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Science for Humanitarian
Emergencies and
Resilience (SHEAR)
scoping study:
Annex 1 - Results of a
stakeholder questionnaire
E. Brown, D. Lumbroso and S.
Wade
28 November 2013
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This report has been produced by HR Wallingford Ltd for Evidence on Demand with the
assistance of the UK Department for International Development (DFID) contracted through
the Climate, Environment, Infrastructure and Livelihoods Professional Evidence and Applied
Knowledge Services (CEIL PEAKS) programme, jointly managed by HTSPE Limited and
IMC Worldwide Limited.
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DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.12774/eod_cr.june2014.brownetal
First published June 2014
© CROWN COPYRIGHT
i
Contents
Report Summary ........................................................................................................ iii
SECTION 1 ................................................................................................................ 1
Introduction ................................................................................................................ 1
Survey data analysis .................................................................................................. 5
2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 5
2.2 The perception of the humanitarian impacts of weather-related hazards ............. 5
2.3 The existence and effectiveness of early warning systems for weather-related
hazards ...................................................................................................................... 7
2.4 Accessibility of early warnings to the different types of stakeholders ................... 8
2.5 Barriers to the effectiveness of early warnings in reducing the impacts of
weather-related hazards to people ........................................................................... 11
2.6 The existence and effectiveness of risk and vulnerability mapping for weather-
related hazards ........................................................................................................ 11
2.7 Barriers to the effectiveness of risk and vulnerability mapping in reducing the
impacts of weather-related hazards to people .......................................................... 13
2.8 Opportunities to improve early warning systems and risk mapping for weather-
related hazards ........................................................................................................ 13
SECTION 3 .............................................................................................................. 20
Conclusions .............................................................................................................. 20
3.1 Africa .................................................................................................................. 20
3.2 Caribbean ........................................................................................................... 21
3.3 South Asia .......................................................................................................... 21
SECTION 4 .............................................................................................................. 23
References ............................................................................................................... 23
List of Figures
Figure 1 Regional response to survey ................................................................................... 2
Figure 2 Distribution of responses to the survey in Africa and South Asia ............................. 3
Figure 3 Types of organisation responding to the survey ...................................................... 4
Figure 4 Main areas of interest of the survey respondents .................................................... 4
Figure 5 Main weather-related hazards in terms of their humanitarian impacts by region ...... 6
Figure 6 Existence of an early warning system for the weather-related hazard that has the
greatest impact on people by region ..................................................................................... 7
Figure 7 Effectiveness of early warning systems in reducing loss of life by region ................ 8
Figure 8 Accessibility of early warnings for weather-related hazards by region ................... 10
Figure 9 Barriers to the effectiveness of early warnings for weather-related hazards by
region .................................................................................................................................. 11
Figure 10 Existence of risk or vulnerability mapping for the weather-related hazard that has
the greatest impact on people by region ............................................................................. 13
Figure 11 Effectiveness of risk or vulnerability mapping in reducing loss of life by region .... 14
Figure 12 Barriers to the effectiveness of risk and vulnerability mapping for weather-related
hazards by region ............................................................................................................... 16
List of Appendices
Appendix A Internet-based Survey ...................................................................................... 24
iii
Report Summary
The objective of the Science for Humanitarian Emergencies and Resilience (SHEAR)
scoping study is to provide the UK Government’s Department for International Development
(DFID) with evidence-based recommendations on future research priorities for risk
assessments and early warning systems for weather-related hazards (e.g. cyclones, floods,
droughts) for humanitarian and development purposes for low-income countries across
Africa, South Asia and the Caribbean.
As part of the scoping study, an internet-based survey aimed at stakeholders based in or
working in the three regions was produced. The objective of the survey was to get an
overview of risk assessments and early warning systems for weather-related hazards with
respect to their effectiveness in reducing loss of life, their accessibility to a range of
stakeholders, as well as an understanding of the opportunities to improve them. Of the 247
respondents, 180 completed the survey in its entirety.
In Africa drought was perceived by the respondents to have the most impact on people
followed by fluvial flooding. The main barrier to the effectiveness of early warning systems
loss of life was seen to be the lack of high quality data. This was closely followed by the lack
of technological capacity to generate forecasts. Just over half the respondents indicated that
some form of risk or vulnerability maps for at least one type of weather-related hazards are
available. However, this mapping is most commonly seen to result in low levels of reduction
in loss of life, and thus low levels of effectiveness
.
In the Caribbean tropical cyclones have the greatest on people. Over 75% of respondents
indicated cyclone early warning systems exist with the majority stating these offer substantial
or good effectiveness in reducing loss of life. A paucity of high quality data and uncertainty
in the warnings were seen as the main barriers. Over 50% stated that some form of risk or
vulnerability maps existed, (primarily for tropical cyclones). The barriers to the effectiveness
of these maps were seen to be their lack of accessibility to relevant stakeholders and a
dearth of information on factors affecting people’s vulnerability.
In South Asia, fluvial flooding, followed by tropical cyclones have the most impact on people.
Over 60% of respondents are early warning system for river flooding in place with 50%
stating that these offer substantial or good effectiveness in reducing loss of life. The main
barriers to improving early warning systems were seen to be the lack of technological
capacity to generate forecasts and the lack of high quality data. Just less than 50% the
respondents indicated that risk or vulnerability mapping has been produced for fluvial
flooding in South Asia. The available mapping was most commonly considered to provide an
average reduction in loss of life. The main barrier to the effectiveness of risk and vulnerability
mapping in reducing the impacts of weather-related hazards to people in South Asia is the
lack of availability of information on factors affecting people’s vulnerability, followed by the
lack of accessibility of such maps to relevant stakeholders.
1
SECTION 1
Introduction
The objective of the Science for Humanitarian Emergencies and Resilience (SHEAR)
scoping study is to provide the UK Government’s Department for International Development
(DFID) with evidence-based recommendations on future research priorities for risk
assessments and early warning systems for weather-related hazards (e.g. cyclones, floods,
droughts) for humanitarian and development purposes for low-income countries across
Africa, South Asia and the Caribbean.
The recommendations from this study will inform the proposed SHEAR programme, which
will invest in research related to systematic, transparent and comprehensive risk
assessments and early warning systems.
In 2012 DFID’s Strategy Paper “Promoting innovation and evidence-based approaches to
building resilience and responding to humanitarian crises”, summarised the “four big
problems” as:
• Decision-makers do not have routine access to good information about risk;
• It is not really known which interventions are most effective in reducing risk, saving
lives and rebuilding livelihoods after crises;
• The capacity to design and deliver humanitarian response and to build resilience is
already stretched and will become increasingly overwhelmed;
• The right systems and incentives are not in place to ensure that evidence is available
and used to inform decision-making.
(DFID, 2012)
Dealing with these “big problems” is key if effective early warning and risk assessments for
weather-related hazards are to be put in place in low-income countries.
For the purposes of this scoping study, HR Wallingford led a team comprising the United
Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, the Global Water Partnership, the Institute for
Development Studies and Practical Action plus a number of other academic partners.
As part of the scoping study, an internet-based survey aimed at practitioners, and to a lesser
degree researchers, based in or working in the three regions, was produced. The objective
of the survey was to get an overview of risk assessments and early warning systems for
weather-related hazards with respect to their effectiveness in reducing loss of life, their
accessibility to a range of stakeholders, as well as an understanding of the opportunities to
improve them. A number of disaster risk reduction and risk assessment experts provided
feedback on the draft questionnaire enabling it to be refined in advance of it being circulated.
The survey was designed so that it could be answered in less than 10 minutes. The final
online survey was open for responses between 18 October 2013 and 15 November 2013.
The survey was made available in English, French and Spanish.
The survey was kindly distributed via the Joint Research Centre in Ispra, Italy, the World
Conservation Union, the Global Water Partnership, the United Nations Development
2
Programme, the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, the Climate-L Digest
email list, as well as via HR Wallingford’s database of relevant stakeholders.
Of the 247 respondents, 180 completed the survey in its entirety. Details of the survey
questions are provided in Appendix A. The proportion of responses across Africa, the
Caribbean, South Asia and elsewhere is shown in Figure 1. Figure 2 shows the distribution
of the responses across Africa and South Asia. We received responses from almost 40
different Africa countries. In the Caribbean responses were received from 11 different
countries.
Figure 1 Regional response to survey
The survey benefited from a wide range of responses, from respondents stemming from
different fields of expertise and organisational type. Aside from the named organisations in
the survey a small number of respondents stated that they worked with “other” types of
organisations; however, an analysis of the results indicated that these respondents could be
classified into one of the seven named organisation categories in the survey. Figure 3
shows the distribution of the respondents across the different types of organisation.
3
Figure 2 Distribution of responses to the survey in Africa and South Asia
(a) Africa
(b) South Asia
4
Figure 3 Types of organisation responding to the survey
The respondents were asked to state where their main interest lay. Figure 4 shows the
range of the main interests of the respondents. Of the respondents who chose ‘Other’ as a
response, around a quarter indicated that they had an interest in all five areas.
Figure 4 Main areas of interest of the survey respondents
5
SECTION 2
Survey data analysis
2.1 Introduction
The survey responses were disaggregated to determine and compare the views of African,
Caribbean and South Asian respondents. Other opinions that often represented the views of
an international organisation or expert were also examined. Key issues that emerged when
comparing results between the three regions were looked at in more depth.
2.2 The perception of the humanitarian impacts of weather-related
hazards
There are a number of weather-related hazards. The major weather-related hazards in the
three regions in terms of their humanitarian impacts in the past ten years have been:
• Cyclones and hurricanes
• Droughts
• Floods (coastal)
• Floods (fluvial)
• Landslides and mudslides
The respondents were asked to rank these weather-related hazards in terms of their
humanitarian impacts over the past ten years for the country or region in which they were
working, as well as adding any other weather-related hazards of note. Their responses are
shown in Figure 5. In several cases, respondents noted that there are ‘other’ weather-
related hazards of note:
• A large proportion offered no further information on the type of hazard
• Some offered non weather-related hazards (e.g. earthquakes; epidemics; invasion of
crickets; volcanic eruptions; saline intrusion to groundwater supplies; arsenic levels in
groundwater supplies)
• Some mentioned weather-related hazards lumped together with other hazards
• Some mentioned weather-related hazards that arguably fall into the existing
categories (e.g. flash floods; rain floods; pond floods)
• A few mentioned weather-related hazards that were not covered by the existing
categories:
• Harmattan (a dry and dusty West African trade wind)
• Dust storms
• Hail stones
• Lightning strikes
• Glacial lake outburst floods
6
Figure 5 Main weather-related hazards in terms of their humanitarian impacts by region
7
2.3 The existence and effectiveness of early warning systems for
weather-related hazards
The respondents to the survey were asked to consider the weather-related hazard that has
the greatest impact on people in the country or region where they worked and to state
whether an early warning system exists for this hazard. The responses are shown in Figure
6. If the respondents replied that an early warning system did exist, they were then asked to
rate its effectiveness in terms of its impact in reducing loss of life, from having a substantial
impact to no impact at all. These responses are shown in Figure 7.
Figure 6 Existence of an early warning system for the weather-related hazard that has the
greatest impact on people by region
8
2.4 Accessibility of early warnings to the different types of
stakeholders
For the weather-related hazard that was perceived to have the highest impact on people in
the country or region in which the respondent was working they were asked to indicate the
accessibility of early warnings to a range of different stakeholders. This is shown in Figure 8.
Figure 7 Effectiveness of early warning systems in reducing loss of life by region
9
10
Figure 8 Accessibility of early warnings for weather-related hazards by region
Some of the other types of organisations requiring early warnings for weather-related
hazards were given as additional comments by respondents:
• Community based organisations
• Military
• HIV and gender teams
• Common initiative groups
• Academic institutions and researchers
• Aviation industry
• Agricultural industry
• Security agencies
• First responders
11
2.5 Barriers to the effectiveness of early warnings in reducing the
impacts of weather-related hazards to people
The responders to the survey were asked to rank the main barriers to the effectiveness of
early warning systems in reducing the impacts of weather-related hazards to people. The
responses are shown in Figure 9.
2.6 The existence and effectiveness of risk and vulnerability
mapping for weather-related hazards
The respondents to the survey were asked to consider the weather-related hazard that has
the greatest impact on people in the country or region where they worked and to state
whether risk or vulnerability mapping currently exists for this hazard. This is shown in Figure
10. If the respondents replied that risk or vulnerability mapping did exist, they were then
asked to rate its effectiveness in terms of in terms of its impact in reducing loss of life, from
having a substantial impact to no impact at all. This is shown in Figure 11.
Figure 9 Barriers to the effectiveness of early warnings for weather-related hazards by region
12
13
Figure 10 Existence of risk or vulnerability mapping for the weather-related hazard that has the
greatest impact on people by region
2.7 Barriers to the effectiveness of risk and vulnerability mapping in
reducing the impacts of weather-related hazards to people
The responders to the survey were asked to rank the main barriers to the effectiveness of
risk mapping and vulnerability in reducing the impacts of weather-related hazards to people.
This is shown in Figure 12.
2.8 Opportunities to improve early warning systems and risk
mapping for weather-related hazards
Questionnaire respondents were asked what opportunities they felt there are to improve
early warning systems and risk mapping for weather-related hazards for humanitarian
purposes; they were invited to list up to three such opportunities.
The resulting feedback showed that the respondents felt the greatest opportunities for
improving early warning systems and risk mapping (each taking 14% of the total number of
comments) lie with the ‘last mile’; that is, raised public awareness of early warning systems
(and to some extent) risk maps, and more effective communication of early warnings and
risk information. A summary of the main areas in which the respondents highlighted
opportunities is presented below.
14
Figure 11 Effectiveness of risk or vulnerability mapping in reducing loss of life by region
15
16
Figure 12 Barriers to the effectiveness of risk and vulnerability mapping for weather-related
hazards by region
Community participation and public awareness
The respondents held widespread opinion that improved early warning systems can be
achieved through raised public awareness, community participation and education.
Several community-based early warning systems have been developed, and it was noted
that this type of approach might be expanded to a wider area. Existing systems could be
strengthened, via gender-responsive community led approaches. New systems should be
developed with the involvement of local communities, so that their indigenous knowledge of
local issues is integrated into the systems, and to ensure that warning thresholds are set at
relevant levels.
17
In terms of risk mapping, it was felt that there is a need for improved public awareness of the
concepts of ‘risk’ and ‘hazard’, and of the impacts of the hazards. One respondent noted that
it could be beneficial to have risk reduction committees at the community level.
Effective communication of early warnings and risk information
Respondents felt that effective early warning and risk information depends on appropriate
communication methods and the availability of suitable communication channels.
Community participation was seen to be a strong component of effective communications;
this should involve capacity building, and the involvement of local religious leaders. It was
felt that community capacity should be developed to enable them to take a lead role in
disseminating information at a local level.
A range of communication channels should be used; mobile phone technology was
frequently cited (e.g. the use of SMS messages). The media (e.g. newspapers, radio and
television channels) were suggested as under-used resources that could be put to good
effect. It should be recognised that different social groups have access to different sources
of information and technology. In some areas, internet and social media are becoming
means of communicating warnings quickly and effectively. A sensible approach is to use
several communication mechanisms in parallel.
The content of effective early warning and risk information should be developed with end
users, to ensure that the information is communicated in appropriate terms and language.
End users need sector specific, targeted warnings; they need more accurate, timely
forecasts (e.g. inundation maps) that they can rely upon.
Data availability
The need for better monitoring and observation networks was raised in almost 10% of the
responses. This involves not only the installation of new networks and enhancements to
existing networks, but also the maintenance of the networks; this can be aided by involving
local communities in cooperating to maintain the networks and gain ‘ownership’ and
understanding of their purpose. There is a need to gather and analyse data over the longer
term for better understanding of potential climate change effects. Gauges should be situated
so that they can support a better representation of orographic effects on rainfall.
Spatial representation of rainfall is best captured with high resolution radar data. This is
particularly useful in inaccessible areas where gauge installation is impracticable. End users
need training to enable them to understand the spatial data and how to handle them.
In addition to gauging of time series of parameters such as rainfall and temperature, better
topographic data acquisition is required in many areas to support flood risk mapping. It was
also noted that it would be useful to monitor the soil moisture levels of agricultural land to
help manage food security.
Increased availability of better quality global data sets would support early warning and risk
mapping.
Availability of forecast information was seen as a key issue. There is a need for better
forecasting technology and more accurate downscaling of forecast information to a higher
resolution. More accurate, widespread seasonal forecasting is required. In tandem with
forecast data improvements, there should be better information on what the data represent,
and guidance on how to use them.
18
Modelling and mapping
Many respondents felt that there is a need for funding to develop new early warning systems
and risk mapping, to enhance existing systems and mapping, and to extend the coverage of
early warning systems and mapping. Furthermore, it was noted that it can be useful to
integrate early warning systems in certain areas. Risk mapping needs to take social and
economic factors into account. Mapping should include a multi-hazard approach. It would be
useful to have detailed local-level maps and maps of disaster hotspots, as well as regional
maps, supported by national risk databases. Maps should be made available to all
stakeholders, and should ideally be developed in collaboration with end users.
Several respondents felt that there is a funding issue at the heart of the lack of available fit-
for-purpose models and maps. Many felt that there is a need to use the latest technology to
support developments in these areas. Some respondents indicated a need for improved
modelling to support early warning and risk mapping; in some cases, (e.g. floods) this would
require a two dimensional modelling approach1. Not only is better mapping widely required,
but the maps, and other risk information, should be regularly updated and disseminated to
stakeholders. One respondent suggested that it could be useful to link weather hazard data
to socio-economic vulnerability data to produce meaningful indicators (e.g. number of people
affected, response cost required).
In terms of the perceived gaps in availability of models and maps for specific hazards, the
need for drought early warning and landslide early warning was raised. Some respondents
felt that there is a need for better land use mapping, which should capture land use change.
Capacity building
In all areas, the need for capacity building and training was raised. This applies to the need
for better trained operators of early warning systems, through to the education of
stakeholders in procedures for carrying out risk assessments and for developing, using and
interpreting risk maps. In general the limitations of currently available expertise and capacity
were raised.
Political and institutional aspects
Many respondents felt that there is a need for increased political will and awareness to
enable the various other opportunities to be realised. It was noted that this would require
capacity building at the highest level, and may require concrete studies that demonstrate
early warning systems reducing economic and non-economic damages.
At the institutional level, the various institutions involved in early warning and risk
management need to be strengthened and to interact more closely and in a more
coordinated manner, so that the end-to-end process of early warning in particular is well
supported (it was suggested that this might even reach as far as integrated health facilities).
It was noted that it could be useful to have dedicated early warning offices, where they do
not currently exist, with a clear mandate. The approach to risk management needs to be
more proactive. There is a particular need for strengthening links to national meteorological
services.
Several respondents noted the need for better cross-border cooperation to enable better
downstream forecasts. There is currently very limited sharing of data across international
borders for hazards such as floods, which limits the lead time that downstream countries can
1 This requires detailed digital terrain models and ideally hydraulic models that calculate flows,
depths and velocities over a two dimensional surface rather than models of flow in a one-
dimensional channel and floodplain network.
19
achieve in their warning services. Generally, it would be useful to have a platform to share
experiences and cooperate with other countries or regions facing similar early warning and
risk management problems, to enable sharing of best practices and innovations.
A popular opportunity lies with developing Standard Operating Procedures and best
practices. One respondent suggested a decentralised plan and national law such as is
applied in the Philippines. At the legal level, there should be increased regulation and
enforcement of planning regulations regarding human settlements, to control development in
high risk zones (such as flood plains, or areas prone to landslides).
Improved contingency planning is required, ideally with local participation in the planning
process. In general, Disaster Risk Reduction planning and programming need to be inclusive
and representative of all community-level stakeholders, with particular strengthening through
engagement of initiatives with marginalised groups that have greatest exposure. Some
respondents indicated that there is a gap between early warning and availability of
contingency funds (and to response mechanisms in general); improving this link would mean
that as soon as a problem is identified, action can be immediately taken. Clear triggers for
initiating responses should be established, which are agreed by all. In general, it is
necessary to integrate pre- and post-disaster interventions through appropriate institutional
arrangements.
20
SECTION 3
Conclusions
Key themes that emerged as being pivotal to early warning systems and risk assessments
for weather-related hazards in low-income countries were:
• Effective communication and accessibility of early warnings and risk information
• Data availability
• Modelling and mapping
• Community participation and public awareness
• Capacity building
• Political and institutional aspects
The results of the survey indicated that the main weather related hazard having the most
impact is different in each region as follows:
• Africa – droughts
• The Caribbean – cyclones and hurricanes
• South Asia – fluvial floods
In terms of the number of people affected this concurs with data collected by the Centre for
Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED) that maintains an Emergency Events
Database (EM-DAT).
To some extent, the nature of the hazard has an impact on the type of early warning system
and risk mapping that needs to be in place, although the tools and technology are
transferable in many ways. There follows an analysis of the differences between the three
regions.
3.1 Africa
In Africa, the main weather-related hazard having the most impact is drought, followed by
river flooding. Two thirds of respondents indicated that early warning systems exist for
drought, but the overwhelming majority indicated that those early warning systems have just
average or low effectiveness in reducing loss of life. This is the lowest level of effectiveness
for the three regions.
Of the three regions studied, for Africa, the level of access by a range of stakeholders to
early warnings for the main weather-related hazard is the lowest. National government has
the best level of access (as it does in all three regions), followed by international
organisations and Non-Governmental Organisations. The private sector and general public
have the lowest levels of access.
The main barrier to the effectiveness of early warning systems in reducing the impacts of
weather-related hazards to people in Africa was seen to be the lack of high quality data (note
that this barrier ranked in the top two highest barriers for every region). This was closely
followed by the lack of technological capacity to generate forecasts.
21
Just over half the respondents indicated that risk or vulnerability maps for at least one
weather-related are available. However, this mapping is most commonly seen to result in low
levels of reduction in loss of life, and therefore low levels of effectiveness.
The main barrier to the effectiveness of risk and vulnerability mapping in reducing the
impacts of weather-related hazards to people in Africa is the lack of availability of information
on factors affecting people’s vulnerability, followed by the lack of accessibility of risk maps to
relevant stakeholders; these two barriers are seen as the most common issues across the
three regions.
3.2 Caribbean
In the Caribbean, the main weather-related hazard having the most impact is clearly
cyclones and hurricanes. More than three-quarters of respondents stated that an early
warning system for cyclones and hurricanes exists and the majority indicated that those
early warning systems offer substantial or good effectiveness in reducing loss of life.
Of the three regions studied, for the Caribbean, the level of access by a range of
stakeholders to early warnings for the main weather-related hazard is generally the highest.
National government has the best level of access (as it does in all three regions), followed by
the media and general public. Across all sectors, more than 50% of respondents indicated
that early warnings are ‘accessible to all’ for every category.
The main barriers to the effectiveness of early warning systems in reducing the impacts of
weather-related hazards to people in the Caribbean are seen to be the lack of high quality
data and uncertainty in the warnings.
Around only half of the respondents indicated risk or vulnerability mapping for at least one
weather related hazard exists in the Caribbean. This mapping is most commonly seen to
provide average to good reduction in loss of life, and therefore has the highest levels of
effectiveness of the three regions.
The main barrier to the effectiveness of risk and vulnerability mapping in reducing the
impacts of weather-related hazards to people in the Caribbean is the lack of accessibility of
risk maps to relevant stakeholders, followed by the lack of availability of information on
factors affecting people’s vulnerability.
3.3 South Asia
In South Asia, the main weather-related hazard having the most impact is fluvial flooding,
followed by cyclones and hurricanes. Just over 60%s of respondents indicated that an early
warning system for river flooding exists; around half indicated that these early warning
systems offer substantial or good effectiveness in reducing loss of life.
For South Asia, the level of access by a range of stakeholders to early warnings for the main
weather-related hazard varies widely across the sectors. National government has the best
level of access (as it does in all three regions), whilst the private sector has the lowest level
of accessibility.
The main barriers to the effectiveness of early warning systems in reducing the impacts of
weather-related hazards to people in South Asia are overwhelmingly seen to be the lack of
technological capacity to generate forecasts and the lack of high quality data.
22
Just less than 50% the respondents indicated that risk or vulnerability mapping has been
produced for fluvial flooding in South Asia. The available mapping was most commonly
considered to provide average reduction in loss of life.
The main barrier to the effectiveness of risk and vulnerability mapping in reducing the
impacts of weather-related hazards to people in South Asia is the lack of availability of
information on factors affecting people’s vulnerability, followed by the lack of accessibility of
risk maps to relevant stakeholders.
23
SECTION 4
References
Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters (CRED). (2013). Emergency Events
Database EM-DAT. Available at: http://cred01.epid.ucl.ac.be:5317/ Accessed [21 November
2013].
Department for International Development (DFID) (2012). Promoting innovation and
evidence-based approaches to building resilience and responding to humanitarian crises: A
DFID Strategy Paper. DFID, London
24
Appendix A Internet-based Survey
25
26
27
28
