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Fire and Explosion Risks in Petrochemical Plant: Assessment, Modeling and Consequences Analysis
Abstract
The oil and gas industry is a theater of major accidents such as fire, explosion and dispersion of toxic substances. The physicochemical properties of exploited materials in this industry and its operating techniques can contribute to the escalation of these hazards. The aim of this study is to assess and model the fire and explosion hazards of liquefaction natural gas in Algeria as long as this later plays an important role in gas industry and global energy markets in the next several years. The first step used in this study is the hazard identification using HAZID tool. This step is completed by DOW’s F&EI as a second step to predict and quantify mathematically the fire and explosion damages in the Scrub Column and the MCHE the most critical systems in the LNG unit. In order to better understand the hazards severity of these risks, PHAST software is used to model and simulate the accident scenarios. The results will reveal that the two principal equipments of liquefaction unit (Scrub Column–MCHE) present an important risk as per HAZID and they present a severe risk as per DOW’s F&EI. The modelization of fire and explosion scenarios using PHAST software gives us a real image about these hazards which presented by Fireball, Flash Fire, Early and Late explosion. The combination of HAZID, DOW’s F&EI and PHAST simulator leads to better risk assessment, and helps in creating preventive measures, and taking serious decisions to reduce and limit fire and explosion risks in order to save human life as a first goal, environment and installations as a second goal and to avoid the financial and economic loss of Algeria.
... Due to intentional bombing attacks and various accidental explosions [1][2][3][4], the risk of exposure of civil and military infrastructures and vehicles to blast and impact loadings is increasing worldwide [5]. Such extreme dynamic loadings cause catastrophic damage to and the collapse of infrastructures leading to significant human and economic losses [6]. ...
... The relationship between each parameter for an isotropic material is shown in Eqs. (1) and (2). Within isotropy, it is clear that a negative Poisson's ratio (ν) leads to a higher shear modulus (G) [136]. ...
Auxetics are a class of structural metamaterials with a negative Poisson’s ratio. In comparison to conventional structures, auxetic structures are proven to exhibit several superior properties including higher energy absorption, enhanced indentation resistance, and improved mechanical properties. As a result, auxetic structures are gaining popularity as lightweight, high-performance protective structures to resist blast and impact loads. Although several past reviews on auxetics partially covered different aspects of auxetics, such as classification of architectures, mechanisms, mechanical properties, energy absorption behaviours, and applications, this field still requires a comprehensive overview of the anti-blast and -impact performances of the different auxetic structures. Therefore, this paper aims to review recent advances in auxetic-based lightweight, high-energy absorbing protective structures. Different design factors affecting the performance of the protective structures are critically discussed. Moreover, a classification of modern auxetic topologies, the status of large-scale auxetic fabrication, and anti-ballistic performance evaluation methods are presented in this paper. Overall, auxetic core sandwich panels offer superior protective performance than equivalent conventional protective armours. However, several limitations and challenges exist with the design, fabrication, and implementation of auxetic-based protective structures.
... The same applies to LNG process units [27][28][29] and can therefore be adopted to ammonia process units as the main cause for the blast overpressure analysis and design. Furthermore, there is a growing threat of terrorist attacks targeting tank structures, which are considered critical infrastructures. ...
This paper presents an investigation into the design of ammonia tanks for long-duration and high-pressure blast loads. The focus is on cylindrical steel tanks that apply as outer pressure-tight containers for double-walled tanks storing refrigerated liquefied gases. Based on limited empirical data, it is known in the tank industry that these tanks can withstand an explosion pressure up to a peak overpressure of approximately 10 kPa and 100 ms positive load duration. However, there is a growing need to design tanks for higher peak overpressures in order to establish a higher safety standard and accommodate unforeseen future requirements. This paper explores the concept of adapting established steel tank designs to handle high-pressure and long-duration overpressure due to blast events. Numerical analysis is conducted on a representative steel tank geometry subjected to a triangular blast load of 30 kPa with a 300 ms positive load duration. Various load application and calculation options are analyzed numerically. Considering the challenging nature of analyzing tank structures under blast load, the paper addresses controversial aspects discussed in the literature and presents a suitable analysis concept for a deflagration blast scenario for cylindrical tanks. The results provide insights into the expected structural behavior of the tank under high-pressure and long-duration overpressure. The main finding is that the calculation method developed in this study demonstrates the feasibility of utilizing steel tanks in scenarios involving long-duration and high-pressure blast loads. Furthermore, the paper provides recommendations to guide future studies in this area. The findings have implications for the design and construction of tanks in critical infrastructure and offer valuable insights for engineers and researchers in this field, improving safety standards and ensuring adaptability to future utilization concepts.
... [8] Preparedness measures and serious decisions to reduce fire and explosion risks for saving human life can help to limit damage to industry facilities and environment. [9] Natural and human-made hazards, and investment, security, and financial issues are considered as one of the crises and risks at the top of the petrochemical industries. The disasters are almost unpredictable, most of which can be prevented very little. ...
Background and Objectives: The preparedness of petrochemical industries against disasters is important to control risks, reduce losses and
possible damages. Studies have shown that preparedness is an important factor in the disaster response phase. This study aimed to explore the
factors influencing industry preparedness in fire. Methods: This study was conducted from July 2020 to December 2021, with a qualitative
case study design. The population included 22 people including 12 crisis managers, three Health, Safety, and Environment chief officers, two
operational commanders in the fire department, two policymakers and three university professors. The data were collected through semi‑structured
interviews and purposeful sampling, which continued until saturating the data. The strategies recommended by Guba and Lincoln were
used for evaluating the trustworthiness of the data. The data were analyzed using the conventional content analysis method according to the
method suggested by Graneheim and Lundman. Results: The effective components of the petrochemical industry preparedness for fire were
classified into six main categories and 16 subcategories. Categories and subcategories covered fire characteristics (nature and chain of fire),
policy‑making (regulations, incident information documentation, and incident insurance incentives), and management factors (commitment
and leadership, incident command, communication and information, and planning). The others involved support factors (equipment supply,
coordination and cooperation, and training and awareness), safety culture (risk management, monitoring and auditing, inherently safe design),
and sanction consequence (software and hardware). Conclusions: Many factors affect the petrochemical industry’s preparedness for fire.
Adopting effective management and appropriate policy regarding preparedness with strategies for promoting and developing a safety culture
can improve the preparedness of petrochemical industries in disasters.
Keywords: Chemical industries, disasters, emergencies, fires, industrial accidents
... Rapid industrialization and the use of more advanced technology, materials, plants, and machinery have led to a significant jump in petroleum product consumption [1]. A petroleum refinery regularly handles many flammable and explosive products in large volumes in processing units and storage tanks. ...
Risk analysis and prediction is a primary monitoring strategy to identify abnormal events occurring in chemical processes. The accidental release of toxic gases may result in severe problems for people and the environment. Risk analysis of hazardous chemicals using consequence modeling is essential to improve the process reliability and safety of the refineries. In petroleum refineries: toluene, hydrogen, isooctane, kerosene, methanol, and naphtha are key process plants with toxic and flammable chemicals. The major process plants considered for risk assessment in the refinery are the gasoline hydrotreatment unit, crude distillation, aromatic recovery, continuous catalytic reformer, methyl–tert–butyl–ether, and kerosene merox units. Additionally, we propose a threat and risk analysis neural network for the chemical explosion (TRANCE) model for refinery incident scenarios. Significantly, 160 attributes were collected for the modeling on the basis of the significance of failure and hazardous chemical leaks in the refinery. Hazard analysis shows that the leakages of hydrogen and gasoline at the gasoline hydrotreatment unit, kerosene at the kerosene merox plant, and crude oil at crude-distillation units were areas of profound concern. The developed TRANCE model predicted the chemical explosion distance with an R2 accuracy value of 0.9994 and MSE of 679.5343.
... The LPG plant authorities can adopt this model to assess the safety distance from the hazardous chemical explosion based on the prior forecasted atmosphere conditions from the weather department. Toxics 2023, 11, 348 2 of 17 Researchers performed risk and consequence analysis for the various units of process industries, such as storage tanks [14-17], dangerous chemicals [18], separators [19], and scrubbers [20]. In these studies, the numbers of scenarios considered are specific or limited. ...
The accidental release of toxic gases leads to fire, explosion, and acute toxicity, and may result in severe problems for people and the environment. The risk analysis of hazardous chemicals using consequence modelling is essential to improve the process reliability and safety of the liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) terminal. The previous researchers focused on single-mode failure for risk assessment. No study exists on LPG plant multimode risk analysis and threat zone prediction using machine learning. This study aims to evaluate the fire and explosion hazard potential of one of Asia’s biggest LPG terminals in India. Areal locations of hazardous atmospheres (ALOHA) software simulations are used to generate threat zones for the worst scenarios. The same dataset is used to develop the artificial neural network (ANN) prediction model. The threats of flammable vapour cloud, thermal radiations from fire, and overpressure blast waves are estimated in two different weather conditions. A total of 14 LPG leak scenarios involving a 19 kg capacity cylinder, 21 tons capacity tank truck, 600 tons capacity mounded bullet, and 1350 tons capacity Horton sphere in the terminal are considered. Amongst all scenarios, the catastrophic rupture of the Horton sphere of 1350 MT capacity presented the most significant risk to life safety. Thermal flux of 37.5 kW/ m2 from flames will damage nearby structures and equipment and spread fire by the domino effect. A novel soft computing technique called a threat and risk analysis-based ANN model has been developed to predict threat zone distances for LPG leaks. Based on the significance of incidents in the LPG terminal, 160 attributes were collected for the ANN modelling. The developed ANN model predicted the threat zone distance with an accuracy of R2 value being 0.9958, and MSE being 202.9061 in testing. These results are evident in the reliability of the proposed framework for safety distance prediction. The LPG plant authorities can adopt this model to assess the safety distance from the hazardous chemical explosion based on the prior forecasted atmosphere conditions from the weather department.
... Several incidents occur in the processing sectors, such as oil, gas, and petroleum/chemical, because of large quantities of hazardous chemicals involved [1,2]and units/ installationsthat are placed next to each other [3,4], such as reactors and storage tanksthat are used under high temperature and high-pressure settings [5][6][7].Therefore, itserves as a staging point for major accidents such as fires and explosions or toxic substance releases. The physicochemical properties of the materials employed in this industry, as well as its operational processes, can contribute to the escalation of these risks [8]. For instance, a number of fires in the chemical and Petroleum/Chemicalindustries have been reported in the literature, including the March 2019 multiday Petroleum/Chemicalfire at the Intercontinental Terminals Company facility, the fatal explosion and fire just weeks later at the KMCO chemical facility, more recently, the explosion and subsequent fire caused by the rupture of an underground pipeline at the Lone Star natural gas liquids storage complex [9]. ...
The purpose of this article is to provide an overview of the hazards and risks associated with the Petroleum/Chemical sector to students, scholars, governments, and non-governmental organizations. The evaluation concentrated on fire and explosion as the most evident risks that frequently occur in these facilities. It is critical to any country's economic prosperity. A discussion of the different casual features of such threats at various Petroleum/Chemical sites is offered. The most typical cause factors are combustible materials, static electricity, and lightning strikes, among others. The impact of risk mitigation and management studies based on various approaches and techniques, such as qualitative, quantitative, and dynamic changes in risk assessment, is clearly highlighted. According to most research publications, tank farms are the most dangerous region in the plant for sparking fires.The secondary effects of fire and explosions, such as the domino effect and air pollution, are investigated. To summarize, all efforts must be coordinated in order to successfully manage risks and crises in Petroleum/Chemical facilities and prevent their recurrence in the future.
... This software simulated the impact radius for different consequences by determining the type of material, pressure of leakage, physical barriers, environmental conditions such as air temperature, humidity, altitude and wind speed and scenario specified in Section 2.1. and various studies in the area of risk assessment have shown that this software is a precise tool in modelling chemical leakage in process industries (Saloua et al., 2019;Wang et al., 2017). ...
Due to the increasing need for fuel and the construction of compressed natural gas (CNG) refuelling stations in urban areas, the importance of accurate risk management in these stations has increased. This study is locating urban CNG stations using quantitative risk assessment in Hamedan, Iran using the Bayesian Network. In this study, the causes–consequences analysis of methane gas leakage from CNG storages was investigated by the Bowtie (BT) method. To quantitate this diagram, the Bayesian network (BN) was used. Finally, the quantitative risk was calculated and evaluated in a case study. Findings of the BT diagram showed that the probabilities (in year) of occurrence of VCE, Jet fire and Flashfire were 1.82 × 10⁻², 1.532 × 10⁻² and 1. 213 × 10⁻², respectively. These values were calculated as 2.9 × 10⁻³, 2.2 × 10⁻² and 1.9 × 10⁻³ in year, respectively, in the BN. The mortality area affected by these consequences was also calculated as 14.2, 44.5 and 1930 m², respectively. The risk assessment results estimated the risk as unacceptable in most affected areas. Accurate risk management in process accidents requires high-precision risk assessment in the urban design phase. The findings showed that the use of the Bayesian network and PHAST modelling can be used in this risk assessment.
... On the other hand, the CO 2 concentration is also one of the critical factors, especially during blowdown. In the 40% CO 2 case, segment 3 and segment 4 have a higher relative scoring compared to the other segments, based on Dow F&EI, FEDI, and ISI model calculations (Saloua et al., 2019). This is mainly due to the higher initial pressure in segment 3, with a lower initial temperature. ...
The exploitation of a low-quality gas field with high CO2 concentration is more viable through liquid CO2 produced from cryogenic distillation technology. Despite the bright potential of the technology, there are deficiencies in handling high concentration of CO2 at low temperature and high pressure during the blowdown condition. This study focuses on the CO2 blowdown at a cryogenic pilot plant designed to manage high concentrations of CO2 in the feed gas, high pressures, and low temperatures. A comprehensive design review and risk assessment using Inherent Safer Design (ISD) indexes were carried out in this study. The ISD was performed to identify the current risk level, and the critical parameters that may cause solid CO2 formation in the piping or equipment as well as to identify mitigation measures to avoid the temperature to drop below the CO2 freezing point during blowdown. The present findings confirmed that the initial pressure and temperature, as well as CO2 concentration are key parameters towards significant impact on blowdown conditions. Therefore, the reduction of the feed gas pressure from 80 bar to 70 bars has minimized the Joule Thomson (JT) effect during blowdown and avoided the CO2 solid formation in the system. Moreover, the relocation of the blowdown valve at the downstream heater resulted in a higher final temperature above the CO2 freezing point. The ISD indexes confirmed that the cryogenic facilities are inherently safer during blowdown with the mitigation measures adopted.
Petrochemicals are an indispensable part of our everyday life, necessitating large-scale production facilities. Additive aids play a pivotal role in the petrochemical production process, which are required for the final product to have certain desired properties. The additives used are prone to ignition and combustion, but are frequently overlooked as a source of potential hazard. This study examines the hazard profile of five common powder additives in the petrochemical manufacturing process. The inherent combustion and explosion characteristics were investigated in detail. Each sample’s potential to produce a dust explosion was evaluated based upon the parameter test results, e.g., minimum ignition energy (MIE), minimum ignition temperature (MIT), and minimum explosible concentration (MEC). MIT of all five samples was between 350 and 390 °C, and MEC was less than 45 g/m³. Two of the powders had a KSt explosion rating of “extremely strong” (St-3). After a comprehensive evaluation of dust explosion sensitivity and dust explosion severity, all five additive samples were categorised as high-level potential dust explosion risks. Process safety staff and engineers working with petrochemical production should be aware of the risks posed by dust additives and be prepared to implement more stringent loss prevention measures to curtail the likelihood of dust explosions.
Accident investigation and risk management are integral components of industrial accident prevention initiatives. The objectives of this research were to identify major causes and recommend mitigation strategies to prevent industrial fire and explosion accidents. A systematic literature review was applied to eighteen (18) peer-reviewed articles published between 2015 and 2020. The results show that a series of events are responsible for fire and explosion accidents in the petrochemical industry; however, human error, lack of knowledge, and inadequate application of regulations were amongst the most frequently cited major causes. Based on the identified causes, mitigation strategies to curb the occurrence of accidents were found to be a commitment to safety culture, hazards and risks awareness, management of risk, and learning from previous experiences. The study contributed by identifying the causes of fire and explosion and recommended the strategies which could be used to mitigate risk.
It is quite hazardous to produce the final product of oil or gas in a petrochemical refinery plant due to its flammable or combustible and explosive materials. Small mistakes can cause massive damage to life, property, pollution, injury, ecosystem, and business by fire. The entire system is challenging to manage. Therefore, fire risk assessment and forecasting are necessary to overcome personal, environmental, and refinery plants' hazard situations. There have been four main threats in any refinery facility: electrical, mechanical, civil, and chemical issues, maximum cases its result burning. This research aimed to study and assess fire risk in the refinery plant by using a multi-stage early warning system and reducing the fire. The fire hazard
safety layer technique would be used for our petrochemical process. Some equipment is set in place to forecast the danger and execution before and after it happens. Geographic information systems (GIS), remote sensing (RS) are some techniques for fire incidents tracking. Flame detectors, heat detectors, and gas detectors are used to maintain good contact in the entire risk analyzer portion. Various techniques and monitoring have been proposed to operate the plant
efficiently and safely, like controlling, predicting, and pre-warning strategic planning.
Modern methods of estimation of working conditions at the metallurgical enterprise are considered on the occupational safety due to European standards. The main approaches are identified in determination of hazards at work, assessing of technological risks and injuries as an example for one of the Iron and Steel Works, Mariupol, Ukraine. The purpose of this work is to analyze the effectiveness of the introduction of international methods in the field of health safety, assess the effectiveness of the safety management system at an industrial enterprise. The analysis of the process of implementing European standards in the field of the health safety at industrial enterprises is a prerequisite for their further successful application, reducing the level of injuries. The procedures for drawing up the matrix of risk assessment (HAZID method), assessment of working capacity of technological processes (HAZOP method), and safety assessment of works (ISA method) are considered. The analysis of the efficiency of measures to increase of health safety in the energy (gas) sector at the enterprise was carried out. A graph of the dynamics of the decline in industrial injuries in five years is shown. The main statistical indicators that are used to account for industrial injuries at an industrial enterprise are given.
Non-stop growth in oil, gas and petrochemical industries and dramatic impact of corrosion due to reducing the useful life of equipment need to manage risk and analyze consequences of possible accidents make more clear. Corrosion can counted as the most threaten factor for reducing the life of equipment in oil, gas and petrochemical industries. Corrosion damages risk analyzing and consequences assessment of probable failure play remarkable role in corrosion management systems. Corrosion damage might cause to failure due to leakage. Initial visual inspections of the test separator ME-03 shows widely scattered local thin areas at the bottom of pressure vessel. This two-phase separator (oil and gas) is one of the most critical equipment on old Nowrooz oil production platform in Bahregan district. The critical role of pressure vessel on oil production delayed inspection periods for more than 10 years and moreover this pressure vessel operate at 225 psi, 100 °F and the volume of 860ft3 liquid that consequence assessment of this object make more important. Consequence of probable explosion of pressure vessel due to corrosion progress analyzed through the commercial PHAST software. This paper look forward consequence assessment of explosion scenario with the PHAST software then provide a procedure for rerate of ME-03 for future safe servicing.
The study presented in this paper, is part of the Deep Green project, which includes the development of a power converter/device for employment in low-speed tidal currents. It mainly focuses on the initial steps to investigate the ways on how to minimize the risks during handling, operation and maintenance (O&M) activities of the full-scale device particularly in offshore operations. As a first step, the full-scale device offshore installation and O&M tasks are considered. The overall risk analysis and decision making methodology is presented including the Hazard Identification (HAZID) approach which is complemented with a risk matrix for various consequence categories including personnel Safety (S), Environmental impact (E), Asset integrity (A) and Operation (O). In this way, all the major risks involved in the mentioned activities are identified and actions to prevent or mitigate them are presented. The results of the HAZID analysis are also demonstrated. Finally, the last section of this paper presents the discussion, conclusions and future actions for the above-mentioned activities regarding the full-scale device.
This study is related to consequence analyses of accidental natural gas explosions are often carried out to assess the risk of the long distance transmission pipeline system. In these consequence analyses, it’s indispensable to adequately predict the blast wave propagation of gas vapor cloud explosions process in open space. In this study, a new theoretical predicted method for natural gas VCEs in open space was developed and a full-scale experiment involving explosion in a natural gas pipeline was carried out. The predictions by modified theoretical method agreed well with the results of full-scale experiment. Based on damage criteria, to demonstrate the probability and potential damage range to humans and surroundings, hazard analysis of this case was performed on PHAST simulator, we conclude that, a near 100% fatality is expected in a blast wave zone of within 160 m, as well as seriously effect on the surrounding constructions and causing all the buildings collapsing with the radial distance of 156 m. Relatively, there is no any harm when the people stay beyond the scope with the ellipse diameter of 545 m and no damage to the surrounding buildings with the radial distance of 1755 m.
Risk-informed fire protection evaluation is a risk-based decision support tool that evaluates fire and explosion consequence likelihood and includes an analysis of fire protection system(s) performance reliability [1].
Hydrogen infrastructures are important for the commercialization of fuel cell vehicles. Hydrogen storage and transportation are significant topics because it is difficult to safely and effectively treat large amounts of hydrogen because of hydrogen hazards. An organic chemical hydride method keeps and provides hydrogen using hydrogenation and dehydrogenation chemical reactions with aromatic compounds. This method has advantages in that the conventional petrochemical products are used as a hydrogen carrier, and petrochemicals are more easily treated than hydrogen because of low hazards. Hydrogen fueling stations are also crucial infrastructures for hydrogen supply. In Japan, hybrid gasoline-hydrogen fueling stations are needed for effective space utilization in urban areas. It is essential to address the safety issues of hybrid fueling stations for inherently safer station construction. We focused on a hybrid gasoline-hydrogen fueling station with an on-site hydrogen production system using methylcyclohexane as an organic chemical hydride. The purpose of this study is to reveal unique hybrid risks in the station with a hazard identification study (HAZID study). As a result of the HAZID study, we identified 314 accident scenarios involving gasoline and organic chemical hydride systems. In addition, we suggested improvement safety measures for uniquely worst-case accident scenarios to prevent and mitigate the scenarios.
Based on an analysis of two methods for the modification of the F&EI for the DOW Guide, it is found that the effects of safety measures are not classified. Moreover, the efficiency of the measures is magnified to various degrees, as the positive impact of the loss reduction measures are applied to the rate reduction of the intrinsic hazard in the evaluated unit. For this reason, a modification method using classified safety measures is proposed, in which safety measures are classified into process protection measures and loss reduction measures. The calculation of the modified F&EI involves the credit factors of process protection measures, whereas the determination of the maximum probable property damage incorporates the loss reduction measures. This method could provide more reasonable reference data for hazard units because of its more objective and reasonable evaluation results.
This paper proposes a risk-identification-based hybrid method for estimating the system reliability of steel jacket structures under fire. The proposed method starts with risk identification; according to the results of hazard identification and Dow’s fire and explosion index (F&EI) methodology, the most dangerous hazard sources are determined. In term of each equipment layout in steel jacket structures, fire load is imposed and elasto-plastic analysis is performed. According to the deformed state of steel jacket structures, the weakest failure mode of steel jacket structures is identified. In order to know the effect on ultimate bearing capacity of the offshore structural system, a series of elasto-plastic analyses are performed in which single failure element contained in the weakest failure mode is removed from the whole offshore platform structural system. Finally, the failure function of the steel jacket structure is generated and the failure probability of the steel jacket structure system is estimated under fire by genetic algorithm via MATLAB program.
The objective of this work is to determine and study, analyze and elaborate, classify and categorize the main risk analysis and risk-assessment methods and techniques by reviewing the scientific literature. The paper consists of two parts: a) the investigation, presentation and elaboration of the main risk-assessment methodologies and b) the statistical analysis, classification, and comparative study of the corresponding scientific papers published by six representative scientific journals of Elsevier B.V. covering the decade 2000–2009. The scientific literature reviewing showed that the risk analysis and assessment techniques are classified into three main categories: (a) the qualitative, (b) the quantitative, and (c) the hybrid techniques (qualitative–quantitative, semi-quantitative). The qualitative techniques are based both on analytical estimation processes, and on the safety managers–engineers ability. According to quantitative techniques, the risk can be considered as a quantity, which can be estimated and expressed by a mathematical relation, under the help of real accidents’ data recorded in a work site. The hybrid techniques, present a great complexity due to their ad hoc character that prevents a wide spreading. The statistical analysis shows that the quantitative methods present the highest relative frequency (65.63%) while the qualitative a lower one (27.68%). Furthermore the hybrid methods remain constantly at a very low level (6.70%) during the entire processing period.
The book examines methods for the calculation of consequences from fires, explosions and toxic gases dispersion. Starting from the examination of the probability of a release, it proceeds to its calculation and consequently the calculation of the thermal radiation of fires, the pressure wave of explosions, and the pollutant concentration in dispersions. Effects on humans and material are also included. The book is aimed at the student market but it will also be very useful for those engaged in risk assessment evaluations.
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