Utilizing Music and Songs to Promote Student Engagement in ESL Classrooms

Abstract

One of the main challenges English language teachers face in their daily classes is to find creative ways of sustaining their students’ interest in language learning, which can often be perceived as dull
and tedious. Music and songs, which have a universal appeal and ubiquitous presence in most people’s daily lives, have all the prerequisites to become an effective teaching resource in this
respect. However, this useful resource appears to be underutilized by English language teachers, which is attributable to the lack of understanding of its theoretical rationale and benefits. The present
paper aims to analyze the role and potential of music and songs in English language teaching in the light of current research and literature. Research findings suggest that the effective use of music and songs in language teaching has the potential to address multiple intelligences, reduce anxiety, increase motivation, facilitate memory retention and establish an affectively conducive learning environment. Moreover, music and songs can be utilized to enhance the learning of almost every aspect of the target language, to develop cultural awareness and to foster students’ creativity. Apart from discussing theoretical arguments and empirical evidence in support of using music and songs in language instruction, the paper provides practical suggestions for integrating music activities into ESL classrooms. It is hoped that a larger number of ESL teachers will deem music and songs a valuable educational tool which they can use to engage their students both affectively and cognitively and to promote effective and enjoyable language teaching and learning.

Full text

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Utilizing Music and Songs to Promote Student
Engagement in ESL Classrooms
Daler Bokiev, Umed Bokiev, Dalia Aralas, Liliati Ismail, Moomala
Othman
Faculty of Educational Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor Darul
Ehsan, Malaysia
Abstract
One of the main challenges English language teachers face in their daily classes is to find creative
ways of sustaining their students’ interest in language learning, which can often be perceived as dull
and tedious. Music and songs, which have a universal appeal and ubiquitous presence in most
people’s daily lives, have all the prerequisites to become an effective teaching resource in this
respect. However, this useful resource appears to be underutilized by English language teachers,
which is attributable to the lack of understanding of its theoretical rationale and benefits. The present
paper aims to analyze the role and potential of music and songs in English language teaching in the
light of current research and literature. Research findings suggest that the effective use of music and
songs in language teaching has the potential to address multiple intelligences, reduce anxiety,
increase motivation, facilitate memory retention and establish an affectively conducive learning
environment. Moreover, music and songs can be utilized to enhance the learning of almost every
aspect of the target language, to develop cultural awareness and to foster students’ creativity. Apart
from discussing theoretical arguments and empirical evidence in support of using music and songs in
language instruction, the paper provides practical suggestions for integrating music activities into ESL
classrooms. It is hoped that a larger number of ESL teachers will deem music and songs a valuable
educational tool which they can use to engage their students both affectively and cognitively and to
promote effective and enjoyable language teaching and learning.
Keywords: Music, Songs, English Language Teaching, Student Engagement, Creativity
Introduction
Music is present almost everywhere and is an integral part of our everyday lives. We listen to music
when we are happy and when we are upset, while exercising, studying, working, resting, running,
driving and flying. We hear it on the radio and television, in cinemas, at sports and cultural events, at
weddings, in restaurants and shopping malls, and when we are placed on hold during a telephone

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call. Music has been efficiently exploited in the film and advertising industry because of its capacity
to evoke strong emotions and trigger memory, apart from being enjoyable.
Music is not only pleasant to hear (hence the expression music to one's ears), but also beneficial
to health and well-being, which explains why it is frequently used as a therapeutic tool. As studies
have shown, listening to certain kinds of music can improve mood, decrease depression, reduce
stress, relieve pain (e.g. for surgery patients), stabilize heart rate, blood pressure and breathing rate,
help consume less food, boost the immune system, help treat insomnia, increase exercise endurance
and improve running motivation and performance (Drazen & Woods, 2003; Harmat, Takács, & Bodizs,
2008; Karageorghis et al., 2009; Trappe, 2009; Cervellin & Lippi, 2011; Snyder, Snaterse, & Donelan,
2012; Chanda & Levitin, 2013; Schäfer, Sedlmeier, Städtler, & Huron, 2013). Moreover, a recent study
found that listening to “happy music” facilitates divergent thinking, which is a key element of
creativity (Ritter & Ferguson, 2017). Hence, music is not only a form of art meant for entertainment,
but also a kind of healing art or a medicine for the soul and body, in a manner of speaking. At the
same time, music can be used for educational purposes, especially in language teaching.
One of the main challenges English language teachers face in their daily classes is to find creative
ways of sustaining their students’ interest in language learning, which can often be perceived as dull
and tedious. Music and songs, which have a universal appeal and ubiquitous presence in most
people’s daily lives, have all the prerequisites to become an effective teaching resource in this
respect. However, this useful resource appears to be underutilized by English language teachers,
which is largely attributable to the lack of understanding of its theoretical rationale and how to exploit
it in ESL classrooms as well as the scarcity of publications on this subject (González, 2007; Salcedo,
2010; Engh, 2013). The present paper aims to analyze the role and potential of music and songs in
English language teaching in the light of current research and literature. After discussing theoretical
arguments and empirical evidence in support of using music and songs in language instruction, the
paper will provide some practical suggestions for integrating music activities into English language
teaching. It is obvious that the present paper cannot claim to provide an exhaustive account of all the
possible ways music can be used in ESL classrooms, which depend on each individual teacher’s
resourcefulness and creativity.
Rationale for Using Music and Songs in ELT
In this section, we will discuss some of the main reasons for using music and songs in language
teaching that are supported by theory and research.
Music and Language
The Theory of Multiple Intelligences, developed by Gardner (1983) on the basis of research in several
disciplines (including psychology, brain science, genetics and anthropology), asserts that human
beings possess a set of relatively independent intellectual capacities that they draw on individually
and corporately, rather than a single intelligence measured by traditional IQ tests. These multiple
intelligences include linguistic intelligence (analyzing and creating oral and written language); logical-
mathematical intelligence (making calculations and solving abstract problems); musical intelligence

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(discerning and expressing different sound patterns); spatial intelligence (perceiving the visual-spatial
world and forming mental imagery); bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (using physical skills to produce
things and solve problems); interpersonal intelligence (understanding other people’s moods and
interacting with them); intrapersonal intelligence (knowing oneself and directing one’s actions
accordingly) and naturalistic intelligence (identifying living beings and features of the natural world)
(Davis, Christodoulou, Seider & Gardner, 2011). According to Gardner (2013), these intelligences are
combined in a different fashion in each individual and “strength (or weakness) in one intelligence
does not predict strength (or weakness) in any other intelligences”. He further notes that only two
intelligences - linguistic and logical-mathematical - have been valued and tested for in modern
schools (Davis, Christodoulou, Seider & Gardner, 2011).
One of the main educational implications of this theory is that ideas, concepts and skills should be
taught in different ways so that as many of the intelligences as possible can be exploited to develop
a particular intelligence. Even if language teachers may not be interested in developing musical
intelligence per se, they can still tap their students’ musical intelligence and interest so as to help
them achieve mastery in the target language. Irrespective of whether or not a teacher and students
have received musical training, music and songs can be easily integrated into classroom activities and
thus function as a teaching tool in a way similar to audiovisual material or computer software that
are employed in language education. Classroom activities involving music and songs can be used in a
variety of ways to improve the learner’s interpersonal, intrapersonal and bodily-kinesthetic
intelligences in addition to musical and linguistic intelligences (Failoni, 1993; Campbell, Campbell &
Dickinson, 1996; Abbott, 2002).
The importance of utilizing music and songs in language teaching can be further illustrated by the
close relationship between music and language. According to Gardner (2011), musical intelligence,
which is the earliest to emerge of all, develops in parallel to linguistic intelligence. Moreover, both
musical and linguistic competences rely on the oral-auditory system and are not dependent upon
physical objects (Gardner, 2011). It is notable that music and language share some intrinsic features,
such as volume, pitch, rhythm, tone, stress and pauses (Mora, 2000). What is interesting about the
development of both music and language is that in both cases receptive skills come before productive
skills (Sloboda, 1989). Furthermore, latest brain imaging studies indicate that music and language are
closely interlinked at the neural level and that speech and music share a large number of common
functional aspects (Besson, Schön, Moreno, Santos, & Magne, 2007; Jäncke, 2012; Putkinen,
Tervaniemi, Saarikivi, de Vent, & Huotilainen, 2014), which stands in striking contrast to the popular
views on the brain processing that equate music with the right hemisphere and language with the
left hemisphere. Studies also suggest that that “speech functions can benefit from music functions
and vice versa” (Jäncke, 2012, p. 1), which is in line with a recent review of studies by Brandt, Slevc
and Gebrian (2012) concluding that “musical hearing and ability is essential to [early] language
acquisition” (p. 1). As suggested by the findings of the study by Schön et al. (2008), which compared
the efficiency of learning words from an artificial language in spoken and sung sequences, music can
also facilitate learning a new language, particularly in the initial stages of learning when segmenting
words. Thus, given the ability of music to trigger multiple intelligences, the commonalities between

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music and language as well as the facilitative role of music in language acquisition, it is advisable to
include music activities in the English language teaching, especially in beginning classes.
Music and Affect
Affect can be broadly defined as “aspects of emotion, feeling, mood or attitude which condition
behaviour” (Arnold & Brown, 1999, p. 1). Since the 1970s it has been known that positive affective
variables impact cognitive functions and are indispensable in language acquisition (Gardner &
Lambert, 1972). Stevick (1980) comments on the importance of affect in language classrooms as
follows: “Success [in language learning] depends less on materials, techniques and linguistic analyses
and more on what goes on inside and between the people in the classroom” (p. 4). Krashen’s (1982)
Monitor Model and in particular the Affective Filter Hypothesis draw special attention to learners’
emotional states in second language acquisition. Based on research findings in the area of SLA,
Krashen (1982) maintains that a number of affective variables, such as motivation, self-confidence
and anxiety play a decisive role in second language acquisition. He asserts it is highly probable that
strong motivation, high self-confidence and a low level of anxiety in learners will lead to success in
second language acquisition. Conversely, if learners suffer from lowered self-esteem and feel
extremely anxious, their affective filter will rise and the processing of the language input will be
inhibited, which will end in the failure of the language acquisition (Krashen, 1982).
The major implication of the Affective Filter Hypothesis is that a prerequisite for successful second
language acquisition is a low-anxiety, non-threatening classroom atmosphere that arouses positive
emotions in learners. This is where music and songs can play a facilitative role. It is very likely that
learners will feel lower levels of anxiety and inhibition if songs are used in teaching new concepts and
vocabulary (Metaxa, 2013). While listening to music can help learners feel relaxed and become
creative (Mora, 2000), group singing can “lower the walls between people, decrease competitive
instincts and build cooperation” (Jackson & Joyce, 2003, p. 7). Singing songs can also boost learners’
self-confidence as it enables them to master certain English words and expressions contained in the
lyrics, which they will be able to use in speaking later on. It is a pleasant experience for learners to
simply listen to music or to sing in chorus (Medina, 2002), which is often absent in language
classrooms. As Richard (1969) points out: “Pleasure for its own sake is an important part of language
learning, a fact which is often overlooked by the teacher in his quest for teaching points, or by the
course designer focusing on presentation or repetition” (p. 24). Furthermore, the use of music in the
classroom can benefit teachers as well and make language teaching less stressful. As stated by Brown
(1998), music “can help make teaching more enjoyable by bringing us closer to our students and,
more importantly, closer to ourselves” (p. 68).
Apart from their soothing effect, songs can be beneficial to language teaching by improving learners’
motivation, which is fundamental to a successful learning process. As pointed out by Peacock (1997),
language learners’ motivation can be increased significantly through the employment of authentic
materials. Since songs are linked to emotions and contain lyrics that are authentic and meaningful to
the learners, they are likely to spark students’ intrinsic motivation, which is generally considered
superior to extrinsic motivation in terms of learner outcomes (Crookes & Schmidt, 1991; Deci, 1995).

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The use of songs can help learners receive exposure to authentic language input. Yet, songs can also
give teachers the opportunity to engage learners in real-life tasks by asking them do something that
they would do in their daily life. This is especially applicable to teenagers, who devote a great amount
of their free time to listening to songs.
The positive effect of music and songs on the emotional state of young and adult language learners
has been confirmed by several studies (Green, 1993; Arévalo, 2010; Ludke, 2010; Setia et al., 2012;
Kara & Aksel, 2013; Džanić & Pejić, 2016). Notably, the study by Setia et al. (2012) investigated the
effectiveness of songs in creating positive attitude and motivation in primary school ESL learners in
Malaysia. The results indicated that “the use of song not only helps the understanding, it also
stimulates and increases the students’ interest to learn, enjoy and engage in the learning process”
(p. 270). The results also suggest that songs have a positive impact on the learners’ self-confidence
and academic success by providing a more relaxed and propitious learning environment. A similar
study by Džanić and Pejić (2016) examining the influence of visual and aural representation of
language through songs on language acquisition of young EFL learners in Bosnia and Herzegovina
showed that songs can make language learning more gratifying and productive for different types of
learners in both aural and visual settings. The researchers further stated that “songs aid motivation
and help learners develop a love for language learning. Students motivated in this way are
imaginative, creative, and eager to learn and succeed” (Džanić & Pejić, 2016, p. 51). Finally, the study
by Kara and Aksel (2013), which investigated the effectiveness of music in teaching grammar to
university students in Turkey, found that music activities served both educational and psychological
needs of the students, creating an enjoyable atmosphere and motivating them to learn the target
language.
Music and Memory
As stated by Thornbury (2006), “There is no learning without memory, and language learning in
particular, with the enormous load of vocabulary that it requires, is largely a memory task” (p. 129).
Successful second language learning implies that learners can memorize the studied material and call
on it whenever they need it while using the language. Several authors point out that music and songs
can facilitate the long-term retention of the words, phrases and formulaic sequences that learners
need to memorize (Mora, 2000; Abbott, 2002; Lake, 2002; Lowe, 2007; Kerekes, 2015).

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Contemporary memory models differentiate between three components of memory: (1) sensory
memory, which captures the information in the environment detected by the sense organs and lets
it go quickly if no attention is paid; (2) working memory, which has limited capacity and processes in
the short term new information coming from an external source or old information recalled from
long-term memory; and (3) long-term memory, which has enormous capacity and durability and
stores information more permanently (Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968; Thornbury, 2006). It is usually
necessary for information in working memory to be rehearsed for some time (silent mental
repetition) so that it can move to long-term memory as a result of strengthening the memory trace.
However, information should be frequently retrieved lest it decays and disappears (Thornbury, 2006).
Thus, the key to storing material in long-term memory is rehearsal and retrieval. According to Calvert
and Tart (1993), “songs present content in a form that may be easily stored, rehearsed, and retrieved
from memory” (p. 246). While the content of a song involves the lyrics and the message of the lyrics,
the form of a song involves the rhyme of the words, the repetition of a verse, the rhythm and the
melody of the tune (Calvert & Tart, 1993). This musical structure of songs provides a schematic
organization which allows the retrieval of lyric information (Sloboda, 1989). Apart from having a
repetitive structure, songs evoke strong emotions and present the language items in a meaningful
context, which considerably facilitates their memorization both inside and outside the classroom, as
emotions enhance memory processes (Jäncke, 2008) and meaningfully learned material has greater
potential for retention in long-term memory (Ausubel, 1965).
According to Murphey (1990), songs are particularly beneficial to language acquisition because
they trigger more effectively the din (i.e. the involuntary mental rehearsal of recently heard words,
sounds and phrases), which according to Krashen’s Din in the Head Hypothesis is “a result of
stimulation of the Language Acquisition Device [or LAD]” (1983, p. 43) and
“a sign that language acquisition is taking place” (2008, p. 349). Murphey (1990) argues that in
contrast to the language din, the “Song stuck in my head” (SSIMH) phenomenon (i.e. the echoing in
the mind of a previously heard song) can be triggered with considerably smaller amount of input
time, does not necessitate understanding of the linguistic content and lasts for a longer period of
time. Consequently, music and songs can play an “associative facilitating role” in engaging and
stimulating the LAD (Murphey, 1990, p. 61). He further states that reading the lyrics while listening
to songs can result in a stronger activation of the SSIMH (Murphey, 1990).

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A number of studies on second and foreign language learners have shown the positive effect of
music and songs on the retention and recall of words, phrases and longer text (Medina, 1990;
Salcedo, 2002; Legg 2009; Ludke, 2010; Salcedo 2010; Rukholm, 2011; Coyle & Gόmez Gracia, 2014).
Notably, the study by Salcedo (2010) investigated the effect of utilizing songs on text recall and
involuntary mental rehearsal (din) in Spanish language classrooms for English native-speaker
students at a university in the United States. Results demonstrated that using songs led to a better
text recall as compared to text passage. With regard to involuntary mental rehearsal, two thirds of
the students in the “music group” reported experiencing the din as opposed to one third of students
in the “text group” (Salcedo, 2010). A recent comprehensive research project by Tegge (2015)
involving 568 teachers of 20 languages in 41 countries investigated “whether songs as they are
frequently used in language teaching rather than as they potentially should be used” (p. 4) have a
beneficial effect on lexical learning. Based on the findings from three separate studies exploring
various ways songs can be used in second language teaching, the researcher concluded that “the way
teachers currently tend to use songs in language classrooms around the world can benefit lexical
learning, in particular the consolidation of already familiar vocabulary and the acquisition of deep
word knowledge beyond a first form-meaning connection” (Tegge, 2015, p. 197). She further noted
that “while certain structural characteristics of songs have the potential of rendering text (and the
lexis therein) memorable, it is the way that songs tend to be exploited in the classroom that
capitalizes on this mnemonic potential” (Tegge, 2015, p. ii).
Music, Linguistic and Cultural Competence
In addition to addressing multiple intelligences, providing a positive learning environment,
increasing students’ motivation and functioning as an effective memory aid, music and songs offer a
realistic context for developing all the four language skills (i.e. listening, speaking, reading and
writing) and can be integrated into pronunciation, vocabulary and grammar instruction while also
offering a change to the classroom routine (Failoni, 1993; Lo & Li, 1998; Abbott, 2002). As stated by
Chuang (2016) lyrics in songs are “optimal language input because the input chunks provided are
manageable for beginning learners, blending rhythm, stress, rhymes, intonation, vocabulary, and
sentence patterns” (p. 28). According to Murphey’s (1992) analysis, popular songs are generally short,
use conversational language, contain repetitions and display a comparatively simple vocabulary
associated with the level of 11-year-old native English speakers, which makes them particularly useful
as entry-level materials, though they can also be adapted for advanced learners.

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It is particularly suitable to teach unknown words and idiomatic expressions with the use of songs as
they provide meaningful examples presented in realistic contexts, which can make learning
considerably easier compared to traditional methods of teaching vocabulary. In addition,
collocations, figurative language and metaphors as well as colloquial language can be introduced
through songs in a natural and convenient manner. Moreover, connected speech, pronunciation and
intonation can be ideally practised with songs as their lyrics reflect the natural language with words
presented at a slower pace than usual speech (Murphey, 1992; Ludke 2009). From the grammatical
point of view, songs “provide a natural context for the most common structures such as verb tenses
and prepositions” (Griffee, 1992, pp. 5-6). However, the main advantage of the incorporation of songs
into the classroom is related specifically to listening, which is considered one of the most neglected
skills (Paulston & Bruder, 1976). Nunan (1999) describes listening as the “Cinderella skill” in second
language teaching and learning due to its perceived minor importance compared to the other
language skills. Nevertheless, listening is proven to play a more important role than other language
skills in people’s daily life as it is used twice as much as speaking, four times more than reading and
five times more than writing (Rivers, 1981). What is more, several authors consider listening as the
most important skill in learning a new language by virtue of its acting as base for the development of
other skills (Lacorte & Thurston-Griswold, 2001; Rost, 2013). Different sources of listening difficulty
such as sound-letter relationship can be dealt with by using songs for practising rhythm pattern and
connected speech (Rixon, 1986). Music can help the development of such essential skills as active
listening and differentiation of sound patterns (Ludke, 2009). Another benefit of using songs in the
classroom is that learners become exposed to a wide range of varieties of English. As stated by
Harmer (1998), “One of the main reasons for getting students to listen to spoken English is to let
them hear different varieties and accents - rather than just the voice of their teacher with its own
idiosyncrasies” (p. 97).
Apart from developing students’ linguistic competence, music and songs can also raise their
cultural awareness. As stated by Jones (2008), “music is a faithful reflection of the culture it derives
from” (p. 11). Music and songs of different genres contribute to the promotion of cultural diversity
by conveying original styles, lexicons and feelings (Mõts, 2016). According to Shen (2009) “language
and music are interwoven in songs to communicate cultural reality in a very unique way” (p. 88). By
giving a better understanding of the language in its relevant cultural context, music and songs can
enhance students’ intercultural competence, which is one of the major goals of language teaching
(Jolly, 1975; Karabinar & Guler, 2013).

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In addition to numerous studies on the effects of music and songs on vocabulary learning
mentioned earlier, several studies have shown that listening, pronunciation, speaking, grammar,
reading and writing skills as well as cultural knowledge can be supported by using music and songs
(Lowe, 1995; Fisher, 2001; Arévalo, 2010; Ludke; 2010; Setia et al. 2012; Kara & Aksel, 2013; Lee &
Lin, 2015; Alisaari & Heikkola, 2016). In particular, the study by Arévalo (2010) investigated the
effectiveness of English songs “as a tool to foster listening skills as well as to engage students in
cultural knowledge” (p. 127). The action research study involved adult EFL students at a university in
Colombia. Based on the findings of the study, the researcher concluded that “songs are the most
suitable type of authentic material to develop listening comprehension” (p. 130), which can also be
utilized for practice at more advanced levels. The results also indicate that songs are effective in
encouraging students to discuss cultural issues and social problems. In addition, the researcher
reached the following conclusions that advocate the use of music and songs in the language
classroom:
▪ The students feel motivated to participate in classes involving songs.
▪ It is considerably more attractive for the students to understand the language and the culture
through learning with songs.
▪ Songs enable the students to become better aware of the correct pronunciation.
▪ Songs contain colloquial language with ample repetitions, which have a facilitative effect on
language learning.
▪ Songs make language learning more interesting and effective by engaging the students in the
interactive and reflective processes as they discover the content and meaning of the songs for
themselves (Arévalo, 2010, pp. 130-131).
As the review of literature above suggests, many cogent reasons can be given for using music and
songs in the ESL classroom. Yet, as stated by Murphey (1992), “songs alone […] will not teach anyone
how to use a language, no matter how great their memorability, how much fun it is to sing and listen
to them, or how ‘energizing’ the change of pace might be” (p. 6). In other words, merely listening to
or performing songs will hardly enable the students to acquire the ability to communicate in the
target language. In order to improve the students’ language skills, it is crucial that teachers utilize the
songs through appropriate classroom activities. The subsequent section of the paper provides some
practical suggestions for integrating music activities in language classrooms.
Integrating Music and Songs in ELT
Given the teacher’s role in tapping the advantages of music and songs in the language classroom, this
section presents certain practical guidelines for selecting music and songs as well as structuring
classroom activities around them, which are followed by some creative music activities.
Selecting Music and Songs
There are plenty of songs available, especially online. But, not every song is suitable for teaching
purposes. There are a number of factors that teachers should take into account when choosing a
song for ESL classroom activities.

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1) Purpose of the Song
Above all, the song to be used should have instructional value. It is crucial to determine what students
can learn from or practise with a song and select songs that are related to the theme, grammatical
structures or vocabulary covered in the class. Simple songs with recurring grammar features are
suitable for grammar activities, while more sophisticated songs that contain idioms and metaphors
are useful for practising vocabulary. As far as listening activities are concerned, it is recommended to
use songs with appropriate repetition, moderate tempo and simpler syntax. When there is a need to
focus on pronunciation, songs with colloquial speech are ideal for practising reduction and linking.
Songs that tell exciting stories can serve as topics for classroom discussions and written assignments
(Abbott, 2002; Salcedo, 2002; González, 2007). Apart from vocal music, instrumental compositions
can also be used for speaking and writing activities, whereby the teacher can prompt the students to
express their feelings and associations in relation to particular melodies.
2) The Age and Proficiency Level of the Students
It goes without saying that the music and songs to be selected should correspond to the age and
proficiency level of the students. For young learners, it is beneficial to use nursery or children’s songs,
which native-speaking infants are usually taught, because they are characterized by overall natural
and rhythmic language with appropriate vocabulary and grammar as well as enjoyable phrase
repetitions (Failoni, 1993; Zogota 2011). Similarly, songs produced especially for English language
learners with controlled grammar and vocabulary can suit both young and adult beginners, though
authentic songs of appropriate level of difficulty would hold greater appeal. In particular teenagers
would definitely prefer learning English through popular songs, which can be used as an excellent
opportunity to spark their interest in language learning. Although popular music can be helpful in
learning the target language and its culture, several authors encourage the use of folk songs, which
generally have superior prosodic quality, often tell a story and contain relatively simple melodies
(Spicher & Sweeney, 2007; Zogota, 2011). No matter what type of songs teachers select, it is crucial
to make sure that they are neither too easy to challenge the learners nor too difficult lest they leave
them feeling frustrated. Apart from the language used in the songs, the themes ought to be suitable
for the students’ age and interests (Abbott, 2002; González, 2007).
3) Language Content and Quality of the Song
It is vital to examine the language content and quality of the song by listening to it prior to presenting
it to the learners. Songs can contain non-standard language, grammatically incorrect sentences,
altered vocabulary, not well pronounced words and abbreviations. It is therefore important to
choose, as far as possible, the songs written in standard language with lyrics identical in their written
and recorded form and free from any confusing or inappropriate references. At the same time, the
recording should be of good quality and the lyrics should be clear and easily distinguishable from the
instrumental accompaniment (Lems; 2001; Abbott, 2002; Ashmore, 2011).
4) Musical Preferences of the Students and the Teacher
Several authors suggest that the students’ musical preferences should be taken into consideration
when choosing songs for music activities. Lems (2001) states it would motivate students to deal with

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newest popular songs or older hits, whose lyrics they might have heard but do not know very well.
Likewise, Murphey (1992) recommends allowing students to put forward their choices as to the songs
to be used as new material in the class so that they become actively engaged in the learning process.
In addition to students’ preferences, the musical taste of the teacher is also important. As stated by
Lems (2001), “because teachers will show care and effort when presenting songs they are especially
fond of, their favorites are also good”. Similarly, Griffee (1992) emphasizes the importance of
considering both the students’ and the teacher’s musical preferences: “It is not wise to use music
that you do not like. It is also unwise to use music students do not like. The answer is to find common
ground” (pp. 6-7). It is therefore advisable to ask the students to suggest song lyrics of their choice
and to select the ones that have instructional values and are most popular with the students.
Alternatively, teachers can make a list of different songs and let students choose, which will also
involve them in their own learning.
5) Format of the Song
Music can be used either in audio or video format. While audio recordings are more readily available,
music videos provide contextual information and can activate students’ background knowledge,
thereby enhancing comprehension. As stated by Marone (2018), teachers can explore “their
multimodal features (music, lyrics, and moving images) and their multilayered meanings to increase
students’ linguistic and cultural competence” (p. 1). It is crucial, however, that teachers carefully
select music videos to be used in the lessons paying special attention to their content and messages.
As it is sometimes the case with popular music pieces, a song containing suitable lyrics can be debased
due to its music video, which becomes inappropriate for the classroom use.
6) Classroom Opportunities
Teachers should also consider the availability of resources when they design music activities for the
classroom. Such basic equipment as a computer with loudspeakers and a video projector will be
needed to play songs or music videos in the classroom. In addition, music activities should be possibly
conducted in large classrooms with appropriate acoustics. Lastly, care should be taken not to play
music loudly so as not to cause inconvenience to other classes (Griffee 1992; Abbott, 2002).
Structuring Music Activities
Once teachers have selected the appropriate songs, they can design or adapt numerous classroom
activities that can address all language skills. In order to make the experience of learning with music
and songs as meaningful as possible for students, it is recommended to divide the music activities
into three stages: pre-listening, while-listening and post-listening (Abbott, 2002; González, 2007;
Lorenzutti, 2014; see Table 1).

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Table 1: Three Stages of a Song
Pre-listening stage
While-listening stage
Post-listening stage
▪ warm-up questions
▪ presentation of key
vocabulary, phrases or
grammar structures
▪ prediction activities
(song title, content and
theme, singer)
▪ recognizing theme-specific
words or grammatical forms
(e.g. colors, animals/tenses)
▪ ordering words, lines or
verses
▪ listening for detail (gap-fill,
true/false, short answers, spot-
the-error)
▪ listening for gist (topic of the
song)
▪ matching (e.g. definitions)
▪ singing/chanting (for
fluency and pronunciation)
▪ re-tell the story in the song
▪ discuss the message of the
song
▪ write a summary of the
story told in the song
▪ read an article related to
the topic of the song
1) Pre-listening Stage
The purpose of the pre-listening stage is activating the students’ background knowledge as well as
generating their interest in the song. This stage can begin with warm-up questions, presentation of
useful vocabulary and grammar structures or prediction activities. An example of prediction activities
is when the teacher shows a picture or plays the introduction to the song and asks students to predict
the title, content or theme of the song.
2) While-listening Stage
In the second stage, the students are required to listen to the song and to complete a certain task.
For instance, the teacher could ask the students to underline specific words, to rearrange words or
lines, to fill in gaps, to spot and correct mistakes or to match phrases with definitions. It is important
to bear in mind that the song should be played at least two or three times to enable students to
complete the task.
3) Post-listening Stage
In the post-listening stage, students can engage in speaking, writing or reading activities. By way of
example, they can practice pronunciation and vocabulary by singing or chanting the song lyrics as a
class or in groups. Besides, the students might sum up the action of the song or its main theme,
discuss the message of the song or read a text related to the topic of the song.
Creative Music Activities
Apart from the activities mentioned above, teachers can use music in the classroom in various ways
that go beyond listening to music and exploiting the song lyrics. Below are some student-centered
music activities that can stimulate students’ creativity, while also developing their language skills.
Free-write/free-draw to the music: The teacher can play different types of music and ask the
students to write or draw how they feel about them. Every student can also make up their own stories
for the music piece (Lems, 2001; Budden, 2008).

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Writing alternative verses of lyrics: Students can be encouraged to write their own lyrics, keeping
the original mood or style. Students can do it in groups or individually, whereby each group or student
will be responsible for writing a new part of the lyrics. In this way, the alternative lyrics of the entire
song can be prepared and presented in the class (Shen, 2009; Simpson, 2015).
Planning (and filming) a music video: Groups of students can plan a music video for the song,
focusing on the characters, the location and the storyline. After each group has explained the specific
details of its plan for the music video in the class, the students can choose the one based on which
the actual filming can be done (Simpson, 2015).
Preparing a lyric video: Students can prepare song lyric visualization videos by using song lyrics and
relevant images. By doing this project, the students will not only be challenged to show their
creativity and interpretive skills but they will also need to demonstrate that they clearly understand
the vocabulary in the song so that they can pick up befitting images based on their understanding of
the song (Lems, 2016).
Presenting on a musician or music genre: Students can be asked to make a presentation on a chosen
musician or music style. In this project students are given the freedom to organize their entire project,
including research on the topic of their interest and the presentation of their findings. As a result, the
students can develop their academic skills, practice their oral and organizational skills (Lems, 2018).
As a matter of fact, the ideas discussed above only scrape the surface, considering the large number
of creative ways that can be found for the adaptation of music and songs to the language classroom.
In addition to pedagogical resource books (e.g., Griffee, 1992; Murphey, 1992; Paterson & Willis,
2008; Arnold & Herrick, 2017) and articles on the use of music and songs in ESL/EFL classrooms (e.g.,
Failoni, 1993; Lems, 2001, 2016, 2018; Abbott, 2002; Budden, 2008; Lorenzutti, 2014; Simpson, 2015),
there are several websites (e.g., tefltunes.com, tuneintoenglish.com) containing ready-made song-
based lesson plans and classroom activities for various proficiency levels, which ESL teachers can
adapt to fit the needs of their students.
Conclusion
Nowadays, the role of a teacher is not only educating but also motivating students who regard
traditional ways of learning as dull and boring. Therefore, language teachers are supposed to show
creativity and enthusiasm as well as openness to new ideas and challenges, while also keeping a
balance between serious learning and amusement. Music and songs provide teachers with a rich and
authentic resource that they can utilize to promote student engagement in ESL classrooms and to
make a satisfactory connection between entertainment and learning. As the review of recent
research and literature suggests, the effective use of music and songs in language teaching has the
potential to address multiple intelligences, reduce anxiety, increase motivation, facilitate memory
retention and establish an affectively conducive learning environment. In addition to making lessons

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more interesting, music and songs can be used to enhance the learning of almost every aspect of the
target language, to develop cultural awareness and to foster students’ creativity.
It is hoped that a larger number of ESL teachers will deem music and songs a valuable educational
tool which they can use to engage their students both affectively and cognitively as well as to
promote effective and enjoyable language teaching and learning. For a successful implementation it
is vital that teachers select appropriate music and songs that are related to lesson objectives and then
carefully design or adapt classroom activities that will help to achieve them.
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