where the blade narrows down towards the socket
both on top and bottom. Furthermore, round cut-outs are present in
the blade and beak. Two groups of three cut-outs are present inside
the blade near the points on the blade. Between these two groups of
cut-outs, one group of cut-outs is present, placed in a circle shape
with one cut-out in the middle. Within the beak cut-outs are placed in
a straight line following the socket.
SubtypeII.A-3halberdsaresimilarindesigntoII.A-2halberds.However,
they are more slender in design, have more curved lines, and can have
any type of SIII socket. Just as II.A-2, II.A-3 subtypes they have protru-
sions, but they are larger and often have one or several round cut-outs
inside these protrusions. The point of the beak, and the top and bottom
point of the blade of the halberd can be thickened. The beak of the hal-
berd is longer and narrower than in subtype II.A-1, but also points
downward. The halberd can be decorated with etching or engraving, or
can have large cut-outs inside the blade and beak. Most II.A-3 examples
have a long spike of square section.
Type II.B halberds have a small, shallow crescent-shaped blade, with long
protrusions on top and bottom of the blade formed by a large half round
cut-out. They have a type SIIIb socket, and a long downward sloped beak,
often with a small protrusion on top of the beak. Commonly, round cut-
outs are present in the blade and beak. Furthermore, the halberds can have
round cut-outs in the blade and have a thickening at the bottom of the
spike, for example in the shape of a sphere.
Type II.C halberds are a homogenous group of halberds, with a wide
crescent-shaped blade and a narrow attachment with the socket. The
A NEW HALBERD TYPOLOGY (1500-1800) 9
point of the beak points almost directly downwards, parallel with the
shaft. The halberd has round cut-outs inside the blade and beak, often
grouped in geometrical shapes. Type II.C halberds have long spikes.
Type II.D halberds are a homogeneous group of halberds. They have a
concave-like blade edge composed of two straight lines forming sharp
points on top and bottom of the blade. The attachment of the blade to
the rest of the halberd is narrow. The angle of the blade differs between
halberds, with several examples having the top point protruding for-
ward, while in other examples the bottom point of the blade protrudes
forward. The beak of the halberd has a large pointed protrusion on top,
curving towards the spike of the halberd. They have a type SIII socket.
Type II.E halberds are defined by their straight lines. They have a con-
cave blade edge composed of two straight lines, forming a sharp point
FIGURE 5. Class II and its respective types and subtypes, #The author.
10 C.J.VAN DIJK
on top and bottom of the blade. They have a type SIVd socket. On top
and bottom of the blade, two protrusions are present. The most defin-
ing feature is the split beak. The beak is composed of two points. The
top point points forward towards the point of the halberd while the
bottom point points downward.
Type II.F halberds are a heterogeneous group, composed of examples
with a blade wider than it is high, and a deep concave blade edge.
Defining type II.F halberds are the large number of protrusions coming
out of both the blade and beak. These protrusions differ in shape and
size. The beak is as wide as the blade, or often even wider, and the
point of the beak curves downward. Between the socket and spike a
thickening is often present in the shape of a sphere or diamond. They
have a type SIII socket (Figure 5).
Class III (Figure 6):
Type III.A halberds have a large blade with a concave blade edge, a down-
ward pointed beak, and a type SIV socket. Both on the rim of the blade
and the beak half round cut-outs are present. The halberd can be covered in
etched decoration, and round cut-outs can be present in the blade or beak.
Type III.B halberds are composed of a crescent-shaped blade, with a
protrusion present on the top and bottom of both the blade and beak.
At the base of the point of the halberd two ‘wings’can be present. Type
III. halberds have a type SIV socket and a round shaft.
Type III.C halberds are defined be an S-shaped edge and a type
SIV socket.
Type III.D halberds have a blade resembling subtype II.A-1, with a cres-
cent- shaped edge, and small protrusions on the top and bottom of the
FIGURE 6. Class III and its respective types and subtypes, #The author.
A NEW HALBERD TYPOLOGY (1500-1800) 11
blade. The point of the halberd is leaf shaped, with two small protru-
sions on the base of the point. The beak is simple in design and points
downward (Figure 6).
Class IV (Figure 7):
Type IV.A halberds are composed of two pieces of metal. The socket
and the point form one construction, while the beak and blade consist
of a single piece of sheet metal. The edge of the blade is straight and
parallel with the shaft. The beak curves downward, also in line with the
shaft. On the rim of the blade and beak half round cut-outs are present.
The shaft of the halberd is round in diameter, and the socket can be
hexagonal, octagonal, or even ten-sided in shape. At the bottom and
top of the socket metal ridges are present. Type IV.A halberds points are
triangular in design and resemble a spearpoint, and have a round shaft.
Type IV.B halberds are almost identical in design to the type IV.A hal-
berd. They, however, have four wave-like protrusions, two on the top
and bottom of the blade, and two on the top and bottom of the beak.
Moreover, the beak has more straight lines than type IV.A halberds
(Figure 7).
FIGURE 7. Class IV and its respective types and subtypes, #The author.
12 C.J.VAN DIJK
PART B –interpretation, dating, and use
The second part of this article presents interpretations about the appearance of sev-
eral halberd types in time and space. Due to the close relationship between design,
use, and dating I will also provide some insight into the development of the use of
the halberd. Similarly to the typology, the information presented here is not definitive
but should be observed as a starting point for future research. It is far from complete
end merely portrays possibilities.
Makers’marks
One of the more accessible types of information on halberds are marks on the hal-
berd head or shaft. These marks consist of a small sign, often a geometrical shape,
that conveys information. Probably these marks carry information concerning the
maker of the halberd head. In two articles J.A. Meier could link marks present on
halberds in Swiss collections to a particular smith or producer.
19
Consequently,
marks can be a powerful tool in dating halberds and in determining local variations.
In total 38 different marks could be recognised on halberds in the collection of the
National Military Museum. However, many of the marks were poorly defined; there-
fore, I have opted to present the 15 marks present on halberds that could be classified
to a particular type and were of sufficient quality to be photographed (see Figure 8).
Unfortunately, it was impossible to link them to any particular producer or
arsenal. Nevertheless, some general remarks concerning the marks can be made.
Three type I.A-1 halberds (NMM object number 014804, 14807 and 014868) have
an M.I mark, but also a type II.A-1 halberd has the same mark. The homogeneous
type II.C halberds have a large variety of marks. All four halberds composing of the
II.C group have different marks (M.7 to M.10). A similar trend is observable in type
I.B (NMM object number 014855 and 014886) and II.D (NMM object number
0147684 and 017684) where two halberds from the same type have different marks.
This probably implies either different workshops or masters produced the same style
of halberds. However, far more research is needed to make a more decisive conclu-
sion concerning the meaning of makers’marks. A larger database or collection of
marks is needed to advance research.
Dating
The dating of an objects is not a singular concept. It is composed of several elements.
For example, the dating of an object could refer to the active use of an object during
everyday life, or the term could refer to the production date of an object. What pre-
cisely is dated, is determined by the sources used to date the object. Absolute dating
techniques, for example C
14
-dating, can date the construction of a halberd.
Archaeological finds can date the deposition of a halberd. Artistic representations
can date a large variety of different aspects depending on the intention of the artist.
A NEW HALBERD TYPOLOGY (1500-1800) 13
FIGURE 8. The makers’marks recognised on halberds that could be classified into a type, #
The author.
14 C.J.VAN DIJK
In addition, several halberds have information imprinted on them, such as the marks
discussed earlier, dates or decorative edging that can provide insight into their pro-
duction. For dating halberds their depiction in works of art is the most readily access-
ible source and will, therefore, be primarily used in this article.
Art does have several challenges which need to be considered before it can be used
to date objects. The major problems are the intention of the artist, the depicted scene
andtheartstyle.Whenanartistdepictsa‘fantasy’scene it can be safely assumed
that more fantasy inspired weapons or armour are depicted. The same principle
applies to contemporary scenes, with contemporary armour or weapons depicted.
Another problem is how detailed an art style is; some styles enable better recognition
of halberd types than others. To solve these problems, I have chosen to use detailed
art works depicting contemporary events, or art depicting historical scenes using con-
temporary material culture. I have tried to use artists with martial experience,
increasing the probability for the real depiction of historical weapons. For example,
the artists Albrecht D€
urer, who created a fight book for Emperor Maximilian, and
the artist Urs Graf, who served as a landsknecht.
20
The dating is based on the types presented in the typology, and, as with the typ-
ology, the dating goes from general to more precise forms; from classes to subtypes.
FIGURE 9. The dating of several halberd types. Based on the evidence presented in this article,
#The author.
A NEW HALBERD TYPOLOGY (1500-1800) 15
However, dates are only offered for the few types that could be dated exactly (Figure
9). The dates are presented chronologically and are grouped in three periods.
1500-1550
The first period starts in 1500. Halberds had already been in use during the 14
th
and
15
th
centuries; however, their designs usually had two ‘eyes’as a socket on the back
of the head and are absent from the collection of the National Military Museum.
The single- socket halberd starts to appear around 1500 in art, especially in the Low
Countries and Germany. Earlier single- socket halberd-like staff weapons do appear
in art, but they have a more pollaxe-like construction. One of the first depictions of a
single- socket halberd is in Het beleg van Rhenen (ca. 1500) by the Meester van
Rhenen.
21
Throughout the period 1500-1550 both class I and II halberds are
depicted, although they all have straight edged or convex edged blades (Figure 10).
22
Only type I.A could be identified in art, with the earliest depiction of the type in the
Maximilian Zeuchbuch (1502) and again in 1517 by Urs Graf.
23
1550- ca. 1600
In the period 1550-1600, primarily class II or III are shown, and I could not find an
image of a true depiction of a class I halberd in art during this period. Furthermore,
around 1550 a new development started to appear: the concave- edged blade. The
earliest depictions I could find was in an Italian fight book (1553) of a type II.A-1
halberd and a depiction of a soldier holding a type II.A halberd (1562), but through-
out art from the second half of the 16
th
century concave halberds are depicted (see
Figure 11).
24
Furthermore, a general class II halberd, with a slightly concave edge,
could be dated using a maker’s mark to approximately 1560.
25
Four types and sub-
types of class II and one type of class III could be recognised in art: the earlier men-
tioned depiction of an II.A-1 type; two images from 1582 depicting a group of
halberdiers holding type II.C halberds; a sergeant holding a type III.C halberd
(1587); and an incomplete Dutch fight book depicting two individuals both fighting
FIGURE 10. The artworks depicting halberd types described in the text. Period 1500-1550; 10.1)
Het beleg van Rhenen (c. 1500), Meester van Rhenen, #Rijksmuseum; 10.2) Hellebaardier
in liefde onstoken voor een naakte vrouw (1517), Urs Graf, #Rijksmuseum.
16 C.J.VAN DIJK
with a type II.F halberd (1595).
26
Besides art several class III halberds have dates
etched in the blade. For example, a decorated type III.D halberd (NMM object num-
ber 014823) has the date 1580 etched on it, and two type III.A (NMM object num-
ber 011511 & 018383) have the date 1578 etched on them. In addition to these two
types III.A examples in the collection of the National Military Museum with dates
FIGURE 11. The artworks depicting halberd types described in the text. Period 1550-ca. 1600;
11.1) Trattato Di Scientia d’Arme, Con vn Dialogo Die Filosofia (1553), p. LX; 11.2)
Allegorische voorstelling met hellebaardier, schildknaap en vrouw (1560), Monogramist AM,
#Rijksmuseum; 11.3) Aankomst van de hertog van Anjou te Antwerpen en ontvangst door
de prins van Oranje (1582), Abraham de Bruyn, #Rijksmuseum; 11.4) Sergeant (1587), Jacob
de Gheyn, #Rijksmuseum; 11.5) Schermkunst (VAULT Case MS Fol.U.423.792) (1594),
f.14r., The Mulberry Library, #Reinier van Noort; 11.6) Object Number NG-NM-7702 (1596),
#Rijksmuseum.
A NEW HALBERD TYPOLOGY (1500-1800) 17
edged on them, two halberds in the collection of the Kunsthistorisches Museum,
Vienna, have the date 1563 etched on them and are associated with to the bodyguard
of the Emperor Ferdinand I.
27
The appearance of concave edged bladed halberds
does not imply that straight edge bladed halberds were no longer in use. For instance,
on the lower righthand corner of the painting Massacre of the innocents (1565-
1567) by Pieter Bruegel, a soldier holds a straight edged bladed halberd, and one
excavated from the Zembla Nova expedition from 1596 is also straight edged.
28
Although, compared with earlier straight edge examples, it appears that the blade
size of halberds dated to the period 1550-1600, shrinks, particularly in the width of
the blade.
Ca. 1600 - 1800
The third period sees the appearance of Class IV halberds. Class IV halberds are
most famously depicted on Schuttersstukken (civic guard paintings) from the late
16
th
century onward. The first Schuttersstuk depicting a class IV halberd is in
1588.
29
ThefirsttypeIV.BhalberdIcouldfindinaSchuttersstuk is dated to 1632
and the first depiction of a type IV.A I could find is dated to 1637 (Figure 12).
30
Both
types of halberd are continuously depicted in Schutterstukken up to the mid-17
th
FIGURE 12. The artworks depicting halberd types described in the text. Period ca. 1600-1800;
12.1) Het korporaalschap van kapitein Dirck Jacobsz Rosecrans en luitenant Pauw (1588),
Cornelis Ketel, #Rijksmuseum; 12.2) Officieren en andere schutters van wijk III in
Amsterdam (1632), Thomas de Keyser, #Rijksmuseum; 12.3) Schutters van de Compagnie
van Kapitein Reinier Reael en Luitneant Cornelis Michielsz (1637), #Rijksmuseum.
18 C.J.VAN DIJK
century.
31
Class IV halberds were not only used in the Low Countries during the
17
th
century. A halberd similar to type IV.B was excavated at Fort Ticonderoga,
USA, and has been linked with the French and Indian War (1754-1763), while a hal-
berd similar to type IV.A has been excavated in the USA bearing the date 1758.
32
Drawings of the 18
th
century Dutch army, show an officer with a similar halberd,
implying use of them well into the 18
th
-century.
33
This does not denote other types
of halberds were not in use. Interestingly, after 1656 Swiss cities ordered straight or
slightly convex edged halberds which could be either placed in class I or II, as part of
the city armoury.
34
These are known today as Sempach type (Figure 12).
Combat and tactics
Weapon use can be differentiated between being intended for violent interactions, i.e.
combat, or for symbolic functions. Obviously, it was possible for a halberd to serve
more than one function, and these functions were furthermore dependent on the con-
text in which the weapon was used in. The historical use of halberds can be
researched by examining the design features of the halberd and making an interpret-
ation of their use. For example, the size of the blade or spike, or even the suitability
of a halberd to withstand the force of combat. Alternatively, historical documents
describing the use of the halberd or art depicting the use of the halberd can be ana-
lysed. However, before historical documents mentioning halberds can be used it is
essential, as stated in the introduction, to establish a link between the historical term
and the object implied by it. At least from the 16
th
century onwards it appears that
the modern concept of the halberd and the historical terms overlap. The Maximilian
Zeugbuch (1502) mentioned earlier describes modern halberds as Helmparten.
35
In
his diary landsknecht Dolstein (pre-1512) draws a formation of soldiers armed with
pikes and halberds, and describes the formation as armed with Spieß (pike) and
Halbarten.
36
In his fight book Joachim Meyer describes the use of the helleparten
(1570) and portrays the use of the halberd.
37
The earlier mentioned drawings from
1582 of the Aankomst van Hertog van Anjou portrays a group of halberdiers as
FIGURE 13. The number of halberdiers present in companies during the 16
th
-century in the
Low Countries.
40
A NEW HALBERD TYPOLOGY (1500-1800) 19
Helbardiers de son Exelence (Figure 11.3).
38
Therefore, I assume the historical term
halberd and the modern concept of halberd approximately correspondences from
the 16
th
century onward.
The halberd –a weapon of war
To examine the use of the halberd as a weapon of war I will analyse several historical
sources describing the use of the halberd in the Low Countries as a case study. I have
chosen to examine the 16
th
and 17
th
century due to the direct link between the histor-
ical and modern concept of the halberd. In Figure 13 the number of halberds presum-
ably carried by a group or company of soldiers in the Low Countries has been
presented. The data has been based on research describing the use of halberds within
armies. A declining trend can be observed in the percentage of halberdiers present in
companies. Starting in the first half of the 16
th
century halberdiers formed 20% to
30% of the soldiers in a company, but after 1570 they formed roughly only 5% to
10% of the soldiers in companies while, after 1598, halberdiers were no longer used
in companies of the county of Holland.
39
This disappearance of the halberd in the
armies seems to partly overlap with the introduction of the concave blade edge, for
FIGURE 14. Examples of examples halberdiers as bodyguards. 14.1) Ruiterportret van Augustus
keurvorst van Saksen (1555-1562), Virgilius Solis, #Rijksmuseum; 14.2) Intoch van
Matthias te Brussel (1578-1580), Frans Hogenborch, #Rijksmuseum; 14.3) Intrede van
Cosimo I te Rome in 1569 (1582), Philips Galle, #Rijksmuseum; 14.4) Processie voor intocht
van paus Clemens VIII in Ferraraz (1598), Antonio Tempesta, #Rijksmuseum.
20 C.J.VAN DIJK
example, halberds of type II.A and its subtypes. This possibly implies that halberds
with concave blade edges were not designed to be used by formations of men during
war or grand-scale battles. However, the decline of halberds in army compositions
could also possibly be explained by the even greater emphasis on firearms dur-
ing warfare.
The disappearance of the halberd in armies in the county of Holland after 1598
does not imply the halberd became obsolete as a weapon of war in Europe. Well into
the 17
th
century the halberd was still used as a weapon of war in Switzerland. As
mentioned earlier, from 1656 onwards large stocks of halberds with large square
straight or convex edged blades with a small point, were again commissioned for the
city armouries of both Berne and Zurich.
41
For example, in Bern in 1662 10% of the
13,200 city militia had to be armed with a halberd.
42
This implies regional variations
across Europe with regard to the use of halberds as a military combat weapon, or at
least the use of the halberd in large groups.
The halberd –the choice for personal guards
Halberds were not only used during war. Examining 16
th
and 17
th
century drawings
it is striking that numerous political or noble figures are accompanied by halberdiers,
known as trabants (Figure 14). Furthermore, this correlates with the term hellebar-
dier meaning bodyguard in Dutch between the 17
th
and 19
th
century.
43
There seems
to be a correlation between guards and type III.A halberds. Several type III.A origin-
ate from the personal guard of the Elector August of Saxony. Three type III.A have a
number stamped into the langets of the head, implying a possible location in an
armoury.
44
The earlier mentioned dates (1563 and 1578) etched on type III.A,
overlap with the appointment of a new Elector.
45
Halberds could have been a per-
fect guard’s weapon, especially type III.A. The goal of a bodyguard is not to elim-
inate all enemy combatants but to protect an individual. The length of the halberd
could keep enemies at bay and the multifaceted head would ensure halberds could
be used against a large array of differently armed and armoured opponents.
Swinging the halberd around could make space in densely crowded areas, there-
fore, enabling effective crowd control. Similar tactics are described by Francesco
Fernando Alfieri for the use of the Montante, a large two-handed sword, to clear a
street of a mob.
46
The design of type III.A halberds does lend itself well for this
type of application. The slightly concave blade edge can be used to push enemy
weapons to the side to make space but could also be used to strike opponents.
Furthermore, the spear-like hollow- ground point has sharp edges enables its user
to cut effectively with the edge of the point, especially against unarmoured oppo-
nents, those expected to attack a person of interest during a spontaneous uprising
by the local populace. Of course, not only type III.A halberd could be used by
bodyguards. Large- bladed halberds with a straight or slight concave blade edge
are also depicted in use by bodyguards.
A NEW HALBERD TYPOLOGY (1500-1800) 21
The halberd –a symbol of rank
As stated earlier, halberd blades appear to develop from large straight edge bladed
types to those with smaller concave edged blades, with the shift in design roughly
occurring during the second or third quarter of the 16
th
century. Several writers state
that the introduction of the concave blade edge and points protruding from the head
implied the end of the halberd as a true combat weapon.
47
However, I disagree with
this statement. With the development of the halberd its combat function changed.
The straight edge blade was primarily designed to inflict physical trauma through
striking, as depicted in many of the landsknecht battles of the first half of the 16
th
century, but the concave edge, in conjunction with the protrusions, was used as a
means to control an opponent weapon, before inflicting trauma with the point. This
more thrust- orientated fighting style would explain the longer spike on many con-
cave- edged halberds, compared to those with straight edges.
48
This fighting style is
also observable in 16
th
century fight books. In the fight book, Gr€
undtliche
Beschreibung der Kunst des Fechtens, by Joachim Meyer, from 1570, the focus is on
gaining control with the blade of the halberd and inflicting trauma principally
through thrusting.
49
The same is observable with the previous mentioned Dutch fight
book Schermkunst (1595) (Figure 11.5), portraying the use of the blade in gaining
control of the opponent’s blade or body, before ending the fight with the point.
50
The emergence of the concave edge on halberds, overlapping with the decrease in
halberdiers in military companies and eventually leading to the disappearance of hal-
berds in several armies (Figure 13), possibly characterised the slow development of
the halberd becoming more focused on interpersonal combat in smaller scale engage-
ments rather than being used in combat with larger groups. The smaller groups of
halberdiers in military companies, armed with concave- edged halberds, could, for
example, be used as bodyguards for the captain, the banner bearer and the musicians
of the army being prime targets for any enemy.
51
The reintroduction of large num-
bers of straight or slightly convex- edge bladed halberds in Switzerland that were
intended to arm the city militia during war in the 17
th
century tangentially support
this hypothesis.
During the 17
th
and 18
th
centuries halberds became indicators of military rank,
shifting their function primarily from combat to being symbolic.
52
The question
arises if this shift in use is also observable in the design of the halberd, and vice versa;
is it possible to deduce a purely symbolic function of a halberd from its design? I
would argue that the differentiation between symbolic and combat use should not be
seen as a dichotomy, but should be perceived as a more fluid differentiation on a
scale, with a halberd being able to perform both functions. A differentiation between
a‘fighting halberd’and a ‘symbolic halberd’,e.g.symbolofrank,ispossible,but
shouldbebasedontheprimaryfunctionofthehalberd,andcontextinwhichthe
halberd was used. This function can be based on its design. If a major part of a hal-
berd’s design has no combat viability it can be called a ‘symbolic halberd’or symbol
of rank. Nevertheless, the halberd can still partly have a combat function. Good
22 C.J.VAN DIJK
examples are those of types IV.A or IV.B. These have a sturdy spear-like point usable
for combat, but the blade is inserted into the socket and is far thinner than other hal-
berd blades; 1 to 1.5 mm in thickness. Consequently, striking with this halberd would
surely break its blade, although the halberd could function as a spear if the need
arose. Several examples of these halberds within the collection of the National
Military Museum are similar in design but are made either with a solid construction
or have a thicker blade. This implies their use was more combat orientated, notwith-
standing they still could function as a symbol of rank.
Conclusion
As the typology in this article demonstrates there is great variety in halberd
designs. For research into halberds to advance it is imperative to recognise these
different forms and marry data and interpretation with the different types. It is
essential to use a sound methodological approach in connecting halberds and
interpretations in their dating, use or provenance. The reader is urged, first and
foremost not make the error of forcing modern and historical concepts together
but to differentiate between the two and examine them separately before systemat-
ically comparing elements with each other. Using this methodology, it is possible
to add interpretation to the different types of halberds and recognise overarching
trends linked to the interaction between design and dating. Consider, for example,
the relationship between the disappearance of the halberd as a weapon used by
large military units and the introduction of the concave bladed halberd. This was
probably based on a shift in focus; large straight-edge bladed halberds being
designed for use in large groups, for example on the battlefield, while the use of
concave- bladed halberds was focused more on personal combat. Of course, the
design should be able to withstand the forces experienced during combat. For
example, although type IV.A and IV.B halberd have straight-edged blades, these
would surely break if used in combat.
To reiterate, this article is intended merely to form the basis for future research.
More data must be added to the typology by analysing other large collections to cre-
ate new classes, types, and subtypes. Especially, a new class needs to be added with
halberds with ‘eyes’as a socket, a recurring theme in historical artwork and exam-
ples in other collections. This typology is a framework from which to continue work-
ing and to inspire more research into the diverse and arguably undervalued weapon
called the halberd.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank the staff of the National Military Museum,
Netherlands, for the possibility to examine their halberd collection, especially
Jeroen Punt, Curator, for his help, support and feedback on the research and
article. I am indebted to Viktor Baltus for the digitisation of the halberds.
A NEW HALBERD TYPOLOGY (1500-1800) 23
Without his aid it would have been impossible to create the different figures in
the article. Furthermore, I would like to thank Jan-Piet Puype for his feedback
and opinion. All opinions presented and errors rest with the author. The author
declares that he has no conflict of interest.
Notes
1
J. B. Kist and J. P. Puype, ‘Wapens Op
Schuttersstukken’,inSchutters in Holland.
Kracht En Zenuwen van de Stad., ed. by M.
Carasso-Kok and J. Levy-van Halm (Zwolle:
Uitgeverij Waanders, 1988), pp. 164–71.
2
J. A. Mol, De Friese Volkslegers Tussen 1480
En 1560 (Hilversum: Verloren, 2017); D. M.
Skjelver, ‘There I, Paul Dolnstein, Saw Action’.
The Sketchbook of a Warrior Artisan in the
German Renaissance (Master Thesis, University
of North Dakota, 2012), pp. 136–8.
3
E. Oakeshott, European Weapons and Armour.
From the Renaissance to the Industrial
Revolution (Woodbridge: The Boydell Press,
1980); C. Blair, European and American Arms,
1100-1850 (New York: Bonanza Books, 1962).
4
W. Y. Adams and E. W. Adams, Archaeological
Typology and Practical Reality: A Dialectical
Approach to Artifact Classification and Sorting
(Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University
Press, 1991), pp. 10–1.
5
Adams and Adams, p. 9.
6
Some data is present within the halberds
themselves and can be reconstructed using
scientific methods. For instance, using C
14
-dating
to determine the age of the shaft, or Isotope
analysis to determine the origin of the steel.
However, these methods are often costly and
possibly do not delivered the expected result due
to contamination through time.
7
E.g. J. Waldman, Hafted Weapons in Medieval
and Renaissance Europe (Leiden; Boston: Brill,
2005); G. A. Snook, The Halberd and Other
European Polearms 1300-1650 (Alexandria
Bay: Museum Restoration Service, 1998);
Oakeshott, pp. 47–8; H. Seitz, Blankwaffen 1
(Braunschweig: Klinkhardt & Biermann, 1965),
pp. 226–7; Blair; B. Dean, ‘The Evolution of
the Pole-Arm’,The Metropolitan Museum of
Art Bulletin 11.7 (1916), 152–4; O. von
Kretschmar, ‘Benennung Der Stangenwaffen’,
Zeitschrift F€
ur Historische Waffenkunde 4
(1904), 212; D. Ash, ‘The Fighting Halberd’,
Connoisseur, May (1950), 101.
8
Translated using <http://www.woerterbuchnetz.
de>[accessed on 30 October 2018].
9
Waldman, p. 22.
10
R. B. F. Van der Sloot, Middeleeuws Wapentuig
(Bussum: C.A.J. van Dishoeck, 1964), p. 54.
11
Bayerische Staatsbibliothek. Zeugbuch Kaiser
Maximilians I. BSB-Hss Cod.icon. 222
(1502) f.72r.
12
The term Hellebaard is still used to describe halberds
in modern Dutch; M. A. G. de Jong, ‘Militaire
Hervormingen in Het Staatse Leger En de Opbouw
van Het Wapenbedrijf, 1585-1621’,BMGN-Low
Countries Historical Review 118.4 (2003), 479.
13
E.g. H. Sarfatij, Archeologie van Een Delastad.
Opgravingen in de Binnenstad van Dordrecht
(Utrecht: Matrijs, 2007), pp. 14, 301.
14
R. van Oosten, ‘De Valkuilen van de
Historische Sensatie’,Low Countries Historical
Review 130.4 (2015), 95–6.
15
E.g. R. C. Woosnam-Savage, ‘“All Kinds of
Weapons:”the Weapons of Agincourt’in The
Battle of Agincourt. The Illustrated Companion,
ed. by A. Curry and M. Mercer (London: Yale
University Press, 2015), p. 146; Waldman, p.
156; Blair, pp. 29–30; Oakeshott, pp. 49–50.
16
Waldman, p. 155.
17
Due to the absence of halberds with ‘eyes’as a
means of attachment to the shaft within the
collection of the ‘National Military Museum,
these are not described within the typology and
should be added as another class as part of
future research.
18
Adams and Adams, p. 187.
19
Jurg A. Meier, ‘Sempacher Halbarten. Die
Schweizerische Halbartenrenaissance Im 17.
Jahrhundert’,inBlankwaffen; Armes Blanches;
Armi Bianche; Edged Weapons, ed. by Karl
Stuber and Hans Wetter (Z€
urich: Gut & Co.
Verlag, 1982), pp. 223–50; Jurg A. Meier,
‘Stangenwaffen Aus Kempten Fur Z€
urich. Die
Lieferung Claus Lerchlis in Den Jahren, 1585-
1591’,Rappart de l’institut d’armes Anciennes
3–4 (n.d.), 213–24.
20
Oplodidaskalia sive Armorvm Tractandorvm
Meditatio Alberti Dvreri (MS 26-232); Peter
Murray and Linda Murray, A Dictionary of Art
and Artists (Baltimore: Penguin Books, 1959),
p. 139.
21
Meester van Rhenen, Het beleg van Rhenen 1500,
<http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.
7482>[accessed 22 November 2019].
22
E.g. Albrecht D€
urer, Een ruiter en een soldaat
1494-1498,<http://hdl.handle.net/10934/
RM0001.COLLECT.33619>; Albrecht D€
urer,
Landschap met kanon (1518), <http://hdl.
24 C.J.VAN DIJK
handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.33219>
[accessed 22 November 2019].
23
Bayerische Staatsbiblitohek. Zeugbuch Kaiser
Maximilians I. BSB-Hss Cod.icon. 222 (1502)
f.72r; Urs Graf, Hellebaardier in liefde ontstoken
voor een naakte vrouw (1517), <http://hdl.handle.
net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.20598>[accessed
22 November 2019].
24
C. Agrippa, Trattato Di Scientia d’Arme, Con
vn Dialogo Die Filosofia (Rome: Antonio
Blado, 1553), p. LX.
25
Meier, ‘Sempacher Halbarten’, p. 232.
26
Abraham de Bruyn, Aankomst van de hertog
van Anjou te Antwerpen en ontvangst door de
prins van Oranje (1582), <http://hdl.handle.net/
10934/RM0001.COLLECT.447399>; Jan van
der Straet, IntredevanCosimoIteRomein
1569 (1582), <http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.
COLLECT.490961>;HendrickGoltzius,Sergeant
(1587), <http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.
COLLECT.425676>[accessed on 22 November
2019]; R. van Noort, Swordplay: An Anonymous
Illustrated Dutch Treatise for Fencing with
Rapier, Sword and Polearms from 1595
(Wheaton: Freelance Academy Press, 2015),
pp. 67–78.
27
Seitz, p. 385.
28
Rijksmuseum, Object Number NG-NM-7702,
<http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.
372007>[accessed 22 November 2019].
29
Cornelis Ketel, Het korporaalschap van kapitein
Dirck Jacobsz Rosecrans en luitenant Pauw (1588),
<http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.
8879>[accessed 22 November 2019].
30
Thomas de Keyser, Officieren en andere
schutters van wijk III in Amsterdam onder
leiding van kapitein Allaert Cloeck en luitenant
Lucas Jacobsz Rotgans (1632), <http://hdl.
handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.8882>;
Frans Hals and Pieter Codde, Schutters van wijk
XI onder leiding van kapitein Reynier Reael,
bekend als ‘De magere compagnie’(1637),
<http://hdl.handle.net/10934/RM0001.COLLECT.
8613>[accessed 22 November 2019].
31
Kist and Puype.
32
B. Dean, ‘On American Polearms, Especially
Those in the Metropolitan Museum of Art’,
Metropolitan Museum Studies 1.1 (1928), 37–8.
33
I would like to thank M. Willemsen for this
suggestion; British Library, SIXTY-ONE coloured
drawings of Dutch military costume and musket
exercises (Add MS 20728) <http://searcharchives.
bl.uk/IAMS_VU2:IAMS032-002091074 >[accessed
25 December 2018].
34
J. A. Meier, ‘Halberte Oder Bajonett - Zur
Vorgeschichte Des Bernischen Sieges in Der 2.
Schlacht Bei Villmergen 1712’,Waffen- Und
Kostumkunde 1 (2005), 43–7.
35
Bayerische Staatsbiblitohek. Zeugbuch Kaiser
Maximilians I. BSB-Hss Cod.icon. 222 (1502) f.72r.
36
Skjelver, pp. 136, 155.
37
J. L. Forgeng, The Art of Combat. A German
Martial Arts Treatise of 1570 (London:
Greenhill books, 2006), 260.
38
Anonymous, Aankomst van de hertog van
Anjou te Antwerpen en onvangst door de prins
van Oranje (1582) <http://hdl.handle.net/
10934/RM0001.COLLECT.447399>[accessed
22 November 2019].
39
Skjelver, p. 36.
40
Skjelver, p. 40; J. Benders, ‘Hasselt 1521: een
Overstichts Stadje in de Greep van Hertog Karel
van Gelre’(Rijksuniverseit Groningen, 1992), p.
21; Mol, pp. 98–100; O. van Nimwegen, A. van
Vliet and L. Sicking, ‘Het optreden van leger en
vloot van de opstandelingen’in De Tachtigjarige
oorlog: Van opstand naar geregelde oorlog
1568-1648, ed. by P. Groen (Amsterdam: Boom,
2013), pp. 119, 120–1, 127; De Jong, p. 472.
41
Meier, ‘Halbarte Oder Bajonett’, pp. 43–7;
Meier, ‘Sempacher Halbarten’, pp. 232–7.
42
Meier, ‘Halberte Oder Bajonett’, p. 42.
43
Middle Dutch Dictionary <http://gtb.inl.nl/
search/>[accessed 2 November 2018].
44
NMM Object number 011511, 014812
and 014825.
45
NMM Object number 011511 and 018383.
46
F. F. Alfieri, Lo Spadone (Padova: Per
Sebastiano Sardi, 1653), p. 28.
47
E.g. Blair, p. 26; Snook, p. 6.
48
For example, NMM object number 014842
(type II.D) has a point of 57 cm, and object
number 014857 (type II.F) has a spike of 58cm.
49
Forgeng, pp. 260–6.
50
Van Noort, pp. 67–78.
51
In 1583 William Garrard argued that halberdiers
should ‘bee gards vnto Captaines & Ensignes’
William Garrard, The arte of warre beeing the
onely rare booke of myllitarie profession (London
1583), p. 83 <http://name.umdl.umich.edu/A01504.
0001.001>[accessed 22 November 2019].
52
Dean, ‘On American Polearms’.
A NEW HALBERD TYPOLOGY (1500-1800) 25
Notes on contributor
Casper J van Dijk is a Masters student of archaeology and history at Leiden
University. He is also chairman of the Dutch National Historical European
Martial Arts Federation (H.E.M.A. bond).
Correspondence to: Casper J. Van Dijk. Email: casper.j.vandijk@gmail.com; https://lei-
denuni.academia.edu/CasperJvanDijk;https://www.linkedin.com/in/CasperJvandijk/
26 C.J.VAN DIJK