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Revista Românească pentru Educaţie Multidimensională
ISSN: 2066-7329 | e-ISSN: 2067-9270
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2019, Volume 11, Issue 4 Supl. 1, pages: 22-42 | doi:10.18662/rrem/175
Values and
Interferences of
Psychomotricity in
Education – a Study
of the Domain-
Specific Literature
Anamaria BERDILĂ¹,
Laurentiu Gabriel TALAGHIR2,
Teodora Mihaela
ICONOMESCU3,
Cristian Mihail RUS4
1 Dunărea de Jos University of Galati,
Romania, anamaria.berdila@ugal.ro
2 Dunărea de Jos University of Galati,
Romania; South Ural State University,
Russia, gtalaghir@ugal.ro
3 Dunărea de Jos University of Galati,
Romania, ticonomescu@ugal.ro
4 Al. I. Cuza University, Romania,
cristian.rus@uaic.ro
Abstract: The present paper presents the theoretical aspects
related to the topic of psychomotricity and the way in which it is
reflected in the domain-specific literature worldwide. The
purpose of the study was to clarify the concepts, to identify
specific classifications for the different application areas of
psychomotricity, to generalize the components of
psychomotricity and to identify evaluation methods for
psychomotricity belonging to several domains. The study was
carried out with the help of traditional means, in libraries and in
the online environment. We accessed international databases that
are acknowledged for the field of Sport Science and Physical
Education in Romania. These databases are also acknowledged
by other related research domains. 637 specialized bibliographic
references were identified, out of which 584 online sources. In
the present analysis we described the common aspects found in
50 bibliographic sources as well as definitions and concepts
about psychomotor activity, stages of motor development and
components of psychomotor activity and some psychomotor
evaluation methods. The conclusion of the study is that the field
of psychomotricity is very wide. The multidimensional approach
of this subject is found in various fields of activity such as
medicine, psychology, physiology, recreational or educational
activities organized within a formal framework. Depending on
the particular features of the psychomotor exercises, the
educational values take multiple forms. The results in some
domains interfere with those in other domains by the way in
which the transfer between the motor and the cognitive
components, between the physical and the psychological
components is performed or vice versa.
Keywords: values; interferences; psychomotricity; education;
How to cite: Berdilă, A., Talaghir, L.G., Iconomescu, T.M., &
Rus, C.M. (2019). Values and Interferences of
Psychomotricity in Education – a Study of the Domain-
Specific Literature. Revista Romaneasca pentru Educatie
Multidimensionala, 11(4 Supl. 1), 22-42. doi:10.18662/rrem/175
Revista Românească pentru December, 2019
Educaţie Multidimensională Volume 11, Issue 4 Supl. 1
23
Introduction
The study of motion and the relation between the motor and the
psychological components was a problem of permanent interest of
theoreticians from different fields, philosophers, doctors, psychologists.
Humansare unanimously regarded as a combination of biological,
psychological and physical traits, which allow the child, and later on the
adult to live and be integrated into a dynamic, progressive social system
(Cojanu, Vişan, Sun, & Langa, 2017).
The educational aspects of psychomotor activity rely on the opinion
of theoreticians and researchers from different fields who consider that
psychomotor activity must be viewed from a three-dimensional perspective,
namely: educational, during the formation of preschool and school children;
re-educational, when deficiencies or motor abnormalities are corrected etc.;
therapeutic, when trying to treat psychomotor disorders that are
accompanied by behavioural disorders. The three-dimensional perspective is
found in a large number of scientific papers that support the importance of
the psychomotor process quality on all three levels in order to ensure the
achievement of the objectives (Calza & Contant, 1986; Coquerel et al., 2014;
Maite et al., 2015).
Psychomotricity can be understood as a function of the human being
that synthesizes the psychological and the motor components, which allow
the individual to adapt in a flexible and harmonious way to the environment
around him. Also, this can be understood as an overview that follows the
interactions between the motor and the psychological components, on the
one hand, and the individual as a whole in relation to the external
environment, on the other.
Another view is that of a technique whose organisation of activities
allows children to know better their own being and the environment around
them and to act in an adaptive manner.
It is important to mention that the psychomotor intervention is not
subject to a single model, but there are different methods and different
methodological models.
The general objective of psychomotricity is to develop or replace the
individual abilities by means of a body approach (through movements,
posture, action and gestures).
In other words, the body develops different skills and abilities in all
aspects (motor, emotional, social, communicative, linguistic, intellectual and
cognitive).
Values and Interferences of Psychomotricity in Education – a Study of the...
Anamaria BERDILĂ et al.
24
The practice of psychomotor development has developed as a
clinical implementation of psychomotor re-education and therapy. In the
educational environment, the psychomotor development means stimulating
the normal evolutionary process of the individual in the first months of life
up to the age of 8.
Psychomotricity is a science that studies the motion of the human
body in relation to its internal and external world, as well as its possibilities
to perceive and act on itself and on the objects surrounding it. It is related to
the process of growing up, during which the individual acquires cognitive,
emotional and structural abilities. Psychomotricity, therefore, is a term used
to designate a concept of motion, organized and integrated according to the
experiences lived by the subject, experiences resulting from one's own
individuality, language and way of interacting. The Brazilian Society for
Psychomotricity (1999).
Since the subject approached is topical, many researchers have been
concerned with delineating the main child development stages and how
psychomotricity evolves from birth to the primary school age.
It is considered that psychomotor activity starts from the child’s first
years of life, due to his need to know the environment, by manipulating
objects and through play.
Psychomotor development is unique for each child and is the result
of the accumulated experiences, of the reactions and the answers given when
different tasks are assigned to them. The child builds his own temperament
and behaviour because each child has a certain pattern of growth,
development and motor learning (Barbosa, 2012).
Psychomotor education is important because from a psychological
and biological perspective it contributes to the integrated development of
children. Physical training accelerates vital functions and improves mood.
In this context, of the multitude of educational components, of
influences exerted in a bivalent manner on the individual, we chose to study
the specialized literature on psychomotor activity. The clarification of the
concepts, the identification of specific classifications for the different areas
in which psychomotor activity is applied, the generalization of the
psychomotor activity components and the identification of its evaluation
forms, which belong to several domains, represented the purpose of this
study. Another aim of the present research was to draw up a meta-analysis
of psychomotricity by means of which to provide a unitary and succinct
source of information that can create an overview of this problem. The
present paper represents the equal contribution of its authors.
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Method
The research was carried out within the Research Centre for Human
Performance (RCHP) from “Dunărea de Jos” University of Galati (UDJG),
in conjunction with South Ural State University, Chelyabinsk, Russia. The
research of the specialized literature has been carried out both traditionally
and in the online environment. The traditional study involved reading books
and articles from specialized journals. This activity took place within the
“V.A. Urechia Library”, the UDJG Library, the “AL. I. Cuza” Central
University Library, Iasi. Accordingly, 53 specialized publications were
accessed. The online environment research referred to accessing
international databases. The accessed databases provided a number of 584
bibliographic references regarding the studied issue. These databases were:
Web of Science (91), Scopus (198), ScienceDirect (155), Doaj (48),
SprinkerLink (92). The databases were selected because they belong to the
category of databases acknowledged by the Romanian Ministry of Education
for the field of Sport Science and Physical Education. Also, these databases
are relevant for other fields, considered interdisciplinary, from the point of
view of the subject addressed. The terms used in the online search were
"psychomotor activity", "psychomotor activity in education", "psychomotor
activity in medicine", "means of psychomotor activity", "therapy with the
help of psychomotor activity", "psychomotor development", "psychomotor
recovery", “psychomotricity in sports", "psychomotricity in persons with
disabilities", "psychomotricity in physical education". The inclusion criteria
for the search included books, articles or doctoral theses; sources in the field
of general education; studies in the field of medical, psychological or
sociological sciences; empirical or theoretical research. We also included
sources of formal or informal education and there were no limitations
regarding the years of publication. After identifying the sources, we sorted
them and we established the content of the sources. This was done until the
saturation point was reached, after which the studied sources no longer
brought different informational elements, but they overlapped with the
already found information. Thus, we selected the sources that provided
theoretical information from various fields of activity, which would
contribute to the achievement of the purpose of our study.
Definitions and concepts of psychomotricity
Semantically, psychomotricity is made up of two terms that indicate
a relationship between the emotional and the motor elements and represents
the study of motion with psychological connotations that go beyond pure
Values and Interferences of Psychomotricity in Education – a Study of the...
Anamaria BERDILĂ et al.
26
biomechanics, referring to the understanding of motion as an individual
expression and development factor in relation to the environment.
Psychomotricity tries to encompass the progress and motor
acquisitions that mark the evolution of a person and it represents a
condition for the appearance of other processes (language, emotional
relationships, writing, reading etc.). In this sense, psychomotricity is
considered an area of knowledge that deals with the study and understanding
of phenomena in relation to its movement and development. Psychomotor
evolution is considered a key aspect in development until the onset of
operational thinking (around the age of 7 years) and does not end until the
development of formal thinking (around the age of 12).
Today's specialists seek to reconsider the previous theoretical aspects
stating that the degree of psychomotor development has an important
impact on the education of the child, with a greater emphasis on the full
development of the child, especially of those with mental or physical
deficiencies, the intervention on the psychomotor level being necessary in
order to ensure the proper integration in and interaction with the group
(Shingjergji, 2014), Esteban et al., 2019; Munian, 1997).
In the domain-specific literature the name of “psychomotor activity”
is marked at the beginning of the 19th century by Dupre's medical discourse
(1852), focusing on neurology, when he tried to define the areas of the
cerebral cortex closest to the motor areas.
Psychomotricity is considered in the domain-specific literature as a
complex function, an ability that integrates both the aspects of motor
activity and the manifestations of perceptive functions. Psychomotricity
provides the child with gestures, with awareness of his body, situates him in
time and space, ensures the ability to manage his movements in order to
interact with himself and with the environment (Preja 2014).
The connection between the mental and the motor components and
their development as interdisciplinary sciences has been called psychomotor
activity, which can be defined as the result of the integration of the motor
component and the mental function, under the effect of the nervous system
maturation, having as main objective the connection between the subject, his
own body and the environment (Encyclopedia Universalis).
The main purpose of psychomotor education is not to restrict the
knowledge process of the child regarding his view of life, his own body, not
only as content, but rather by discovering each system individually, as a
component part of an organized activity and a relationship tool with reality
(Rossi, 2016).
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Ahmad & Silva (2016) state that psychomotricity encompasses all the
acts and motor actions performed by the individual, it is the interaction
between the mental and the motion components, by means of which global
development is sought, focused on the development of the emotional,
cognitive and motor components, which guide the individual towards an
awareness of one's body through movement.
Camargos & Maciel (2016) are adept at the idea according to which
psychomotor education offers children the opportunity to outdo themselves
and overcome many obstacles, thus integrating more easily in the social
environment in which they are formed. The authors also advise teachers to
refocus their methods on exploring the whole body of the child and to
abandon the mechanical approach relying only on simple movements.
Other specialists, such as Martinez & Anton (2018), argue that the
foundation of the human being’s entire development is the motor aspect
through which one can check whether the other functions are properly
stimulated. Motion ensures learning and enables real goal and objective-
oriented experiences, with the aim of improving self-knowledge and
developing human skills.
The studies from the 2000s are still continuing at present and
underline the importance of psychomotor skills in the learning process of
children from a very young age (2 years old) to school age. Psychomotricity
favours the acquisition of experiences necessary for the child in order to
optimize the adaptive process to the conditions of a dynamic society, in full
transformation (Borges & Rubio, 2013; Rabelo & Aquino, 2014; Bessa &
Maciel, 2016).
Fernandes (2015), Fernandes et al. (2018), Martinez & Anton (2018)
are also worth mentioning since they approve the therapeutic side of
psychomotor activity as a recovery factor for some mental components, but
also for the Down syndrome, based on specially created game programs and
selected means of stimulating the cognitive part.
Piaget (1965; 2005) states that the mental and the motor components
are the bipolar expression of a single process, that of efficient, flexible
adaptation to external conditions. He is also the one who defines
psychomotricity as a result of the mental and motor function integration
under the effect of the nervous system maturation that concerns the
relationship of the subject with his body. For Piaget (1965; 2005) motricity
plays an essential role in building intelligence long before the act of speech.
Values and Interferences of Psychomotricity in Education – a Study of the...
Anamaria BERDILĂ et al.
28
Fig 1. Piaget's cognitive development theory
Piaget (1965; 2005), considered the "father of psychomotricity" is
known for the theory of cognitive development and the four stages of
development:
the sensory-motor stage, developed from birth to 2 years of age,
when the child is concerned with gaining motor control and learning
physical objects.
the preoperational stage, between 2 and 7 years of age, when the
child is concerned with the verbal qualification
the concrete operational stage, between 7 and 12 years of age,
when the child begins to deal with abstract concepts, such as numbers and
relationships, associations.
the formal operational stage, between 12 and 15 years of age, a
stage in which the child begins to reason logically and systematically
Wallon’s theory (1975) states that the motion, reduced to the
muscular contraction that produces it, or to the movements in space that
follow, is only a physiological or mechanical concept, the motor gesture
having a double purpose - to produce a change of the external world,
triggering an action, and to make the outer world resonate.
Wallon lays the foundation of the theory of development, in which
the understanding of the different concepts guides teachers towards the
process of forming the person, under the influence that the social
environment has on the individual (Mendoza, 2007). Based on this theory,
the teacher is able to innovate pedagogical practices, permanently adding
challenges to the student's motor and logical side. In Wallon's psychogenic
theory, the development process encompasses two branches: on the one
hand, the bodily, cognitive, emotional components and, on the other hand,
the motor component.
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Wallon (1975), quoted by Lazano et al. (2014-2015), defines
psychomotor activity as a motricity of relationships. In his view,
psychomotor activity in the activity of the child depends on two factors: the
first factor is kinaesthesia, also called deep sensitivity, which can be visceral
and proprioceptive or postural (the sense of posture, the perception of
motion), and the second factor is the exteroceptivity (sensory sensitivity).
The authors note that Wallon believes that one’s own body is not only
related to the circumferential space, but may be able to "live" through the
body of the others and, gradually, by means of the experiences gained
through motion, to develop in a more complex way the use of one's body
and, subsequently, to draw up the body scheme.
The Spanish and Portuguese literature, represented by Berruazo and
Victor da Fonseca, provides us with new insights into the concept of
psychomotor activity. Oliveira (2001), quoting Fonseca, argues that an
exaggerated analysis, which would lead to the error of seeing two distinct
components (the mental component and the motor component), should be
avoided since both are, in fact, the same. Also, for Oliveira, psychomotricity
does not exclude a new "school" or a conceptual "current", but it is a
technique, a process that focus on educational purposes through the use of
the human motion (Oliveira quoting Fonseca, 2001).
In defining psychomotor activity, the authors refer to the
organization and coordination of movements, the addition of the motor act
in the process of knowledge and activity, in the neuropsychic development,
in the perceptive-motor development, in the maturation of the nervous
system, in the degree of physical, intellectual development, and emphasize
the regulatory role of the word in performing the action. Therefore, one may
conclude that psychomotor activity is a complex function, which integrates
and harmonizes aspects of physical, motor and mental development.
In occupational psychology, psychomotor activity is synonymous
with fine motor skills, the term psychomotor including all skills or abilities
such as dexterity, ease of handling, motor skills, or hand-eye coordination.
Components of psychomotricity
Psychomotor education aims at developing the child's body
autonomy. This is reflected in the mastery of one's own body in order to be
able to act and communicate in an efficient manner, adapted to the
environment. Besides the concept of psychomotricity, its components have
also aroused the interest of theoreticians and researchers in different fields.
Synthesizing the works of different specialists, Alexe (2012) describes only
Values and Interferences of Psychomotricity in Education – a Study of the...
Anamaria BERDILĂ et al.
30
four components: the body representation; laterality; ideomotricity; motor
intelligence.
The domain-specific literature offers several classifications of the
components of psychomotricity. Picq and Vayer (1971) or Muşu and Taflan
(1999) perform a classification of the psychomotor components based on
the existence of essential behaviours, namely the neuromotor behaviours,
the basic motor behaviours and the perceptual-motor behaviours and
structures. Other specialists developed classifications that include a variable
number of psychomotor components. Grosu (2009) considers that these
components are 9, Preja (2014) 4, Horghidan (2000) 7 and Epuran (2013),
quoting Fleishman, performs a classification comprising 10 components.
As a result of this variety and by studying them, but also in
accordance with the trends found in more recent sources of documentation
from the last 10 years, we concluded that psychomotricity essentially
comprises 9 components of psychomotor activity, namely: the body
representation, laterality, balance, ambidexterity, eye-hand or foot
coordination, fine and global motricity, precision and balance, perceptual-
motor coordination (perception of space, time and of one’s own
movements) and ideomotricity.
These components of psychomotricity are schematically shown in
Figure 2. The means of improving the manifestation indices of these
components is permanently brought to the attention of specialists from all
over the world who carry out studies for each component at different age
levels. The educational aspects are found in the way the training programs
proposed by the studies are structured. (Iconomescu et al., 2017). Further
on, we shall briefly present information about each component as we found
it in the specialized literature, in the general acceptance of the specialists
from different fields.
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Fig. 2. The diagram of the elements that make up psychomotor activity
The body representation is the mental representation of one’s own body,
both in a static and dynamic situation, of its limits and possibilities in
relation to the others and to the social environment.
Some authors consider that the term body representation is
synonymous with the term body image. In neurology, body image is defined
as the process of cerebral integration of an acquisition. The integration
process involves the identification, location and orientation in space of the
various body segments. In this case, the concept of body representation is
preferred (Abălaşei, 2016).
Arseni, Dănăilă, Golu, quoted by Mitrache & Tudos (2004), consider
that the representation on the cerebral cortex of each segment of the body,
from the point of view of the kinaesthetic sensitivity, which is proportional
not to the actual size, but to the functional value of the segment, is essential
for the formation of the body representation.
Studies carried out during our research by authors such as Merida-
Serrano et al. (2018), Martinez & Anton (2018), Wallon (1975) pointed out
COMPONENTS OF
PSYCHOMOTRICITY
Body
representation
Laterality
Precision
and balance
Ambidexterit
y
Balance
Ideomotricity
Hand-eye or
foot
coordination
Perceptual-motor
coordination
(perception of
space, time and of
one’s own
movements)
Fine and
global
motricity
Values and Interferences of Psychomotricity in Education – a Study of the...
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that the body representation is not a biological, innate component, but it is
gradually acquired in the ontogenetic development of the individual, which
is achievable by the individual's ability to relate to external landmarks,
initially by reference to the others, and not to one’s own person.
By looking into the psychology and neuropsychology studies, Alexe
(2012) concludes that, in relation to the accumulation of visual, cutaneous,
vestibular and postural information, the body representation is neither stable
nor homogeneous, because not all its aspects can be objectively
differentiated by the individual.
Laterality is related to the dominant function of a cerebral
hemisphere, a function that determines the inequality of the right and left
halves of the body. The phenomenon of sensory and motor asymmetry is
innate and is based on a certain functional organization of brain structures
(Cro et al., 2011)
The hemispheric prevalence, as well as the asymmetry between the
two equal parts of the body, are areas of interest and, lately, researchers such
as (Bora, Cardoso, & de Toni, 2019); (Esteban et al., 2019; Fagaras, Rus,
Vanvu, Sandu, & Frunza, 2014) have tried to define the asymmetry between
the right-left parts of the brain and the degree of neuropsychiatric
development of young children.
The general coordination consists of integrating different parts of the
body in an orderly movement, with minimal energy consumption. From a
global point of view, coordination involves carrying out general movements,
with all the parts of the body in a harmonious way, with the age-appropriate
amplitude.
Dynamic coordination is the acquired ability that controls different
parts of the body (the upper and lower limbs, and the torso) whose purpose
is to voluntarily move a segment in view of performing a given task.
This component does not only allow motion, but also the
synchronization of movements, fighting difficulties and ensuring uniform
actions (Juliano et al., 2016). An effective coordination gives the child self-
confidence, making him aware of the potential of his own body in different
situations.
Coordination is conditioned, according to the authors' opinion, by a
number of factors such as the degree of neurological development, which
increases with age; avoidance of inhibitions; stimulation and an appropriate
external environment; the ability to understand the tasks (from which part to
perform a task, how to perform it), different methods of representing
movement as accurately as possible and analysing the environment in order
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to acquire skills that favour the acquisition of new abilities, the knowledge of
body parts and of their synchronization.
Balance represents the ability to adopt and maintain a body position
opposed to the gravitational force. The sense of balance is complex and
allows the appreciation of the position of the head as compared to the body
and the position of the body as compared to the environment. It
presupposes the ability of correct orientation of the body in space, ensured
by the ordered relationship between the individual, his own body
representation and the external environment.
Balance is represented by a situation in which the person can
maintain an act or gesture, can remain still or propel his/her body into space
using the resistance of gravity.
The neurological origin of balance is presented by Pendefunda et. al
(1992) as the static balance and the postural control that is achieved by the
contraction of some muscle groups of the torso in relation to the position of
the head in space. The authors consider that this is achieved through an
activity coordinated by the central nervous system, in which the vestibular
system, the conscious and unconscious deep sensitivity, the extrapyramidal
system and the visual analyser intervene. Balance disorders affect the body
representation and lead to difficulties in the spatial-temporal orientation
(Noguera et al., 2019). Moreover, it can cause insecurity, anxiety,
imprecision, poor span of attention and, in some cases, inhibition.
According to the specialists who studied aspects related to the
development of balance, this is directly associated with the following
systems: the labyrinth system; the system of pleasant sensations; the
kinaesthetic system; the visual sense; balance reflexes.
Fine and gross motor skills represent the body's ability to perform
movements that involve muscle groups in different proportions. Large
muscle groups are involved in movements without a high degree of
precision in order to perform actions such as jumping, running, climbing,
crawling, dancing. Fine motility is the ability to use small muscle groups to
perform specific movements: brow frowning, lip tightening, fist closing, but
also movements that require the use of hands and fingers.
Fine motor skills imply a superior maturation at the neurological
system, depending on many factors such as the learning process, the degree
of stimulation and the personal ability of each child, according to age
(Noguera et al., 2019).
The child is initially only capable of overall movements such as
global withdrawal or approach, or accidental twisting and turning of the
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34
whole body. From this amorphous matrix, finer activities gradually emerge
(Gordon, 1991).
The overall motricity is conditioned by the postural balance of the
individual. This balance is subordinated to the proprioceptive and
labyrinthine sensations. These activities lead to a global awareness of the
body, in relation to how a neuromuscular act requires at least stamina and
muscular strength to perform actions such as jumping, rolling, pushing,
pulling, swimming, launching, hitting, sitting down (Oliveira, 2001).
The perceptual-motor coordination refers to the perception of
positions, shapes and directions, the perception of spatial-temporal
organization, the eye-motor coordination, understanding and mastering the
coordination of one's movements and gestures. (Fenollar-Cortes et al.,
2017). According to Horghidan (2000), spatial orientation represents the
structuring of the environment by reference to oneself as a reference
element and then to the other static or moving objects or persons.
The spatial organization starts from the sensory-motor level of the
perceptions connected with the action and relies on the knowledge of the
body representation and of the notion of left and right (Martinez & Anton,
2018). The notion of space is complex and appears progressively during the
psychomotor development of the child (Juliano et al., 2016).
Development begins with the differentiation of the corporeal self
(the body) in relation to the environment. An interior space is developed
within which the body representation will gradually differentiate. This
perception of the body space is both proprioceptive and exteroceptive. After
the perception of one's own body, the possibility of perceiving the outer
space appears. This outer space is explored starting from the proprioceptive
and exteroceptive perception. The spatial-temporal orientation of children
represents a topical subject and many researchers, like Glushkov & Pacheva
(2014), approach in their works the problem of spatial-temporal orientation
as a subject of major importance in forming a representation of one's body,
which is as accurate as possible in relation to the spatial and temporal
dimensions.
The eye-hand coordination is the ability to make an adjusted visual
control movement. Eye contact witha moving object or an object at rest is
what causes the accurate execution of the movement in order to grab a
particular object or to kick it.
Here we may also mention the visual contact with the object that
causes movements with precise impulses, adjusted to the weight and
dimensions of the object on which we want to act in order to perform a task
(da Silva et al., 2017).
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Ideomotricity is the intimate mechanism of linking representation with
movement. It expresses the representation of movement in performing the
motor act and, at the same time, the role of movement in generating images
(Sas et al., 2017). Ideomotricity ensures the transition from the perceived
image of the movement model to the transposition into representation of
one's own movement and to the creation of the action plan (Horghidan,
2000). The results of the experimental research highlighted that, in the
formation of the motor skills, the image depends on the action, its
improvement resulting in the enrichment of the mental representation.
Thus, a greater efficiency can be obtained in learning the operations when
the orientation in the learning process is not towards the result of the action,
but towards the execution mode. The experience of moving one's own body
is related to the formation of ideomotor representations that are found in a
previous motor experience specific to the task (Sas et al., 2017). The
ideomotor phenomenon is the basis of the mental training, the training of
the complex activity of the body through the representation of the motor act
(Vizcaino-Torres et al., 2015).
Considering the characteristics of these components, we can
conclude that specialists from different fields, in which psychomotor activity
manifests interferences, underline the connection between the mental and
the physical components, between the mental and the motor features
manifest in men since birth, throughout life. Educating behavioural acts
helps the individual to know the environment around him, to know himself
and to fit in.
The evaluation of psychomotor components
The evaluation is a natural process of any type of activity. For
education, the evaluation is an essential moment for both participants in the
education process. The evaluation is a feedback that indicates whether the
measures, methods, means, exercises, accessories, or the work environment
selected have the expected results or not.
From the study of the psychomotor-related literature, we found out
that it offers several evaluation test models. Some of these are used in
research, at the end of a period when specialized curricula were applied (Mas
et al., 2018). The same evaluation tests are used to investigate the
psychomotor potential of individuals or of a particular component. Also,
evaluation tests are used for the purpose of diagnosing motor or mental
disorders.
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Anamaria BERDILĂ et al.
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Following the application of the psychomotor evaluation tests, the
psychomotor profile of the student is drawn up, through which the degree
of mental and motor development of the child is validated, based on scales
that indicate a normal development at different age intervals (da Silva et al.,
2017). The importance of early detection of the child's development pattern,
based on tests, is also supported by Aviles et al. (2018) that consider school
age as the optimal period for the testing and detection of the potential delays
and the existing deficiencies.
For the evaluation process, we found several scales described in the
domain-specific literature. Numerous doctors and psychologists, in trying to
track the normal level of development of the child at different ages, created
detailed development inventories. From the bibliographic references studied,
it was found out that there are several scales that are unanimously accepted.
The Gessel scale, which is a development inventory intended for the
examination of children between 4 weeks and 5 years, an inventory which
was later on expanded up to 10 years of age. The inventory comprises
between 28 and 46 items (the differentiation being made by age) and refers
to the motor, verbal and the social adaptation behaviour.
The Brunet-Lezine scale is a French adaptation of the Gessel scale,
drawn up for the purpose of early detection and diagnosis of mental
deficiency at an early age. The scale follows the investigation of four areas:
motor-postural; language; behaviour of adaptation to objects; social and
personal relationships.
The Oseretsky scale - for older children (which was revised and
calibrated several times by E. Guillmain, E. Stamback, W. Sloan). The
original Oseretsky scale consists of an inventory of 85 items, divided into six
subgroups (subtests) by age levels, between 7 and 16 years of age. The scale
refers to general static coordination, manual dynamic coordination, motor
speed and simultaneous voluntary movements.
Depending on the particularities of the psychomotor components
there are in the specialized literature various tests that respond to the studied
aspects. For manual dexterity we identified the Points test, in which the subject
must draw with the pencil, one point in each of the 100 squares, first with
the dominant hand, then with the other; the Tapping test, in which the subject
must perform, first with the dominant hand, as many points on the sheet of
paper, for 6 seconds, the same thing being repeated with the non-dominant
hand, on the other sheet; the Pearls test, in which the subject must put on a
thread a number of 30 beads having a hole in the middle, in groups of 4
beads; the Balls test, in which the subject must put, with the dominant hand,
by means of a tweezer, 30 balls into a bottle; the Ozeretsky-Guillmain test,
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which aims at identifying the main motor components under the five
aspects: speed, strength, endurance, related to the dynamic hand and general
coordination, balance and speed.
From the point of view of the development level of the coordination
capacity, we identified in the studied literature the general coordination test,
Denisiuk, the general coordination test, Matorin, the Bruininks-Oseretsky test for
segmental coordination and for the upper limbs. There are also approaches
that propose a series of exercises that can be used as tests to verify the level
of coordination development (Grosu 2009).
For balance, we identified evaluation tests such as the Flamingo test, in
which the subject stand by using one leg, the other leg being bent and the
time in which the subject maintains his/her position is recorded until the
bent leg touches the ground, the Bruininks-Oseretsky balance test. In the same
category we found other tests such as the classic Romberg test, in which the
subject closes the eyes for 20-30 seconds with the legs close together and the
degree of balancing against the vertical axis is measured. A variant of this
test is performed by placing the feet in one in front of the other.
The test of the “push”, which has two modes of execution: the first one
is made from orthostatism, as in Romber. In this mode of execution, short
unannounced pushes are applied to the subject at the level of the sternum,
of the back, of the pelvis, of the subject’s side and we evaluate his / her
balance. In the second mode of execution, the subject fights back when
pushed. The unipodal test takes place on one leg, the subject having his arms
crossed on the chest. It is timed for how long the subject can maintain its
balance (30-150 sec). The degree of complexity can be increased by bending
the knee or by using the Berg balance scale, which is a list of 14 actions that the
child must perform. The Bass test also evaluates the balance by maintaining it
for 5 seconds while standing on a certain area marked on the ground. The
route includes 10 points and the tested subject can obtain a maximum of 100
points if he finishes the entire route without putting the foot on the ground.
The domain-specific literature also presents some tests for motor
ability, the precision of movements, ambidexterity and laterality (Rodriguez
& Giraldez, 2016).
We believe that the variety of trials and evaluation tests results from
the complexity of the phenomenon studied and from the multitude of
components that are included in the psychomotor activity.
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Anamaria BERDILĂ et al.
38
Conclusions
The detailed analysis of multiple information sources led to several
conclusions regarding the aspects implied by psychomotricity. A first
conclusion refers to the fact that there are many ways of defining the term
psychomotor activity, but all these definitions have as common denominator
correlated aspects between the mental and the motor components, between
thinking and performing actions that involve motion.
Another conclusion is that the specialists in different fields made
different classifications that tried to highlight direct aspects related to their
field of activity. The field of medical sciences seeks to highlight the
therapeutic role of psychomotor activity. Accordingly, the psycho-emotional
aspects are evaluated in all persons with disorders, regardless of age. The
field of psychological or psychiatric sciences also emphasizes the therapeutic
side of psychomotricity as a possibility of recovering from disorders of a
psychological or psychiatric nature. For them, activities that involve
psychomotor content can be found in people with mental disabilities until
they are older or even throughout one’s life, as a form of therapy. From the
point of view of education sciences, psychomotricity is a way of learning, of
knowing the environment or one’s self, of discovery through movement
activities. The formative values are manifest especially in children, during the
school period.
Another conclusion was that most specialists agree that
psychomotor training can be highly and effectively educated during
childhood, that is, until the age of 11-12. After this age, the aspects of
psychomotor activity become the focus of therapeutic activities for people
who have all kinds of physical or mental disorders, regardless of their
severity.
The specialists agree that, by the approach of the components
related to psychomotricity, they address either the mental or the physical
aspects. The conclusion is that, by means of psychomotricity, the individual
cannot be delimited from his actions or the thought process, these
coexisting permanently and influencing each other.
A generally valid aspect is that, in most specialists, we came across
the idea that psychomotor activity has a multidimensional character in which
the emphasis is placed on the educational component. The interdisciplinary
character of psychomotricity is emphasized by the way in which it is used in
practice and by the variety of fields that approach it.
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