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Parents’ Phubbing and Problematic Mobile Phone Use:
The Roles of the Parent–Child Relationship
and Children’s Self-Esteem
Wei Hong, BS,
1
Ru-De Liu, PhD,
1
Yi Ding, PhD,
2
Tian Po Oei, PhD,
3,4
Rui Zhen, PhD,
5
and Shuyang Jiang, MS
1
Abstract
An increasing number of mobile phone users check their phones at any time and place, even during in-person
interactions. Such behaviors that interrupt social interactions have been described as phubbing. The present
study focused on phubbing behaviors within the context of parent–child households and aimed to examine the
associations among parents’ phubbing, the parent–child relationship, children’s self-esteem, and problematic
mobile phone use (PMPU) by adolescents. The structural equation model results based on the data collected
from 1,721 secondary students revealed that parents’ phubbing was not only directly associated with children’s
PMPU but also indirectly associated with PMPU through the mediating roles of the parent–child relationship
and children’s self-esteem after gender and age were controlled. These findings suggest a possible underlying
mechanism for the relationship between parents’ phubbing and children’s PMPU, and could thus inform
interventions to prevent or decrease PMPU among adolescents. Limitations and implications are discussed.
Keywords: parents’ phubbing, problematic mobile phone use, parent–child relationship, self-esteem, multiple
mediation
Introduction
With the advent of the information age, the use of
mobile phones has grown exponentially and has as-
sumed an increasingly pivotal role in peoples’ daily lives.
With their usefulness, convenience, and immediacy, mobile
phones have become one of the most frequently used main-
stream devices to access the Internet. According to a national
survey conducted by the China Internet Network Information
Center, as of December 2018, mobile phone users accounted
for 98.6% of all Internet users, and the ownership rate of
mobile phones continues to increase.
1
Such modern tech-
nologies gradually change peoples’ daily habits, and mobile
phones contribute to ongoing social connectedness regardless
of time and space. However, checking online messages and
other social media news feeds often disrupts ongoing in-
person social interactions.
2
These behaviors are usually de-
scribed as phubbing, a portmanteau of ‘‘phone’’ and ‘‘snub-
bing.’’ It refers to the act of interrupting ongoing in-person
conversations or ignoring other people who are present to
interact with one’s mobile phone.
3
Phubbing behaviors have become commonplace in mod-
ern society, even developing as a frequently accepted social
norm.
4
Studies have reported the negative consequences
of phubbing in the contexts of personal romantic rela-
tionships,
3
companies or workplaces,
5
and the educational
field.
6
Few empirical studies have focused on the influence
of phubbing within the context of parent–child households,
even though 35% of parents have reported frequently us-
ing their mobile phones while interacting with their chil-
dren.
7
Additionally, little is known about how parents’
phubbing is associated with children’s online behaviors,
such as problematic mobile phone use (PMPU), which
refers to a constellation of emerging mobile phone addic-
tion symptoms.
8
To address this gap, parent–child relation-
ships and children’s self-esteem are suggested as potential
mediators in the association between parents’ phubbing and
children’s PMPU.
1
Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, National Demonstration Center for Experimental Psychology Education
(Beijing Normal University), Faculty of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China.
2
Graduate School of Education, Fordham University, New York, New York.
3
School of Psychology, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Australia.
4
Department of Psychology, James Cook University, Singapore, Singapore.
5
Institute of Psychological Science, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China.
CYBERPSYCHOLOGY,BEHAVIOR,AND SOCIAL NETWORKING
Volume 00, Number 00, 2019
ªMary Ann Liebert, Inc.
DOI: 10.1089/cyber.2019.0179
1
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Parents’ phubbing and a child’s PMPU
Parents’ phubbing often takes place in family settings
where parents are distracted by their mobile phones in the
presence of their children. These parental behaviors have
been reported by several researchers to be a reliable predictor
of a child’s PMPU.
9,10
The family environment, which is one
of the two important ecological microsystems for adoles-
cents, has been found to influence individuals’ thoughts,
feelings, and actions.
11
For instance, as a result of being
phubbed by parents under certain circumstances, adolescents
in one study perceived phubbing as a social norm and de-
veloped tendencies to become phubbers themselves.
4
As
described by observational learning theory,
12
when given a
social cue, an observer tends to perform a matching response
(e.g., imitating and repeating) if the outcomes of the be-
haviors are desirable. Based on this theory, when exposed to
a family context in which parents use mobile phones fre-
quently, the snubbed child will likely observe and then im-
itate these behaviors of their parents. In short, parental
unhealthy technology use may be closely related to their
children’s excessive Internet and/or mobile phone use.
10
In
support of this notion, prior studies have substantiated the
positive correlation between parent’s and children’s exces-
sive use of the Internet and mobile phones.
13,14
More im-
portantly, other longitudinal research found that earlier
parents’ phubbing significantly predicted later children’s
PMPU, whereas the reverse direction of the influence did not
occur.
9
Based on the literature cited above, parents’ phub-
bing could be a crucial risk factor for children’s PMPU.
Parent–child relationship as a mediator
Parents’ phubbing has been found to correlate with poor
parent–child relationships, which in turn have been associ-
ated with children’s PMPU.
15
In particular, the displacement
hypothesis posits that frequent social media use will displace
meaningful interactions in the real world, and reduce social
involvement and relationship satisfaction.
3,16,17
The same
may occur in family settings: When phubbing parents engage
in online issues that occupy time and attention resources,
there is less time and fewer resources for offline high-quality
parent–child relationships. Some researchers have supported
this notion by showing that partner phubbing undermines
romantic relationship satisfaction
3,18
and boss phubbing re-
duces the quality of interactions between employees and
supervisors.
5
When mobile phones distract from a parent’s interaction
with a child, the child may perceive the psychological dis-
tance of the parent in spite of his or her physical presence,
possibly increasing a sense of being ignored and damaging
the parent–child relationship.
7
Relevant experimental stud-
ies have found that the mere presence of a mobile phone in
face-to-face conversations reduces interpersonal connect-
edness, relationship quality, and satisfaction.
19–21
Notably,
caretakers who were highly absorbed with handheld de-
vices (e.g., mobile phones) during meals often responded
harshly to child misbehavior and paid less attention to the
children, which resulted in the children attempting to en-
tertain themselves.
22
The above evidence suggests that
parents’ phubbing may be negatively associated with parent–
child relationships.
With regard to the association between the parent–child
relationship and children’s PMPU, attachment theory asserts
that parental warmth and acceptance contribute to meeting a
child’s psychological needs,
23
making seeking alternative
emotional support from the Internet and/or mobile phones
less rewarding and decreasing the potential for addiction-like
behaviors.
24
Another social control theory highlights that
social bonds are crucial to helping an individual suppress
deviant behaviors.
25
Applying this theory to the family
context, if adolescents feel emotionally separated from their
parents, they may behave with fewer restrictions, thus in-
creasing the potential risks for problematic behaviors, such
as an excessive mobile phone use.
26
A substantial body of cross-sectional research has dem-
onstrated that poor parental relationships,
27
low family co-
hesion,
28
poor family bonding,
29
and low satisfaction with
family functioning
30
are closely associated with problematic
internet use (PIU) among adolescents. Additionally, other
studies have shown that unsatisfactory parent–child inter-
actions
15,26
and poor parent–child relationships
31
increase
the probability of using mobile phones problematically,
particularly for adolescents. Thus, it can be argued that
parents’ phubbing is indirectly associated with children’s
PMPU through parent–child relationships.
Children’s self-esteem as a mediator
Self-esteem, which is defined as self-views of one’s
identity, can be sustained by social relationships and can
influence adaptive behaviors.
8,32
This suggests that chil-
dren’s self-esteem may play a pivotal role in the associa-
tion between the parent–child relationship and children’s
PMPU. Specifically, the sociometer hypothesis assumes that
self-esteem as an interpersonal monitor is subject to the
perception of the degree to which one is included and/or
excluded.
33
The parent–child relationship, as the most
important social relationship throughout one’s life, partic-
ularly before adulthood, is closely associated with chil-
dren’s self-esteem development. Empirical studies among
school-age children have shown that parental attach-
ment and family cohesion positively predict children’s
self-esteem.
34,35
Other evidence has suggested that children’s self-esteem
is a reliable predictor of their problematic use of mobile
phones.
8,30,36
Generally, people with low self-esteem of-
ten possess negative self-views and self-beliefs.
37
Related
ameliorating behaviors are assumed to relieve these negative
cognitions,
31
such as turning to the Internet and engaging in
online activities,
38
particularly on mobile phones that are
relatively portable and accessible.
39
The chronic use of
mobile phones as a compensatory source of low self-esteem
may be frequently reinforced and automatically activated,
increasing the potential risks for problematic use.
40,41
A
systematic review revealed that high and low self-esteem
functioned as protective and risk factors for adolescents’
PMPU, respectively.
39
Additionally, Kim and Cicchetti
32
found that children’s self-esteem mediated the link be-
tween earlier mother–child relationships and subsequent
maladjustment behaviors. This evidence suggests that the
parent–child relationship is indirectly associated with chil-
dren’s PMPU through children’s self-esteem.
2 HONG ET AL.
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A multiple mediation model
Based on the literature reviewed above, it can be argued
that parents’ phubbing may be indirectly associated with a
child’s PMPU through multiple mediating roles of the par-
ent–child relationship and the child’s self-esteem. Specifi-
cally, parents’ frequent checking of mobile phones,
especially when they are interacting with their children in
family settings, may contribute to the children’s perception
that they are being ignored,
18
which likely undermines the
quality and satisfaction of the relationship between parents
and their children.
7
Under such conditions, a poor parent–
child relationship may induce children to feel that they are
not being cared for, loved, and belonged, which could impair
children’s self-esteem development.
34
Moreover, decreased
self-esteem and negative self-concept are closely related to
internalizing and externalizing problem behaviors, including
PMPU.
42
Taken together, parents’ phubbing acts as a specific
contextual factor that may be indirectly associated with their
children’ problematic use of mobile phones through multiple
mediating roles of the parent–child relationship and chil-
dren’s self-esteem.
The present study
Although several potential associations have been pro-
posed to describe the unique effects of the parent–child re-
lationship and children’s self-esteem on PMPU, to date, very
few empirical studies, particularly using crosstemporal de-
signs, have attempted to focus on parents’ phubbing in
family settings and to employ an integrated model in ex-
plaining the etiology of PMPU. Based on the theoretical
frameworks mentioned above, this study proposed the fol-
lowing hypotheses (Fig. 1):
H1: Parents’ phubbing is positively associated with chil-
dren’s PMPU.
H2: The parent–child relationship mediates the association
between parents’ phubbing and children’s PMPU.
H3: Children’s self-esteem mediates the association be-
tween the parent–child relationship and children’s PMPU.
H4: Parents’ phubbing is indirectly associated with chil-
dren’s PMPU through multiple mediating roles of the
parent–child relationship and children’s self-esteem.
Materials and Methods
Participants
In the first data collection, we recruited 2,311 secondary
school students (51.4% girls; 54.4% seventh graders, 17.1%
eighth graders, 15.2% tenth graders, and 13.3% eleventh
graders), 11–17 years of age (M=13.39, SD =1.64), from
three regular schools in Hunan Province and Beijing, China.
After 6 months, 1,721 (74.5%) students participated in the
second data collection. All participants reported having more
than one constant Internet-accessible mobile phone and more
than 1 year of mobile phone use experience.
Procedure
For the present study, approval was obtained from the
Research Ethics Committee of Beijing Normal University
and the principals of the participating schools. Written in-
formed consent was also obtained from all the students and
teachers. The self-report questionnaires were administered
by trained research assistants in the classrooms, and the
participants were told that all personal information would be
kept anonymous and confidential. Parents’ phubbing and
demographic variables (e.g., gender and age) were assessed
in the first data collection during November and December
2017. Parent–child relationships, children’s self-esteem, and
PMPU were measured in the second data collection during
May and June 2018. Participants were compensated with a
small gift after completing the questionnaires.
Measures
Parents’ phubbing. The investigators translated and
modified the Partner Phubbing Scale developed by Roberts
and David.
3
The modification changed ‘‘partner’’ to ‘‘par-
ents,’’ which was verified in the Chinese context.
9
Parents’
phubbing was assessed at Time 1 by nine items (e.g., My
parents glance at their mobile phones when talking to me).
The participants responded to each item on a 5-point scale
from 1 (never) to 5 (always), with higher scores indicating a
higher frequency of parents’ phubbing. To verify the validity
of this revised version, exploratory factor analysis results
showed that only one factor was extracted according to the
eigenvalue (greater than 1). Further confirmatory factor
analysis results supported one-factor construct with a satis-
factory model fit: v
2
(24) =276.87, CFI =0.96, TLI =0.94,
RMSEA (90% CI) =0.078 (0.070–0.087), SRMR =0.033. In
addition, the internal reliability of the Parent Phubbing Scale
in the study was good (Cronbach’s a=0.86).
Parent–child relationship. The quality of the parent–
child relationship was assessed at Time 2 by a Chinese
version of the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Evaluation
Scale.
43
The scale contains two aspects for a total of 20
items, half of which measure the father–child relationship
(e.g., My father and I feel very close to each other) and the
other half of which measure the mother–child relationship
(e.g., My mother and I feel very close to each other). The
students rated the items on a 5-point scale from 1 (com-
pletely disagree) to 5 (completely agree), with higher scores
indicating a good parent–child relationship. The scale in the
study possessed satisfactory internal reliability for the fa-
ther–child, mother–child, and overall relationships (Cron-
bach’s a=0.86, 0.84, and 0.90, respectively).
Self-esteem. Children’s degree of self-esteem was as-
sessed at Time 2 by a validated Chinese version of the Ro-
senberg Self-esteem Scale.
44
It has a total of 10 items,
FIG. 1. Conceptual model of parents’ phubbing on chil-
dren’s problematic mobile phone use. PPHU, parents’
phubbing; P-CR, parent–child relationships; SES, self-
esteem; PMPU, problematic mobile phone use.
PARENTS’ PHUBBING AND CHILDREN’S PMPU 3
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including the positive aspect (e.g., Generally speaking, I am
satisfied with myself) and negative aspect (e.g., I certainly
feel useless at times). Students rated the items on a 5-point
scale from 1 (completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree),
with higher scores indicating a higher level of self-esteem.
The present sample revealed good internal reliability for the
Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale (Cronbach’s a=0.90).
Problematic mobile phone use. The degree of PMPU
was assessed at Time 2 by a Chinese version of a short form
of the Mobile Phone Problem Use Scale.
45
The scale with 10
items comprises five aspects of PMPU: craving, withdrawal,
dependence, loss of control, and negative life consequences.
The students rated the items on a 5-point scale from 1
(completely disagree) to 5 (completely agree), with higher
scores indicating more severe PMPU. The scale in the study
possessed satisfactory internal reliability (Cronbach’s
a=0.85).
Data analyses
First, descriptive analyses of the variables were conducted
to calculate the mean, standard deviations, and Pearson
correlations using SPSS 19.0. Second, a hypothetical model
and competing models were formulated to examine the
mediating roles of the parent–child relationship and chil-
dren’s self-esteem between parents’ phubbing and children’s
PMPU using Mplus 7.1. Additionally, missing data were
handled by using maximum likelihood (ML) in the process
of analyses. Models were evaluated by using chi-square
values (v
2
), the comparative fit index (CFI), the Tucker–
Lewis fit index (TLI), the root-mean-square error of ap-
proximation (RMSEA), and the standardized root-mean-
square residual (SRMR). In general, an acceptable model fit
is indicated by CFI and TLI greater than 0.9 and RMSEA and
SRMR less than 0.08.
46
Results
Descriptive statistics and correlations
The means, standard deviations, and correlations are
presented in Table 1. Gender and age were significantly re-
lated to the severity of PMPU, suggesting that they should be
regarded as covariates in the next analyses. Additionally,
parents’ phubbing, the parent–child relationship, children’s
self-esteem, and children’s PMPU were correlated with each
other (jrjranging from 0.14 to 0.40).
Examination of the multiple mediation models
With regard to the measurement model, parents’ phubbing
with single dimensionality and homogeneity could be par-
celed into three indicators, and the other variables could also
be parceled according to their subordinate dimensions.
47
Afterward, a direct model was formulated. The fit of the
model was satisfactory: v
2
(72) =466.01, CFI =0.95, TLI =
0.94, RMSEA (90% CI) =0.057 (0.052–0.062), SRMR =
0.062. The results showed that parents’ phubbing positively
predicted PMPU (b=0.24, p<0.001) after controlling for
age and gender.
With parent–child relationships and self-esteem intro-
duced, in addition to the hypothetical multiple mediation
model (Fig. 2), several other competing models were es-
tablished. As shown in Table 2, compared with the other
alternative models according to the ratio of Dv
2
and Ddf,
Model 4 had a better model fit than Model 1 (Dv
2
/Ddf =
34.89 >3.84, the cutoff of chi-square test was at the 0.05
level of significance, p<0.05), Model 2 (Dv
2
/Ddf =15.15 >
3.84, p<0.05), and Model 3 (Dv
2
=14.61, Ddf =0). Al-
though the fits of Model 4 and Model 5 had no significant
difference (Dv
2
/Ddf =0.71 <3.84, p>0.05), the more con-
cise model indicates the better model.
48
This suggested the
hypothetical model (Model 4) was more reliable and stable.
To further evaluate the significance of indirect effects, we
conducted bias-corrected bootstrap tests,
49
and the original
data were derived with 5000 bootstrap samples. The 95%
confidence interval of the path coefficient did not include
zero, indicating the significance. As shown in Table 3, par-
ents’ phubbing not only directly predicted children’s PMPU
but also indirectly predicted PMPU through the mediating
roles of parent–child relationship and children’s self-esteem.
In addition, the indirect effects explained 27.2% of the var-
iance in the relationship between parents’ phubbing and
children’s PMPU.
Discussion
The results of this study showed that children who re-
ported their parents engaging in more phubbing behaviors
exhibited higher levels of PMPU, supporting H1. When ex-
posed to a family context where their parents always con-
centrate on mobile phones, a child may regard phubbing
behaviors as an accepted social norm and could be influenced
to develop a maladaptive pattern of mobile phone use;
4
this
use pattern could be more likely for secondary students who
are easily influenced by their environments.
11
Also, as ob-
servational learning theory postulated,
12
a phubbing parent
Table 1. Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations
MSD123456
1 Gender 1.54 0.50 —
2 Age 13.35 1.62 0.09*** —
3 Parents’ phubbing 2.84 0.91 0.08*** -0.01 —
4 Parent/child relationship 3.50 0.73 -0.02 -0.04 -0.25*** —
5 Self-esteem 3.64 0.82 -0.10*** -0.03 -0.14*** 0.40*** —
6 PMPU 2.41 0.81 0.09*** 0.15*** 0.22*** -0.24*** -0.22*** —
Note: Gender (1 =male, 2 =female).
***p<0.001.
PMPU, problematic mobile phone use.
4 HONG ET AL.
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could act as an undesirable role model for mobile phone use,
such that children might imitate their parent’s phubbing be-
haviors and use mobile phones in a similar unhealthy way.
14
This suggests that frequent parent phubbing might contribute
to their children’s problematic use of mobile phones.
The role of parent–child relationship
With regard to how parent’s phubbing is associated with
children’s PMPU, there appear to be several potential indi-
rect mechanisms. Initially, the results found that the parent–
child relationship mediated the association between parents’
phubbing and children’s PMPU, supporting H2. Parents who
concentrate on mobile phones when they are interacting with
their children might contribute to the child’s sense of alien-
ation, leading to the child’s perception of a poor parent–child
relationship.
5,18
The finding was in agreement with the dis-
placement hypothesis that distracted media use could reduce
the quality of offline interactions and result in unsatisfactory
in-person social relationships.
3,17
For the second part of the
mediation process, in line with the extant research, the re-
lationship between parents and children could be associated
with children’s PMPU.
26,27
For instance, adolescents with
negative parental relationships indicated that they lacked
emotional support from their families. They might have been
motivated to engage in compensatory behaviors, such as
turning to the online world on their mobile phones, which
could increase the risks for excessive use.
15
In this study,
parent’s phubbing was indirectly associated with their chil-
dren’s PMPU through the mediating role of poor parent–
child relationship.
The role of children’s self-esteem
The results found that children’s self-esteem mediated the
association between the parent–child relationship and chil-
dren’s PMPU, supporting H3. Consistent with the previ-
ous research,
32
interpersonal relationships, especially family
FIG. 2. The multiple me-
diation model after control-
ling for the effects of gender
and age. All the coefficient
estimates shown above are
completely standardized.
**p<0.01, ***p<0.001.
Table 2. Competing Models Between Parents’ Phubbing and Children’s Problematic Mobile Phone Use
Model Specific paths v
2
df CFI TLI RMSEA SRMR
Comparing to model 4
Dv
2
Ddf
Model 1 437.28 72 0.95 0.94 0.055 0.060 69.77 2
Model 2 382.66 71 0.96 0.95 0.051 0.039 15.15 1
Model 3 382.12 70 0.96 0.95 0.051 0.039 14.61 0
Model 4 367.51 70 0.96 0.95 0.050 0.035 — —
Model 5 366.80 69 0.96 0.95 0.050 0.035 0.71 1
Note: The measurement models for above models are not presented (details in Fig. 2).
PPHU, parents’ phubbing; P-CR, parent–child relationships; SES, self-esteem; CFI, comparative fit index; TLI, Tucker–Lewis fit index;
RMSEA, root-mean-square error of approximation; SRMR, standardized root-mean-square residual.
PARENTS’ PHUBBING AND CHILDREN’S PMPU 5
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bonding, have been shown to be crucial contributors to an
individual’s self-esteem development, as postulated by the
sociometer hypothesis of self-esteem.
33
For instance, a sat-
isfactory parent–child relationship has been found to provide
a secure base and emotional attachment, along with a sense
of acceptance and identification, which could promote lev-
els of self-esteem.
34,35
For the second part of the mediation
process, self-esteem has been shown to serve as an impor-
tant protective factor against maladjustment behaviors.
32
Thus, adolescents with high self-esteem generally exhibit
fewer problematic behaviors, including PMPU.
30,39
In short,
the parent–child relationship is indirectly associated with
children’s PMPU through the mediating role of children’s
self-esteem.
A multiple mediation model
Taken together, parents’ phubbing as a contextual factor
was indirectly associated with their children’s problematic
use of mobile phones through multiple mediating roles of
the parent–child relationship and the children’s self-esteem,
supporting H4. The finding was in accordance with the eti-
ology of pathological Internet use from proximal causes
(environmental factors) to distal causes (personal factors).
50
In particular, when exposed to phubbing parents in the
context of a household, phubbed adolescents may perceive
low-quality interactions with their parents, along with de-
creased family bonding. In turn, poor parent–child relation-
ships could impede adolescents’ self-esteem development.
Furthermore, low levels of self-esteem have been posi-
tively associated with problem behaviors, including PMPU.
Thus, the parent–child relationship and children’s self-esteem
seemed to play a multiple mediating role in the association
between parent’s phubbing and children’s PMPU.
Limitations and implications
Several limitations in the present study should be noted.
First, the data relied on students’ self-report, although there
was no serious common method bias. Future research could
use multimethods, such that data on phubbing behaviors
could be collected from parents themselves to enhance the
reliability and validity of the data. Second, despite examin-
ing competition models using crosstemporal data, to a certain
degree, this approach seemed insufficient to clarify their
relationships rigorously. Thus, longitudinal research or ex-
perimental designs are warranted to further ascertain the
specific predictive directions. Third, as the current study only
investigated secondary school students in China, further
replication and extension should be conducted before the
generalization of this model to other groups.
Despite these limitations, there were some important im-
plications. From a theoretical perspective, to our knowledge,
the present study was the first to focus on phubbing behaviors
within the context of a parent–child household. By adapting
the Partner Phubbing Scale to create a Parent Phubbing
Scale, the revised scale showed good reliability and validity.
Also, the multiple mediation model helps to advance the
understanding of the potential etiology of children’s PMPU
in family settings. That is, parents’ phubbing was shown to
be associated with children’s PMPU, with the parent–child
relationship, and children’s self-esteem as potential media-
tors. With regard to practical contributions, parental un-
healthy mobile phones use could increase the risks for their
children’s PMPU; thus, interventions in the family context
can be instrumental to prevent adolescents from engaging
in PMPU. Specifically, parents should reduce their use of
mobile phones, particularly when they are interacting with
their children. This could promote positive parent–child re-
lationships that could strengthen the children’s self-esteem,
making the children less likely to engage in PMPU.
Acknowledgement
The authors appreciate the support from the participating
schools’ students and teachers.
Author Disclosure Statement
No competing financial interests exist.
Funding Information
This research was supported by the National Social Sci-
ence Fund of China (No. 17BSH102).
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Table 3. Bias-Corrected Bootstrap Test
on Mediating Effects
Path
Standardized
(b)
95% CI
Low High
PPHU /PMPU 0.171 0.110 0.232
PPHU /P-CR /PMPU 0.041 0.017 0.065
P-CR /SES /PMPU -0.077 -0.113 -0.041
PPHU /P-CR /SES /
PMPU
0.023 0.011 0.034
6 HONG ET AL.
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Address correspondence to:
Prof. Ru-De Liu
Faculty of Psychology
Beijing Normal University
No. 19 Xinjiekouwai Street
Beijing 100875
China
E-mail: liurude@126.com
8 HONG ET AL.
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