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How is consent-based legislation on rape providing more protection for
individuals in comparison to coercion-based legislation?
Comparison between Finland and Sweden
Camilla Koljonen
i6145432
Number of words: 8493
Bachelor’s Essay
Supervisor: Dr. Johannes Keiler
15 July 2019
Maastricht University
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................1
2 CONSENT BASED LEGISLATION IN EUROPE.......................................................................5
3 COERCION BASED LEGISLATION IN EUROPE.....................................................................9
4 EUROPEAN APPROACH ON RAPE LEGISLATION..............................................................17
The European approach to consent and penalisation of rape............................................................................17
Framework on consent and penalisation of rape...............................................................................................19
5 COMPARISON BETWEEN THE SWEDISH AND FINNISH RAPE LEGISLATION..............20
Rape legislation of Sweden and Finland and compatibility with the European framework.............................22
6 CRITICISM OF CONSENT-BASED AND COERCION-BASED RAPE LEGISLATION........23
7 CONCLUSION...........................................................................................................................29
8 LIST OF REFERENCES.............................................................................................................31
1 INTRODUCTION
There is no universal definition of rape in the world, nor in Europe. Regarding the legislation,
there are two main models that can be distinguished in European Criminal law theory. The
first one, consent-based model, requires that for the act to qualify as rape there must be a
sexual act that the other one did not consent to. Currently, in Europe, only eight states have
consent-based legislation for rape, the United Kingdom, Ireland, Belgium, Cyprus,
Luxembourg, Iceland, Germany and Sweden. The second one, coercion-based model,
requires that the sexual act was done by coercion, violence, physical force or threat of
violence or physical force in order for the act to amount to rape. Some of these countries have
had attempts to change the legislation to consent-based, or respectively activists have been
advocating for legislative change.1
Consent-based and coercion-based models focus on different aspects regarding the threshold
of rape. One of the possible reasons for the different types of rape legislation models is, for
instance, the assumption that females will make false rape allegations if the threshold for
liability for rape is low. This type of ideology has already been discussed in the 18th century
by Hale stating “It is true rape is a most detestable crime, and therefore ought severely and
impartially to be punished with death; but it must be remembered, that it is an accusation
easily to be made and hard to be proved, and harder to be defended by the party accused, tho
never so innocent.”2 This view is still brought up when there is talk about changing the rape
legislation to consent-based, such as in Germany. Criticism has been brought up about why
the rape legislation had to be changed from coercion-based to consent-based because now it
is much easier to bring up rape charges against somebody, which may also include false
accusations.3
In the history, sexual crime provisions were mainly focused on the fact that raping a woman
was seen as disrespectful towards the father, husband or master of that woman.4 Later on,
1 Anna Bluś, ‘Sex without consent is rape. So why do only eight European countries recognise this?’ (Amnesty
International, 23 April 2018).
2 Matthew Hale, Historia Placitorum Coronae, The History of the Pleas of the Crown, Volume 1 (published by
R.H. Small 1847) p. 634.
3 Sabine Rückert, ’Das Schlafzimmer als gefährlicher Ort’ (Die Zeit, 30 June 2016).
4 Terttu Utriainen, Raiskaus rikosoikeudellisena ongelmana (Lapin yliopistopaino 2010) p. 19. ”Jos Ateenan
kansalaisen vaimo, tytär tai orja joutui raiskatuksi, teon katsottiin ensi sijassa loukkaavan hänen aviomiestään,
isäänsä tai isäntäänsä, jonka huonekunnan koskemattomuuteen teolla oli kajottu.” Author’s own translation. ”If
the wife, daughter or slave of a citizen of Athens was raped, it was seen as disrespecting the husband, father or
1
rape provisions started to protect more the individual and their right to self-determination and
sexual autonomy. Sexual relations used to be seen as a private matter by definition, and the
state was more reluctant to interfere in these. Nowadays, the changing views and morals
regarding sexual relations and sexual autonomy have influenced and brought about legislative
changes to protect individuals and to provide them with a right to decide upon when to have
or not have sexual intercourse.5 Sexual crimes can happen to anyone, despite sexual crimes
have been penalised originally so that only a male can rape a female. There are also different
kind of rapes, not only violent rapes where the perpetrator is unknown attacker, but rape can
happen also with close people or acquaintances. Rapes, or reporting of rapes, has increased in
cases where the victim and perpetrator are in a relationship, acquaintances, or work
colleagues.6
During the past few years, the way rape has been defined in legislation, has received a vast
amount of attention in the media. The reason for this is that, as outlined above, the structure
and morals of the society have changed during these last decades, and the position of women
has changed as well.7 There has been efforts and campaigns to address the issues regarding
sexual violence and harassment already starting in 2006, but in 2017 #MeToo hashtag
became viral, where people were urged to write the hashtag in their social media if the had
master, violating the integrity of that household.”
5 Terttu Utriainen, Raiskaus rikosoikeudellisena ongelmana (Lapin yliopistopaino 2010) p. 8-9. ”Raiskauksen,
kuten muidenkin tunnusmerkistöjen, muotoutuminen on ollut riippuvainen kulloisenkin yhteiskunnan
arvomaailmasta, normeista ja valtasuhteista. Seksuaalisuus ja seksuaalirikokset ovat kuitenkin profiloituneet
lainsäädäntöön hyvin myöhään. Tämä johtuu siitä, että tällä hetkellä seksuaalirikoksiksi muotoutuneilla teoilla
suojeltiin aikaisemmin aivan muita oikeushyviä ja intressejä kuin seksuaalista itsemääräämisoikeutta ja
integriteettiä. --- Perhe ja avioliitto puolestaan ovat sanelleet pitkälle sen, minkälaiseksi naisen asema ja
seksuaalimoraali yhteiskunnassa ovat muotoutuneet. Historian kuluessa raiskaus rikoksena onkin siirtynyt
yksityisyyden piiristä julkisoikeuden puolelle virallisen syytteenalaiseksi rikokseksi.” Author’s own translation:
”The formation of the elements of the offences of rape, and other crimes, have been dependent on the morals,
norms and power relations of each society. Sexuality and sexual crimes have been profiled/included in the
legislation very late. This is because the fact that the sexual crimes of today were previously protecting
completely different legal interests and rights than sexual autonomy and integrity. --- Family and marriage have
determined the position of women and how the sexual morals are in the society. Later on, the crime of rape has
moved from the private sphere to public sphere as an indictable offence.”
6 Lotta Nilsson, ’Violence against women in intimate relationships’ in Ulla Bodenson (ed), Crime and Justice in
Scandinavia (Forlaget Thomson A/S 2005) p. 215, 218.
7 Terttu Utriainen, Raiskaus rikosoikeudellisena ongelmana (Lapin yliopistopaino 2010) p. 7. ”Yhteiskunnalliset
rakenne -ja arvomuutokset ovat tuoneet rikosoikeuteenkin uusia lainsäädännöllisiä ratkaisuja ja myös
lääketieteen kehityksellä on ollut oma vaikutuksensa. Ja ennen kaikkea naisten asemaa koskeneilla muutoksilla
on ollut suuri vaikutus seksuaalirikoslainsäädäntöön ja sen yhteydessä myös raiskausrikosten käsittelyyn.”
Author’s own translation: “The structure and values have changed in the society and this has brought new
approaches for the legislative process regarding penal code, and also the development of medicine has had its
own impact. Above all, the change in the position of women has had a great impact on the legislation of sexual
crimes, and also regarding the handling and processing of sexual crimes.”
2
been a victim of a sexual assault or harassment.8 The use of the hashtag and several stories
received media attention due to the fact that several individuals had suffered from sexual
harassment. The purpose of the movement was to give a voice to victims of sexual
harassment and sexual violence. This led to the creation of “Time’s Up” campaign as a
response to fight against sexual assault, by requiring a concrete change in the legislation and
in the mindset that people have regarding sexual crimes. 9 Regarding rape legislation, these
campaigns have shown that the victims of sexual crime want justice, and penalising
involuntary sexual acts is necessary.
To discuss and analyse these above-mentioned problems, this thesis aims to answer the
question: “How can the consent-based legislation on rape protect individuals more adequately
in rape cases in comparison to the coercion-based legislation?” by comparing the Finnish and
Swedish legislation regarding the rape offences. The European view is also taken into
account in order to compare and analyse how well the legislation protects individuals and
whether it is in accordance with the European standards. The research for this thesis is made
by literature review, by comparing the current and previous legislation and literature
regarding rape in Sweden and Finland. The legislation and case law of both countries are
introduced, evaluated and compared, and analysed whether the legislation is adequate. The
analysis will focus on the fact that how well these two different models are protecting
individuals, but also focusing on the problems of each model. This paper aims to distinguish
the differences between consent and coercion-based rape legislation by using the legislation
in Sweden and Finland as examples. Due to the recent legislative amendment in Sweden, the
legislation of rape is now consent-based. Finland currently has coercion-based legislation,
even though several activists and organisations have tried to advocate for a legislative reform
towards the consent-based model.
The first two chapters of this thesis discuss rape legislation on the national level of Sweden
and Finland, including the assessment of what elements are required in each country for the
qualification of rape. Both countries have had reforms regarding rape legislation, and these
will be taken into account when analysing how rape is and has been legislated. The case law
will be used to define better where the limits of violence or voluntariness are drawn. After
this, the European approach will be discussed. The European approach will be assessed as
8 Clare Zillman, ‘‘Me Too’: How Alyssa Milano’s Two-Word Protest Against Sexual Harassment Went Viral’
(16 October 2017, Fortune).
9 Alix Langone, ‘#MeToo and Time's Up Founders Explain the Difference Between the 2 Movements — And
How They're Alike’ (22 March 2018, Time).
3
providing the minimum standard that the participating states have to follow when legislating
on rape. The Finnish and Swedish legislation will be compared on their main differences and
similarities, and on how rape is punished. Later on, the Finnish and Swedish models are
compared whether they comply with the European standard, or whether they require further
legislative amendments. Criticism will be targeted on the issues of both models, for coercion-
based model the requirement of violence, and for the consent-based model on the lacking
definition of consent, and how it can be proved.
4
2 CONSENT BASED LEGISLATION IN EUROPE
Swedish rape legislation
Sweden is one of the EU member states that has recently changed the rape provision by
enacting new provision in the Penal Code,10 which now holds that “anyone who, with a
person who does not participate voluntarily, conducts sexual intercourse or another sexual act
which, in view of the seriousness of the violation, is comparable to sexual intercourse, is
guilty of rape and may be sentenced to imprisonment for a minimum of two years and a
maximum of six years”.11 This provision entered into force on 1 July 2018. The amendment
also added the offence of negligent rape, when the perpetrator negligently disregards the fact
that the other person did not voluntarily participate in the sexual act. This is punishable by
imprisonment of a maximum of four years. Yet the provision also provides the possibility that
such conduct will not be punished, provided the act is considered less serious due to the
circumstances in which it took place.12
Shortly after the amendment, the first conviction was handed down in September 2018 on
negligent rape. The defendant had initiated sexual interaction with the victim and had
negligently disregarded the fact that the victim did not participate voluntarily.13 The court
held that if the other person in the sexual act is passive, and they give mixed-signals, such as
resisting and protecting private parts by hands, the actor shall make sure that the other person
is participating willingly and voluntarily in the sexual act. The perpetrator should have
10 Brottsbalk “Swedish Penal Code”.
11 Brottsbalk 2018:618, Chapter 6, Section 1: “Den som, med en person som inte deltar frivilligt, genomför ett
samlag eller en annan sexuell handling som med hänsyn till kränkningens allvar är jämförlig med samlag, döms
för våldtäkt till fängelse i lägst två år och högst sex år.” Author’s own translation.
12 Brottsbalk 2018:618, Chapter 6, Section 1a: ” Den som begår en gärning som avses i 1 § och är grovt
oaktsam beträffande omständigheten att den andra personen inte deltar frivilligt, döms för oaktsam våldtäkt till
fängelse i högst fyra år. Om gärningen med hänsyn till omständigheterna är mindre allvarlig, ska det inte dömas
till ansvar.” Author’s own translation: ”Anyone, who commits an act referred to in Section 1 and is grossly
negligent when regarding the fact that the other person is not participating voluntarily, is guilty of negligent rape
and is sentenced to imprisonment for at most four years. If, in view of the circumstances, the act is less serious,
the person shall not be held responsible.”
13 Hampus Rundberg, ’Första fällande domen för oaktsam våldtäkt’ (SVT Nyheter, 29 October 2018).
”Eftersom tingsrätten har funnit det bevisat att XX(gärningsmannen) insåg risken för att Sekretess A inte deltog
i samlaget och de andra sexuella handlingarna frivilligt, dvs. att han var medvetet oaktsam, finner tingsrätten det
bevisat att han varit grovt oaktsam beträffande omständigheten att Sekretess A inte deltog frivilligt.” Author’s
own translation: ”As the District Court has found that the perpetrator realized the risk that victim did not
participate in the intercourse and other sexual acts voluntarily, ie. he was deliberately negligent, the District
Court holds that he has been grossly negligent regarding the fact that victim did not participate voluntarily.”
5
realised that there was a risk that the victim did not participate voluntarily in the sexual act, as
she resisted, and therefore, the perpetrator could be convicted for negligent rape, as he
disregarded the risk and continued the act.14 After the reform, there have also been cases
where the defendant was convicted of rape when the victim was not participating voluntarily
in sexual intercourse. In 2018 in four cases the consent-based legislation impacted on the
judgment, as the sexual act was not consensual.15
There is no legal definition found in the Swedish law, but the Crime Victim Compensation
and Support Authority, which is a governmental agency, has created a campaign called Free
will only, which defines sex as: “an act of free will means that the persons involved have
expressed clear consent to a sexual act using words or body language”.16 The definition of
consent will be probably defined in the future case law when more cases regarding non-
consensual sex will emerge.
Before the change in 2018, the act of rape was defined as “anyone who through abuse or
otherwise by force or by threat of criminal action forces a person into sexual intercourse or to
make or tolerate another sexual act which, in view of the seriousness of the violation, is
comparable to sexual intercourse, is guilty of rape and sentenced to imprisonment of at least
two and maximum six years”17. The provision was a coercion-based provision, and it required
vaginal intercourse, which meant that only a man could rape a woman.18 Other kinds of
14 Salmi & Partners, ’Oaktsam våldtäkt, Unik fängelsedom i tingsrätten’ (6 November 2018). ” Tingsrätten
underströk i domen att om man vill ha sex med någon som är passiv och ger dubbeltydiga signaler så måste man
ta reda på att den andra personen vill delta. ... Man konstaterade att mannen dragit tillbaka kvinnan när hon
försökt gå undan, att han tagit bort händerna från hennes underliv och fortsatt samlaget efter att hon sagt nej.
Därför anser rätten att mannen borde ha insett risken för att kvinna inte deltog i de sexuella aktiviteterna på ett
frivilligt sätt. Dock slår man fast att han inte hade uppsåt att våldta, bland annat för att han slutade när hon
slutade göra motstånd.” Author’s own translation: ”The District Court ephasised in their verdict that if a person
wants to have sex with someone who is passive and gives double-sided/mixed signals, then the person must
make sure that the other person is willing to participate. The court found that the man took the woman when she
tried to escape, and he removed her hands (as she was protecting herself) from her vaginal area and continued
the intercourse after she had said no. Therefore, it can be seen that the man should have realized the risk that the
woman did not partake in the activity in a voluntary manner. However, it was established that he did not intend
to rape the woman,
15 Maria Riddersted, ’Samtyckeslag har haft effekt, (Sverige Radio, 8 November 2018). ”I de flesta fall skulle
det ha blivit en fällande dom även innan den nya lagen trädde i kraft. Men i fyra fall har lagen haft en avgörande
betydelse för domslutet.” Author’s own translation: ”In most cases , it would have become a conviction even
before the new law came into force. But in four cases, the law has had a decisive influence on the judgment.”
16 Brottsoffermyndigheten (Crime Victim Compensation and Support Authority), ’Free will only’ (2019).
17 Brottsbalk 2013:365, Chapter 6, Section 1: “Den som genom misshandel eller annars med våld eller genom
hot om brottslig gärning tvingar en person till samlag eller till att företa eller tåla en annan sexuell handling som
med hänsyn till kränkningens allvar är jämförlig med samlag, döms för våldtäkt till fängelse i lägst två och högst
sex år.” Author’s own translation.
18 Monica Burman, ‘Rethinking rape law in Sweden - Coercion, consent or non-voluntariness?’ in Clare
McGlynn and Vanessa Munro (eds), Rethinking Rape Law: International and Comparative Perspectives
(Routledge 2010) p. 196-197, 200-201.
6
penetration, such as oral, anal or using objects to penetrate anus or vagina were also
considered as forced intercourse. Other types of acts, that did not include penetration, such as
forcing to touch other person’s penis, were not considered as rapes. In a pertinent case, the
question arose whether the act in question fulfilled the conditions for rape or for sexual
coercion. The facts in the case were that the plaintiff inserted his fingers inside the vagina of
the defendant, and this was regarded as a sexual act. The fact that the victim was sleeping
during this act, gave rise to rape conviction in the district court, as the defendant exploited the
helpless state of the victim.19 The definition of a sexual act was questioned in the judgment,
due to a lack of definition in legal texts. In the preparatory work of the previous proposal for
the new sexual offences act20, the term sexual intercourse was replaced by sexual act. The
reason behind this was that it will include other acts also, not only intercourse, including acts
that are aimed at creating sexual arousal for the perpetrator.21 The act, nature of the violation
and the circumstances must amount to a situation that is comparable to sexual intercourse, in
order to be classified as rape.22
19 Swedish Supreme Court case NJA 2008 p.482. ”Tingsrätten finner att D.J., genom att föra in sina fingrar i
L.B:s underliv under det att hon sovit, otillbörligt utnyttjat att hon befunnit sig i ett hjälplöst tillstånd; brottet kan
således vara att rubricera som våldtäkt enligt 6 kap. 1 § 2 st. eller 3 st. BrB. ” Author’s own translation: “The
District Court finds that D.J., by inserting his fingers into L.B.'s vagina while she slept, unduly exploited the fact
that she was in a helpless state; The crime can thus be classified as rape under Chapter 6. 1 § 2 p. or 3 p. Penal
Code.”
20 Proposal 2004/05:45 (2004) En ny sexualbrottslagstiftning. Author’s own translation:”A new sexual crime
act”.
21 Swedish Supreme Court case NJA 2008 p.482. “Begreppet samlag definieras inte i lagtext och någon
legaldefinition av vad som är en ”sexuell handling”, vilket ersatt det tidigare begreppet ”sexuellt umgänge”
förekommer inte heller. Av lagens förarbeten (prop. 2004/05:45, s. 31 ff.) framhålls att ”sexuell handling” bör
motsvara i allt väsentligt ”sexuellt umgänge” men att en viss utvidgning bör ske, så att det inte längre bör
fordras att en handling innefattar en fysisk och varaktig kroppslig beröring för att den skall kunna bedömas som
en ”sexuell handling”. Avgörande för bedömningen bör i stället vara om handlingen har haft en påtaglig sexuell
prägel och varit ägnad att kränka offrets sexuella integritet. För att en handling skall anses ha haft en påtaglig
sexuell prägel bör det räcka att handlingen varit av sådan karaktär att den typiskt sett syftar till att väcka eller
tillfredsställa bådas eller enderas sexuella drift. Author’s own translation: ”The concept of sexual intercourse is
not defined in the legal text or there is no legal definition of what is a sexual act. The Act’s preparatory work
(Proposal 2004/05:45) emphasizes that the sexual act should correspond to the essential requirements of sexual
intercourse but differing so that there is no requirement of physical and lasting bodily touch. The decisive factor
is whether the act had sexual character, and whether it was intended to violate the sexual integrity of the victim.
In order for an act to be considered as an act of sexual character, it suffices that there has been an attempt to
arouse or satisfy in a sexual manner.”
22 Swedish Supreme Court case NJA 2008 p.482. “Frågan som HD har att pröva är om handlingen med hänsyn
till kränkningens art och omständigheterna i övrigt skall anses jämförlig med samlag och brottet därför
rubriceras som våldtäkt. Anses handlingen inte jämförlig med samlag skall brottet rubriceras som sexuellt tvång
enligt 6 kap. 2 § andra eller tredje stycket BrB.” Author’s own translation: “The question that must be proved is
whether the act with regard to the nature of the violation and the circumstances in general must be considered
comparable to sexual intercourse and the crime is therefore classified as rape. If the action is not considered
comparable to sexual intercourse, the offense shall be classified as sexual coercion in accordance with Chapter
6. § 2, second or third paragraph Swedish Penal Code.”
7
Before the reform of 2005, the previous reform regarding sexual offences took place in 1984,
where the provision was changed to a gender-neutral one. The previous provision was only
focused on forced sexual intercourse on a woman.23 After the change, the sexual acts covered
also anal and oral penetration, as before the provision only covered vaginal intercourse. This
legislative change also criminalised rape within marriage.24
Reasons that Sweden decided to change to the consent-based model is that there is a strong
feminist movement in Sweden. The movement promoted the change to the consent-based
model already during the reform of 2005.25 The aim of the legislative amendment of 2018
was to emphasise the right to personal integrity and sexual autonomy.26 The legislative
change can inspire other states to amend their legislation to consent-based. Swedish and
Finnish rape legislation was similar until Sweden reformed the rape legislation, which may
influence also Finland to amend their legislation. Currently, Finland has coercion-based
legislation, but after the newly elected government, there may be a legislative reform ahead.
23 Swedish Supreme Court case NJA 2008 p.482.”Tvingar man kvinna till samlag genom våld å henne eller
genom hot som innebär trängande fara, dömes för våldtäkt till fängelse, lägst två och högst tio år. Lika med våld
anses att försätta kvinnan i vanmakt eller annat sådant tillstånd.” Author’s own translation: ”Forcing a woman
into sexual intercourse through violence or through threats that involve urgent danger, is sentenced for rape to
prison, at least two and at most ten years. As violence is considered to put the woman in powerless/helpless state
or other such state.”
24 Monica Burman, ‘Rethinking rape law in Sweden - Coercion, consent or non-voluntariness?’ in Clare
McGlynn and Vanessa Munro (eds), Rethinking Rape Law: International and Comparative Perspectives
(Routledge 2010) p. 197.
25 Monica Burman, ‘Rethinking rape law in Sweden - Coercion, consent or non-voluntariness?’ in Clare
McGlynn and Vanessa Munro (eds), Rethinking Rape Law: International and Comparative Perspectives
(Routledge 2010) p. 196, 205-206.
26 Justice Committee Report 2017/18:JuU29, ’En ny sexualbrottslagstifning byggd på frivillighet’. ”Utskottet
föreslår att riksdagen antar regeringens förslag till ändringar i brottsbalken och i rättegångsbalken. Syftet är att
tydliggöra att varje människa har en ovillkorlig rätt till personlig och sexuell integritet och sexuellt
självbestämmande.” Author’s own translation: ”The Committee proposes that the Parliament adopts the
Government’s proposal for the amendments to the Penal Code and for the Code of Judicial Procedure. The
purpose is to clarify that every person has an unconditional right to personal and sexual integrity and sexual
autonomy.”
8
3 COERCION BASED LEGISLATION IN EUROPE
Finnish rape legislation
In Finland, the act of rape is defined in Chapter 20, Section 1 of Finnish Penal Code as “A
person who forces another into sexual intercourse by the use or threat of violence shall be
sentenced for rape to imprisonment for at least one year and at most six years. Also, a person
who, by taking advantage of the fact that another person, due to unconsciousness, illness,
disability, state of fear or other state of helplessness, is unable to defend himself or herself or
to formulate or express his or her will, has sexual intercourse with him or her, shall be
sentenced for rape”.27 Section 10 contains the definition of sexual intercourse and sexual act.
Sexual intercourse is defined as “the sexual penetration of the body of another, by a sex organ
or directed at a sex organ or anal passage, or to the insertion of the sex organ of another into
the body of the offender”. Sexual act “refers to an act which, with consideration to the
offender, the person at whom the act was directed and the circumstances of commission, is
sexually significant”.28 The provision also covers vaginal or anal penetration as sexual
intercourse.29 This current provision was enacted in 2014, which amended the Finnish Penal
Code of 1889.
After the enactment of the Finnish Penal Code in 1889, there have been several amendments.
The reform of 1998 amended the offences of rape, and added aggravated rape and coercion
into a sexual act to the Finnish Penal Code.30 The amendment focused on the protection of
sexual autonomy, for example, it provided the individual with the right to decide upon their
sexual relations. Additionally, it provided more adequate protection as the provision was
27 Finnish Penal Code, Chapter 20, Section 1: “Joka pakottaa toisen sukupuoliyhteyteen käyttämällä henkilöön
kohdistuvaa väkivaltaa tai uhkaamalla käyttää sellaista väkivaltaa, on tuomittava raiskauksesta vankeuteen
vähintään yhdeksi ja enintään kuudeksi vuodeksi. Raiskauksesta tuomitaan myös se, joka käyttämällä hyväkseen
sitä, että toinen tiedottomuuden, sairauden, vammaisuuden, pelkotilan tai muun avuttoman tilan takia on
kykenemätön puolustamaan itseään tai muodostamaan tai ilmaisemaan tahtoaan, on sukupuoliyhteydessä hänen
kanssaan.” Translation by Ministry of Justice.
28 Finnish Penal Code, Chapter 20, Section 10. “Sukupuoliyhteydellä tarkoitetaan tässä laissa sukupuolielimellä
tehtävää taikka sukupuolielimeen tai peräaukkoon kohdistuvaa seksuaalista tunkeutumista toisen kehoon taikka
toisen sukupuolielimen ottamista omaan kehoon. Seksuaalisella teolla tarkoitetaan tässä laissa sellaista tekoa,
joka tekijä ja kohteena oleva henkilö sekä teko-olosuhteet huomioon ottaen on seksuaalisesti olennainen.”
Translation by Ministry of Justice.
29 Finnish Supreme Court, KKO:2017:69, para. 5. “Sukupuoliyhteydellä tarkoitetaan sukupuolielimellä
tehtävää taikka sukupuolielimeen tai peräaukkoon kohdistuvaa seksuaalista tunkeutumista toisen kehoon”.
Author’s own translation: ”Sexual intercourse means a sexual penetration done with a genital, or penetration of
genitals or anal.”
30 Amendment to the Finnish Penal Code 563/1998.
9
changed to a gender-neutral one, and a relationship between the victim and perpetrator as
spouses or partners was not considered as a factor which could influence the severity of the
sentence.31 The provision was previously changed in 1994 to include also sexual crimes
within a marriage, for example, rapes that occurred when the husband forced their wife to
sexual intercourse were also penalised.32 Before this, the previous reform which took place in
1971, when the Finnish Penal Code only contained a provision of crime against chastity.33
Then, only a male could be guilty of rape, by forcing by violence or by the threat of it, a
woman to have sexual intercourse.34 This provision applied only if this happened outside of
marriage, which meant that women in relationships or in marriages were not protected against
rape.
In its current version, the act of rape requires an act of violence, force or the threat of those,
in order for it to amount to rape according to the Finnish law. If the violence by the
perpetrator has been minimal, such as taking hold of the victim’s hands or arms, holding the
victim still, pushing, or pushing over, in order to enact the sexual encounter, it is possible that
these are not qualified as rape but rather as coercion by violence. Several Finnish cases have
31 Terttu Utriainen, Raiskaus rikosoikeudellisena ongelmana (Lapin yliopistopaino 2010) p. 113. ”Kun
seksuaalirikoksia lähdettiin 1990-luvulla rikoslain kokonaisuudistuksen yhteydessä uudistamaan, yhä
selvemmäksi oli käynyt se, että rangaistussäännöksillä tuli suojata ihmisten seksuaalista
itsemääräämisoikeutta. ... Seksuaalisen itsemääräämisoikeuden nousemista ylimmäksi suojeluintressiksi pyrittiin
korostamaan sillä, että säännökset ovat sukupuolineutraaleja, eikä itsemääräämisoikeuteen vaikuta myöskään se,
ovatko osapuolet avioliitossa tai avoliitossa.” Author’s own translation: ”In 1990s, when the rape legislation was
under the reform of the Finnish Penal code, it has become clearer, that the provisions should protect the
individual’s sexual autonomy. … As the sexual autonomy is the priority when protecting individuals through
legislation, it was emphasized that the provisions must be gender-neutral, and the relationship between the
individuals (spouses or cohabitants) does not affect the individual’s self-determination. ”
32 Government Proposal (HE 6/1997 vp) p. 163. “Sivellisyysrikoksia koskeva rikoslain 20 luku on viimeksi
uudistettu kokonaisuudessaan vuonna 1971 voimaantulleella lainmuutoksella. Lukuun on vuonna 1994 tehty
eräitä muutoksia, joilla on poistettu avioliitussa tapahtunutta väkisinmakaamista ja vapautta loukkaavaa
haureutta koskevat rangaistavuuden rajoitukset.” Author’s own translation: ”The Chapter 20 of the Penal Code
on crimes on chastity was previously modified by changes that entered into force in 1971. In 1994, some
changes were made, by removing the limitations regarding rape and unchastity that happened within a
marriage.”
33 Siveellisyysrikos in Finnish.
34 Old provision of Finnish Penal Code, Chapter 20, Section 1: ”Joka pakottaa naisen sukupuoliyhteyteen
väkivallalla taikka sellaisella uhkauksella, jossa pakottava vaara on tarjona, on tuomittava väkisinmakaamisesta
vankeuteen vähintään kuudeksi kuukaudeksi ja enintään kymmeneksi vuodeksi tai, jos asianhaarat ovat erittäin
lieventävät, vankeuteen enintään neljäksi vuodeksi. Väkivallan ja uhkauksen veroiseksi katsotaan naisen
saattaminen tunnottomaan tilaan tai kykenemättömäksi puolustamaan itseään.” Author’s own translation: “A
person who forces a woman into having sexual intercourse by force or the treat of it, where there is an
imperative danger, shall be sentenced for rape to imprisonment for at least six months and at most for ten years,
or if there are mitigating circumstances, imprisonment is at most four years. Violence and threat of it is regarded
when the woman is in a state of incapacitation or unable to defence herself.”
10
been dealing with these kinds of situations35, and often the perpetrator is only accountable for
the lesser offence of coercion into a sexual act36.
As an example, in one case the act was not consensual according to the victim, and the
defendant was convicted for coercion into a sexual act. The victim rejected the defendant and
had physically resisted the sexual act, but as there was no evidence from physical violence or
other witnesses to the act, the court did not convict him from rape. The perpetrator had
known that the act was not consensual, but as it was missing the violence or threat of it, the
offence did not qualify as rape.37
There are three different categories for sexual crimes depending on the level of violence or
force used in the act. The grossest violation is aggravated rape. In order for the offence to
amount to aggravated rape, at least one of the aggravating circumstances outlined in the
offence must be fulfilled, and the rape must furthermore be gross when assessing the entirety
of the actions. The aggravating circumstances outlined in the provision are that the rape
caused serious injury, illness or mortal danger, or the rape was carried out by several
perpetrators, the rape caused appreciable mental or physical pain, the rape was conducted in a
brutal, cruel or humiliating manner, the victim was under 18 years old, or the perpetrator used
35 Tiina-Liisa Autio and Anna Karjala, ”Lieventävistä ja ankaroittavista asianhaaroista raiskausrikoksissa” in
Sampo Tapio Lappi-Seppälä and Veera Kankaanranta (eds), Rangaistuksen määrääminen: Helsingin
hovioikeuden julkaisuja (Helsinki Court of Appeal 2013): ”Vähäinen väkivalta on tapausaineiston perusteella
yleisin perustelu lievemmän nimikkeen soveltamiselle. Esimerkiksi kiinniottaminen, käsistä tarttuminen,
työntäminen, kaataminen ja kiinnipitäminen on oikeuskäytännössä katsottu sellaiseksi vähäiseksi väkivallaksi,
että teko on luettu syyksi raiskauksen asemasta pakottamisena sukupuoliyhteyteen” Author’s own translation:
”According to the case law minimal violence has been the primary rationale for applying the more lenient
classification of the offence. For example, grabbing, taking hold of hands, pushing, pushing over or holding
have been regarded as minimal violence in the case law, and the offence has been classified as coercion into
sexual act instead of rape.”
36 Finnish Penal Code, Chapter 20, Section 4: “(1) A person who by violence or threat coerces another into a
sexual act other than that referred to in section 1 or into submission to such an act, thus essentially violating his
or her right of sexual self-determination, shall be sentenced for coercion into a sexual act to a fine or to
imprisonment for at most three years. (2) Also a person who, by taking advantage of the fact that another person,
due to unconsciousness, illness, disability, state of fear or other state of helplessness, is unable to defend himself
or herself or to formulate or express his or her will, causes him or her to engage in or submit to the sexual act
referred to in subsection 1, essentially violating his or her right of sexual self-determination, shall be sentenced
for coercion into a sexual act. (3) An attempt is punishable. Translation by: Ministry of Justice.
37 Finnish Supreme Court, KKO:2013:96. “Käräjäoikeuden mukaan näyttö siitä, että X olisi käyttämällä
väkivaltaa tai väkivallan uhkaa pakottanut A:n sukupuoliyhteyteen, ei ollut riittävä. Epäselvässä tapauksessa
asia oli ratkaistava syytetyn eduksi. --- Hovioikeus katsoi asiassa olevan riidatonta, että X oli ollut A:n kanssa
sukupuoliyhteydessä. A:n kertomuksella ja sitä tukevilla lääkärinlausunnoilla oli tullut näytetyksi, että X oli
menetellyt syytteessä selostetulla tavalla. X:n oli täytynyt ymmärtää toimineensa vastoin A:n tahtoa, kun A oli
useita kertoja kieltänyt X:ää ja yrittänyt työntää tätä pois. ” Author’s own translation: ”According to the District
Court, there was not enough evidence that X (perpetrator) had used violence or the threat of it to force A
(victim) to sexual intercourse. In unclear cases, the court ruled in favour of the defendant. --- The Court of
Appeal stated that it was clear that X had sexual intercourse with A. According to what A had stated, and with
supporting medical documents, the X had acted in a forceful way. It must have been clear to X that he was
acting against A’s will, when A had several times rejected X and tried to push him away.”
11
a firearm or other weapon. 38 A brutal way is described as using severe violence in the act
when cruelty is more in cases where the victim was in a helpless state. Humiliating manner
can be for example when the act was done in front of the people that are close to the victim.
Other kinds of threats of severe violence can also amount to aggravated rape in cases when
the perpetrator threatens to kill the victim or to cause serious injury if the threat is more likely
to materialise in the circumstances at hand.39
In a pertinent case, three perpetrators were holding a victim and two of them penetrated the
victim vaginally and anally with their fingers. The Finnish Supreme Court was faced with a
question whether the conviction of aggravated rape was appropriate in this case, as it was
decided in the lower courts. As there were three perpetrators, the condition of several
perpetrators was clearly fulfilled.40 Yet the Supreme Court also considered whether the way
that the rape happened was committed in a humiliating manner. According to the Supreme
Court, in this case, the rape did not happen in a humiliating manner, because the perpetrators
lacked the intent to humiliate the victim.41 When assessing the offence as a whole, the
38 Finnish Penal Code, Chapter 20, Section 2: “(1) If, in the rape, (1) grievous bodily injury, serious illness or a
state of mortal danger is caused to another, (2) the offence is committed by several people, or especially
appreciable mental or physical suffering is caused, (3) the victim is a child below the age of eighteen years, (4)
the offence is committed in a particularly brutal, cruel or humiliating manner, or (4) a firearm, edged weapon or
other lethal instrument is used or a threat of other serious violence is made, and the rape is aggravated also when
assessed as a whole, the offender shall be sentenced for aggravated rape to imprisonment for at least two years
and at most ten years. (2) An attempt is punishable.” Author’s own translation.
39 Finnish Government’s Proposal HE 216/2013 vp, p.8. “Kohdassa mainittu muu vakavalla väkivallalla
uhkaaminen on oikeuskirjallisuudessa esitetyn mukaan kysymyksessä esimerkiksi silloin, kun uhataan
surmaamisella tai vakavan ruumiinvamman tuottamisella, joskin tällöinkin uhkauksen toteutumisen on oltava
olosuhteet huomioon ottaen riittävän todennäköistä.” Author’s own translation: ”The threat of other serious
violence is, according to legal scolars, when the victim is threatene to kill or to suffer from seirous injury, in
circumstances where the threat is likely to actualise.”
40 Finnish Supreme Court, KKO:2017:69, para 22. “Korkein oikeus toteaa, että raiskaukseen ovat tekijöinä
osallistuneet B, C ja D, joten rikos on törkeää tekomuotoa koskevassa säännöksessä tarkoitetulla tavalla usean
henkilön tekemä. Siten rikoksessa täyttyy rikoslain 20 luvun 2 §:n 1 momentin 2 kohdan mukainen
ankaroittamisperuste.” Author’s own translation: ”The Supreme Court holds, that as B, C and D committed the
rape as co-perpetrators, the offence is committed by several people. Therefore, the qualification ground provided
in the Penal Code Chapter 20, Section 2, first paragraph, is fulfilled.”
41 Finnish Supreme Court, KKO:2017:69, para 24. “Raiskausrikokseen tyypillisesti kuuluvan nöyryyttävyyden
vuoksi sanottu ankaroittamisperuste edellyttää teon poikkeavan nöyryyttävää luonnetta. Tässä tapauksessa
raiskaukseen ei ole kuitenkaan liittynyt erityistä pyrkimystä asianomistajan nöyryyttämiseen eikä rikoksen
tekotapa sellaista osoita... Myöskään se seikka, että tekijöitä on ollut useita ei sellaisenaan merkitse, että teko on
tehty erityisen nöyryyttävällä tavalla. Korkein oikeus katsoo, ettei tämä ankaroittamisperuste täyty.” Author’s
own translation: ”The qualification ground for the aggravated rape requires that the characteristic of the acts
must be especially humiliating. In this case there was no intent to humiliate the plaintiff and the way the offence
was committed does not show that there was intent to humiliate … The fact that there were multiple
perpetrators, it does not itself mean that the offence was done in a humiliating way. The Supreme Court states
that this qualifying ground is not fulfilled.”
12
Supreme Court held that the rape was not gross and did not amount to aggravated rape, for
one of the perpetrators.42
The second paragraph of the provision states that also situations, where the perpetrator takes
advantage of the victim’s state of “unconsciousness, illness, disability, state of fear or other
state of helplessness” and the victim, is “unable to defend himself or herself or to formulate
or express his or her will”, may amount to rape. The state can be caused by the perpetrator
and after the amendment in 2011, also when the state of the victim is caused by other reasons
than by the perpetrator. The last part, when the victim is unable to express their will, was
added also to the provision.43 The state of helplessness can be caused by intoxicants, where
the victim is still conscious but unable to express their will. However, only the fact that the
victim is intoxicated does not necessarily amount to a state of unconsciousness.44
Citizens’ initiative
42 Finnish Supreme Court, KKO:2017:69, para 28. Kokonaisarvostelussa on toisaalta otettava huomioon, että
useaan tekijään perustuva ankaroittamisperuste ei tässä teossa tarkoita pitkäkestoista tai muutoin tekotavaltaan
erityisen moitittavaa menettelyä. Usean tekijän toimiminen yhdessä on tarkoittanut ensi sijassa asianomistajan
liikkumisen estämistä niin, että kehoon tunkeutuminen osin vaatteiden alta on ollut mahdollista. Vaikka edellä
todettujen teon moitittavuutta korostavien seikkojen lukuisuus ja niiden yhteisvaikutus selvästi lisäävät A:han
kohdistuneen seksuaalisen itsemääräämisoikeuden loukkauksen vakavuutta, Korkein oikeus päätyy punninnassa
siihen, ettei tekoa ole pidettävä kokonaisuutena arvostellen törkeänä. Tämän vuoksi B:lle on luettava syyksi
törkeän raiskauksen asemesta raiskaus.” Author’s own translation: ”When assessing the offence as whole, the
fact that in this case, the presence of several perpetrators did not mean that the rape was long lasting or done in
otherwise extremely blameworthy way. The several perpetrators that acted together meant that they were
stopping the plaintiff from moving, that penetrating into the victim was possible by slipping hands/fingers under
the clothes. Even though the plurality of the actions and their impact increases the seriousness of the violation of
the sexual autonomy of A (plaintiff), the Supreme Court holds that the offence was not gross when assessed as
whole. Therefore, in stead of aggravated rape, B is guilty of rape.”
43 Finnish Government’s Proposal, HE 216/2013 vp. “Kesäkuun 2011 alussa voimaan tulleella rikoslain 20
luvun muuttamisesta annetulla lailla (495/2011) luvun säännöksiä muutettiin ensinnäkin siten, että
puolustuskyvyttömyyden hyväksikäyttö katsotaan raiskaukseksi riippumatta siitä, mikä on tekijän osuus uhrin
puolustuskyvyttömyyden synnyssä. ... Samalla momenttia täydennettiin niin, että siinä mainitaan
puolustuskyvyttömyyden lisäksi tilanteet, joissa uhri on kykenemätön muodostamaan tai ilmaisemaan tahtoaan.”
Author’s own translation: ”The amendment to the penal code entered in to force in June 2011, and the
provisions were changed that if the perpetrator is abusing the state of the victim, it amounts as a rape, despite
whether the state is caused by the perpetrator. At the same time the provision was changed so that it includes the
state of helplessness, and situations when the victim is unable to express their will.”
44 Finnish Government’s Proposal, HE 216/2013 vp. “Rikoslain 20 luvun 1 §:n 2 momentissa tarkoitettu
tiedottomuus voi olla tajuttomuutta mutta se voi ilmetä myös muuten. Tiedottomuus voi johtua unilääkkeistä,
alkoholista tai muista huumaavista aineista. Puolustuskyvyttömyydellä säännöksessä tarkoitetaan myös
esimerkiksi lääkkeistä tai huumaavista aineista johtuvaa tahdottomuutta, vaikka uhri ei ole tiedoton. Pelkästään
huumaavan aineen vaikutuksen alaisena oleminen ei riitä, jos henkilöä ei sen johdosta voida katsoa
kyvyttömäksi puolustamaan itseään taikka muodostamaan tai ilmaisemaan tahtoaan. Nukkuva henkilö on
puolustuskyvytön, vaikka hän ei ole alkoholin tai muiden huumaavien aineiden vaikutuksen alainen.” Author’s
own translation: “The state of unconsciousness/senseless stated in chapter 20, section 1(2) of the Finnish Penal
code, can be a state of unconsciousness but it includes also other helpless states. Senseless can be caused by
sleeping pills, alcohol or by other intoxicants. The state of defenseless includes unwillingness caused by drugs
or medication, even though the victim is not unconscious. The fact that the victim is intoxicated does not itself
solely amount to a state of senseless or unconsciousness, or that the victim could not express their will. A
sleeping person is defenseless, even if they are not intoxicated.”
13
In Finland, any Finnish citizen can start a citizens’ initiative since 2012 and collect signatures
either by paper or on the internet. There must be a minimum of 50,000 signatures collected
within a period of six months, from Finnish citizens that have voting rights, in order for the
initiative to be able to move to the Finnish Parliament. The Parliament must take the initiative
into consideration, but they have discretion whether they will move on with the initiative, as
it was submitted or with amendments. The Parliament may also reject the initiative.45
In June 2018 a citizens’ initiative called “Suostumus2018” (Consent2018) was created by
“Seksuaalinen itsemääräämisoikeus ry” (Registered Association for Sexual Autonomy) to
change the Finnish rape legislation from a coercion-based to consent-based model. The
initiative is supported by several non-governmental organisations and communities, such as
Amnesty International (Finnish Department), human rights organisations, the student union
of the University of Oulu, the Family Federation of Finland, and several others. They have
several supporters on an individual level and in the Finnish Parliament. According to the
campaigning team of the association, the purpose of the Consent2018 initiative is to change
the definition of rape in a way that it respects the sexual autonomy of everybody46, by
removing the coercion requirement and changing it to consent based. The association
criticises the Finnish lawmakers that despite there having been several campaigns (#MeToo,
#ThisIsNotConsent, Time’s Up) emphasising the importance of consent in sexual
behaviour/acts/relations, Finnish law remains coercion based.
The proposed draft would change Chapter 20, sections 1, 2 and 4 regarding rape, aggravated
rape and coercion into sexual act completely. The proposed text of section 1 for rape would
accordingly become: “a person who has sexual intercourse with another person without their
consent shall be guilty of rape and sentenced to imprisonment for at least one year and at
most six years”.47
The initiative was sent to the Finnish Parliament on 12 June 2019, and it is now at the
discretion of the Parliament to act on it. The initiative has however also received some
criticism, due to the fact that consent is difficult to prove in practice, and that in court it is
45 Kansalaisaloite, ’Ohjeet’ (2019).
46 Suostumus2018, Kampanja. (2018) “Suostumus2018-kampanjan tavoitteena on muuttaa raiskauksen
määritelmä jokaisen ihmisen itsemääräämisoikeutta kunnioittavaksi.” Author’s own translation: “The purpose of
Consent2018 campaign is to change the definition of rape so that it will respect every person’s sexual
autonomy.”
47 Suostumus2018, Raiskauksen määritelmä suostumusperustaiseksi (Kansalaisaloitepalvelu, 2018) ”Raiskaus.
Joka on sukupuoliyhteydessä toisen kanssa ilman tämän suostumusta, on tuomittava raiskauksesta vankeuteen
vähintään yhdeksi ja enintään kuudeksi vuodeksi.” Author’s own translation.
14
only victim’s word against the accused’s word.48 Others have however described the proposal
as a positive change since rape cases that did not include violence would be taken more into
consideration. It has also been argued that Finnish law currently contains a lacuna, as even if
the victim says no to the sexual proposition, it would not be a rape according to Finnish law
since the requirement of violence or threat of it, may be lacking in these cases. Additionally,
consent is difficult to assess as evidence.49
Possible changes in the near future
The newly elected Finnish Government has created a Government Programme, that was
published on 3 June 2019 and addressed the fact that rape legislation should be more focused
on sexual autonomy and human dignity. The new government is aiming to change the rape
legislation to a consent-based model in order to have better legal protection for individuals.50
Also at the beginning of 2019, the Minister of Justice created a working group that will
address the amendment of the rape legislation. They state that the notion of consent will be
taken into consideration in the amendment, but it is yet unclear how this will be
48 Petteri Lindholm, ’Miten raiskausmääritelmän muutos suostumusperusteiseksi vaikuttaisi? Kansalaisaloite
luovutettiin tänään eduskunnalle’ (Kaleva, 12 June 2019). ”Näyttöongelmat liittyvät siihen, että raiskauksissa ei
yleensä ole silminnäkijöitä, joten oikeudessa on usein uhrin sana tekijän sanaa vastaan. Oikeusprosessi menisi
niin, että syyttäjän pitäisi näyttää toteen, että suostumusta ei ollut. Sen todistaminen on todella vaikeaa sana
vastaan sana -tilanteessa.” Author’s own translation: ”The problems regarding the proving of consent are related
to that fact that there are no eyewitnesses, therefore, in court it is often the victim’s word against the accused’s
word. The process would change that the prosecutor should prove that there was no consent. Proving that is very
challenging in word-against-word situation.”
49 Petteri Lindholm, ’Miten raiskausmääritelmän muutos suostumusperusteiseksi vaikuttaisi? Kansalaisaloite
luovutettiin tänään eduskunnalle’ (Kaleva, 12 June 2019). ” Rikosoikeuden professori Kimmo Nuotio Helsingin
yliopistosta pitää hyvänä, että lakimuutoksen myötä raiskauksista voitaisiin tuomita, vaikka teko ei sisällä
väkivaltaa, ja ilman, että uhrin on täytynyt varsinaisesti vastustella tekoa. Vaikka uhri kieltäisi tekijää, nykyisen
lain puitteissa ei olisi kyse raiskauksesta, jos tekoon ei ole liittynyt pakottamista. Näyttökysymyksissä
ongelmana on hänen mukaansa sana vastaan sana -tilanteiden lisäksi se, että Suomen laissa ole kirjauksia näytön
arvioinnista. Esimerkiksi Englannissa suostumusperusteinen määritelmä on toteutettu niin, että lakia on
täydennetty näytön arviointia koskevilla säännöillä.” Author’s own translation: ”The Criminal Law professor
Kimmo Nuotio from Helsinki University finds it a good thing, that after legislative change the acts that do not
include violence, or acts where the victim did not resist could be charged as a rape. Now, even if the victim
prohibited the perpetrator, and the perpetrator would continue, it would not amount as a rape, if there was no
forcing involved. There are problems regarding the evidence, the word-against-word situations, and also Finnish
law is lacking on how to assess the evidence. For example in England, the consent-based definition is
supplemented by rules regarding the assessment of evidence.”
50 Valtioneuvosto, ’Neuvottelutulos hallitusohjelmasta 3.6.2019’ (2019) p. 89. ”Toteutetaan
seksuaalirikoslainsäädännön kokonaisuudistus, jossa lähtökohtina ovat koskemattomuus ja seksuaalinen
itsemääräämisoikeus. Muutetaan rikoslain raiskausmääritelmä suostumuksen puutteeseen perustuvaksi
oikeusturvasta huolehtien.” Author’s own translation: “Changing the criminal law regarding sexual crimes,
where the basis will be on sanctity and sexual autonomy of a person. Changing the definition of rape in the
penal code to a consent-based in order to take care of the legal protection of individuals.”
15
implemented.51 The goals of the working group are to draft consent-based legislation, to make
an assessment on the notion of the helpless state of the victim, and to assess how the position
of consent could be strengthened.52
The coercion-based model provides less protection to the sexual autonomy of individuals as it
requires violence in order for the act to amount as rape. Therefore, the consent-based model
can be seen as a more adequate way to protect individuals. As some European countries have
reformed their legislation to consent-based, a trend towards requiring consent-based
legislation can be seen. Rape legislation has been discussed on European level also, where the
European institutes such as Council of Europe and the European Court of Human Rights have
been discussing of what kind of protection the states have to provide for rape victims and
what kind of legislation is seen as adequate for obtaining this.
51 Ministry of Justice, ’Ministeri Häkkänen: Oikeusministeriö käynnistää raiskauslainsäädännön
kokonaisuudistuksen’ (Oikeusministeriö, 15 January 2019). ”Oikeusministeri Antti Häkkänen asettaa työryhmän
raiskauslainsäädännön uudistamiseksi. Tavoitteena on muuttaa rikoslakia siten, että suostumuksen asema
raiskauksen tunnusmerkistössä vahvistuisi nykyisestä.” Author’s own translation: ”Antti Häkkänen, the Minister
of Justice, is comprising a working group that will work on the reform of rape legislation. The aim is to change
the legislation so, that the consent will have a stronger position in the qualifying elements of rape.”
52 Ministry of Justice, ’Ministeri Häkkänen: Oikeusministeriö käynnistää raiskauslainsäädännön
kokonaisuudistuksen’ (Oikeusministeriö, 15 January 2019).” Työryhmän tehtävänä on: valmistella säännökset,
joilla säädetään rangaistavaksi sukupuoliyhteys vastoin toisen ilmaisemaa tahtoa, arvioida myös uhrin avutonta
tilaa koskevaa sääntelyä ja tehdä tarvittavat muutosehdotukset, jotta sukupuoliyhteys ilman toisen suostumusta
on aina rangaistavaa, arvioida, voidaanko suostumuksen asemaa tunnusmerkistössä vahvistaa muilla keinoin.”
Author’s own translation: ”The tasks of the working group are: to prepare the legislation that will make non-
consensual sexual intercourse penalised, to assess the legislation regarding victim’s helpless state and to make
amendments if needed, so that non-consensual intercourse is always penalised, and to assess if the consent could
be taken into consideration in rape legislation, and to strengthen the position in alternative ways.”
16
4 EUROPEAN APPROACH ON RAPE LEGISLATION
The European approach to consent and penalisation of rape
Legislation of rape and consent have also been addressed on the European level. This chapter
will discuss whether there is a European standard on rape legislation and whether consent is
required in rape legislation. This will be done by introducing the pertinent instruments
concerning rape legislation in Europe, and by analysing what is required from the
participating states. The main instruments that have addressed rape-related issues are the
Council of Europe’s Convention on preventing and combating violence against women and
domestic violence (The Istanbul Convention) 53, the European Convention on Human Rights
(ECHR), and the case law of the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR).
The Istanbul Convention addresses the participatory states on how to prevent and combat
gender-based violence. The Convention can be seen as a minimum or a standard that the state
parties must follow. It includes a definition of rape, which is defined as a non-consensual
sexual act, including penetration, or other acts of a sexual nature. Most of the members of the
Council of Europe have signed the Convention, including the European Union, and 33 states
have ratified it.54 The Convention requires that all of the parties need to take legislative
measures “to exercise due diligence to prevent, investigate, punish and provide reparation for
acts of violence covered by the scope of this Convention that are perpetrated by non-State
actors”55. There is also a requirement that the following acts are criminalised: “engaging in
non-consensual vaginal, anal or oral penetration of a sexual nature of the body of another
person with any bodily part or object; engaging in other non-consensual acts of a sexual
nature with a person; causing another person to engage in non-consensual acts of a sexual
nature with a third person”56.
In addition to the Istanbul Convention, the Council of Europe has published a
recommendation from the Committee of Ministers on “The protection of women against
violence”. The Member States are recommended to “penalise any sexual act committed
53 Istanbul Convention (Council of Europe Convention on preventing and combating violence against women
and domestic violence).
54 Council of Europe, Chart of signatures and ratifications of Treaty 210.
55 Article 5(2) of the Istanbul Convention.
56 Article 36(1) of the Istanbul Convention.
17
against non-consenting persons, even if they do not show signs of resistance” in their national
legislation.57
Additionally, the ECHR approaches rape through Article 3 ECHR as rape is seen as a form of
ill-treatment58 and trough Article 8 ECHR as a violation of the right to respect for individual’s
sexual life59. The European standard for rape legislation was for instance discussed by the
ECtHR in the MC v Bulgaria case. The Court also found in the case that within Europe there
is a requirement of criminalization of all non-violent sexual violations60 and that the
requirement of consent is a growing trend across Europe61. The reasoning for penalising also
non-violent sexual acts is that “victims of sexual abuse – in particular, girls below the age of
majority – often provide no physical resistance because of a variety of psychological factors
or because they fear violence on the part of the perpetrator”.62 Therefore, there should not be
a requirement of “proof of physical resistance”, because this would mean that several rapes,
where no physical violence was used or where the victim did not physically resist, would not
be punished, and this would derogate the protection of individual’s sexual autonomy. The
Court stated that: “in accordance with contemporary standards and trends in that area, the
Member States' positive obligations under Articles 3 and 8 of the Convention must be seen as
requiring the penalisation and effective prosecution of any non-consensual sexual act,
including in the absence of physical resistance by the victim”.63 The Court held that Bulgaria
had failed to punish rape effectively, which is their obligation under the ECHR and therefore
failed “to protect the individual’s physical integrity and private life and to provide effective
remedies in this respect”.64
The Court approached also the issue of proving consent in the case, by stating that even if
there is “absence of direct proof of rape, such as traces of violence or direct witnesses”, there
57 Council of Europe. ‘The protection of women against violence, Recommendation No. R (2002) 5 of the
Committee of Ministers and Explanatory Memorandum” Appendix p. 14.
58 Patricia Londono, ‘Defining rape under the Convention on Human Rights’ in Clare McGlynn and Vanessa
Munro (eds), Rethinking Rape Law: International and Comparative Perspectives (Routledge 2010) p. 110.
59 Patricia Londono, ‘Defining rape under the Convention on Human Rights’ in Clare McGlynn and Vanessa
Munro (eds), Rethinking Rape Law: International and Comparative Perspectives (Routledge 2010) p. 110.
60 MC v Bulgaria ECHR 2003-XII, paras. 101, 162.
61 MC v Bulgaria ECHR 2003-XII, para. 156.
62 MC v Bulgaria ECHR 2003-XII, para. 164.
63 MC v Bulgaria ECHR 2003-XII, para. 166.
64 MC v Bulgaria ECHR 2003-XII, para. 109
18
must be a sufficient investigation of all facts by the national authorities, and they must make a
decision by taking all the facts, including the issue of non-consent into consideration.65
Framework on consent and penalisation of rape
According to the case law of ECHR, the baseline for rape legislation is that all non-violent
and non-consensual sexual acts should be criminalised and penalized in the Member States. It
also creates a positive obligation for the States to have adequate legislative measures to
punish rape effectively. The Court takes the view that there is a trend towards consent-based
legislation, and that all non-violent and non-consented sexual acts should be penalized. In the
case that there is little or no evidence of force, the case should not be dismissed if the act was
non-consensual, but all the facts should be taken into consideration. The legislation should
not require physical resistance from the victim’s side, as it is in conflict with the ECHR. The
contracting states should, therefore, evaluate their national laws on sexual crimes to ensure
that it is in line with the standard that is required.
After introducing and discussing the consent-based and coercion-based models in Europe,
and the legislation that is required from the Member States of Council of Europe and ECHR,
these models will be analysed. The European approach provides a baseline for the legislation,
what kind of acts should be penalised. As Finland and Sweden have different rape legislation
models in use, an assessment is made whether these both models provide adequate protection
for individuals against rape offences.
65 MC v Bulgaria ECHR 2003-XII, para. 181.
19
5 COMPARISON BETWEEN THE SWEDISH AND FINNISH RAPE
LEGISLATION
These two models, consent-based and coercion-based, have different kind of requirements on
what kind of acts are regarded as rape. There is also a difference in regard to what is required
of the victim. The coercion-based model, at least in Finland, requires that the victim must use
all of their efforts and powers in order to stop the sexual attack. This means, that often when
the victim is scared, the perpetrator does not have to use a lot of force in order to carry out the
rape. It is possible that the victim involuntarily paralyses from fear, and thus is unable to
make any efforts to stop the attack. In these cases, Finnish courts have not regarded these
cases as rapes, since the perpetrator did not have to use force. In the consent-based model, on
the other hand, there is no such requirement for the victim. It is sufficient for the victim to
state that they did not voluntarily participate in the sexual act.
Regarding the penalty for rape offences, Finland and Sweden have quite similar standards.
Rape convictions can give rise to a minimum sentence of two years and maximum six years
imprisonment in Sweden, while in Finland, the minimum is one year and the maximum is six
years. Both countries have also included a less serious offence of rape in their penal code,
which may give rise to a maximum of four years of imprisonment in Sweden and four months
or maximum of four years in Finland. The more serious rape offence in Finland is aggravated
rape which carries a minimum sentence of two years and a maximum sentence of ten years
imprisonment. The corresponding offence in Sweden is labelled as “gross rape” and can give
rise to a minimum of five years and a maximum of ten years.
Cases, where the use of violence has been minimal, are frequently qualified in Finland as
coercion to sexual acts, which is punishable by a fine or a maximum of three years
imprisonment.66 The new legislative amendment in Sweden added also the offence of
negligent rape, where the offender grossly disregarded the lack of consent, and this can give
rise to a maximum of four years of imprisonment, or if the circumstances are less serious, it is
possible that the offence will not be considered punishable at all.
The Swedish provision regarding rape used to be very similar Finnish law, as the old Swedish
provision also required the use or threat of violence. One of the main reasons for the
similarity of the provisions of these countries is the fact that Finland was under the Swedish
66 Finnish Penal Code, Chapter 20, Section 4.
20
regime for around 700 years.67 In 1734 the law that was the first codified law in Sweden was
also in use in Finland, as it was translated in Finnish in 1738. In 1809, Finland became an
autonomous part of the Russian Empire, and it was decided that Finland will continue to use
the Swedish law.68 The older provisions were concerning only rapes where the perpetrator
was male and the victim female, and excluded the rapes that happened within a marriage.
In Sweden, the rape provision was changed to a gender-neutral one in 1984, while Finland
changed the provision in this respect in 1998. Through this change, the rape legislation is
now able to protect more individuals, especially those individuals that are not engaging in
heterosexual relations. Previously in both countries, only a man could rape a woman, which
does not bring enough protection to individuals by excluding all other sexual acts between
different genders, or when the woman is the perpetrator.
Regarding both countries, the legislation has only fairly recently started protecting the rights
of women within marriages against rape. In Finland, until 1994 the husband could not be
charged with rape against his wife. Compared to Sweden, this change took place rather late,
as in Sweden the rape provision was already amended in 1984 in order to criminalise marital
rape and rape within a relationship.69 Globally, marital rape still remains as a problem as it is
not punishable in several countries in the world.70
As the previous discussion has shown, the main difference between the legislation of those
two countries lies in the exact threshold between lawful sexual intercourse and rape. In
67 Olli Lehtonen, ’Suomi osana Ruotsin valtakuntaa’ (Finnica 2003) ”Suomi oli seitsemänsadan vuoden ajan
osa Ruotsin kuningaskuntaa. Tänä aikana Suomeen juurtui se yhteiskuntajärjestys, jota nyt pidämme itsestään
selvänä: monet oikeusperiaatteet, tasa-arvokäsitys ja yksilönvapaus.” Author’s own translation: ”Finland was
part of the Swedish regime for seven hundred years. During this period, Finland created the society that is
considered self-evident nowadays: several legal principles, perception of equality and individual freedom.”
68 Eduskunta, Lakikirjanäyttely 2009. ”Vuoden 1809 valtiopäivillä päätettiin, että laki jää voimaan
autonomisessa Suomen suurruhtinaskunnassa. Laki on näin välittänyt Ruotsin vallan perintöä autonomian ajalle
ja myös itsenäiseen Suomeen. Lailla on ollut suuri merkitys Suomen oikeudellisen tradition luomisessa ja
myöhemmässä kehityksessä. Lain pitkäikäisyys on osoitus siitä, että lakiin on kirjattu periaatteita, jotka olivat
käyttökelpoisia vielä muuttuneissa yhteiskunnallisissa oloissa.” Author’s own translation: “The Diet of Finland
in 1809 decided that the law will remain in force in the autonomous Grand Duchy of Finland. The Swedish law
has influenced the Finnish law during the autonomy and after independence. The fact that the law has been in
use for such a long period shows that the law includes principles that are still valid in the society even though
the society has changed.“
69 Monica Burman, ‘Rethinking rape law in Sweden - Coercion, consent or non-voluntariness?’ in Clare
McGlynn and Vanessa Munro (eds), Rethinking Rape Law: International and Comparative Perspectives
(Routledge 2010) p. 197.
70 Linda Nyholm, ‘YK:n tasa-arvojärjestö: Alle puolessa maailman valtioista aviopuolison raiskaaminen on
rikos’ (Helsingin Sanomat, 25 June 2019). ”Raportin päätutkijan Shahrashoub Razavin mukaan 58 prosenttia
valtioista ei määrittele avioliitossa tapahtuva raiskausta rikokseksi.” Author’s own translation: ”According to the
main researcher of the report, Shahrashoub Razav, 58% of the states in the world do not criminalise marital
rape.”
21
Sweden, if the sexual act was involuntary, the conduct is qualified as rape, while in Finland,
the threshold is higher. According to Finnish law, the perpetrator must use violence or the
threat of it, and the victim must be unable to escape or prevent unlawful sexual intercourse or
sexual act. The Finnish provision even requires that the victim should resist the attack and
that the violence that is used or threat is so overpowering that the victim cannot escape from
the perpetrator in order to avert the attack.
When the victim is in an unconscious or helpless state, it may be difficult to be sure whether
the victim is able to consent to the sexual act, and whether the consent is compromised.
Regarding the coercion-based legislation, if the victim is in a state of helplessness, there
remains of how the other person can be sure that the victim is not willing to participate in the
sexual act when they cannot resist the attack. There also remains a problem with the
threshold, when can it be regarded that a person is in this state. If the victim is intoxicated, it
may remain unclear to the perpetrator whether that person is capable or not capable of giving
consent.
Rape legislation of Sweden and Finland and compatibility with the European
framework
The European approach to rape legislation is that all non-consensual sexual act must be
criminalised and punished. Consent-based legislation is more in line with the European
approach since the coercion-based model fails to criminalise non-consensual sexual acts.
Therefore, it seems that the European countries should amend their rape legislation to
consent-based. Due to the legislative amendment in Sweden, the legislation seems to be in
line with the European framework. In contrast, Finland, as they have coercion-based
legislation fails to comply with the European approach. It is likely that Finland will amend
soon the legislation to consent-based, which would be in line with the European framework.
Several other EU Member States are failing to comply with the European framework, as they
have coercion-based legislation.
Even though the consent-based model can be seen as a more adequate way to protect
individuals from unwanted sexual acts, there still remains some questions on how can consent
be established. There is also the problem of when consent is valid, for example when the
consent was given under the influence of intoxicants.
22
6 CRITICISM OF CONSENT-BASED AND COERCION-BASED RAPE
LEGISLATION
Reform towards consent-based legislation
There has been a general trend towards changing the provisions regarding rape to a consent-
based model, due to pressure from individuals and human rights associations. This can, for
instance, be seen in the case of Finland, where there is a pressure to change the coercion-
based model of rape legislation to a consent-based model. One perceived problem is, for
example, that coercion-based legislation focuses mainly on the violence aspect, and as a
result, the law fails to address any mental and psychological harm that can be caused by rape.
Therefore, consent-based law is arguably providing more adequate protection for individuals
and their sexual autonomy, as a non-consensual act violates this. The benefit of the consent-
based legislation is that the focus is more on the perpetrator and not on the victim, therefore it
is up to the court handling a rape case to determine whether the sexual act was consensual.71
Consent can be assessed by taking into consideration all of the circumstances of the case, to
assess whether consent was given in that case, and this way consent could be taken into
account when deciding rape cases.72
When compared to the coercion-based model, the fact that the qualification of rape in many
countries requires action from the victim’s side is very controversial, since no other provision
in the penal code requires action from the victim. Even the fact that what the victim has done
previously, or what kind of clothes they have been wearing may influence the decision
whether there was a rape or if it was consensual sex. One recent example of such a decision
can be found in an Irish case, where the defendant was acquitted since according to the court,
the underwear that the victim was wearing signalised consent. The judgment resulted to
71 Suostumus2018. UKK. ”Kun siirrytään suostumusperustaisuuteen, fokus siirtyy asianomistajasta tekijään.
Kun nyt oikeus arvioi, onko asianomistaja vastustanut tekoa, lakimuutoksen myötä oikeus arvioi sitä, onko
tekijä voinut päätellä suostumusta olevan. Tämä asettaa vastuun raiskauksesta yksinomaan sille kenelle se
kuuluu: tekijälle.” Author’s own translation: ”When changing to consent-based legislation, the focus is shifted
from the applicant to the accused. When now the court determines whether the applicant resisted the sexual act,
the legislative change would allow the court to determine whether the accused could have known about the
consent. This will put the burden on the one who it is supposed to be, on the accused.”
72 Suostumus2018, UKK. ”Suostumuksessa on kyse niin kutsutusta olosuhdekriteeristöstä. Tuomarit tekevät
kokonaisarvion, jonka perusteella päätellään, onko tekijä voinut päätellä suostumusta olevan. Jo nyt suostumus
huomioidaan suuressa osassa raiskaustuomioissa. Lakimuutos tarkoittaisi sitä, että tuomarien tulisi
järjestelmällisesti ja johdonmukaisesti huomioida suostumus.” Author’s own translation: ”Consent is based on
circumstances. Judges will assess the situation as whole, where it can be decided whether the accused could
have known about the consent. The legislative amendment would mean that judges would have to take consent
into consideration systematically and consistently in judgments.”
23
protests and discussion in social media, where the hashtag #ThisIsNotConsent was created. 73
It seems unreasonable if consent can be drawn from the clothes that a person is wearing as
there is no verbal expression of consent or it cannot be inferred in behaviour.
The importance of consent, and penalising non-consensual acts has materialised. Recently the
governments of Greece and Denmark have committed to amend their rape legislation to
consent-based. This shows that there is a growing trend to recognise that non-consensual sex
is regarded as rape.74 Consequently, this will allow individuals that are victims of sexual
crimes can seek justice, and hence easing the standard of proof needed for rape convictions.
Defining consent
Consent-based legislation is used in a few countries in the world, these are for example the
United Kingdom, Ireland and Germany.75 When amending to consent-based legislation, it is
also important to define consent and how consent can be given. These following examples
will present how consent is defined in the states that have consent-based legislation.
However, the problem regarding consent is its definition as well as the question of and how
consent is best understood and interpreted. In linguistics, consent is defined as an agreement
to something, assenting to a proposition.76 When regarding the definition in the legal field,
often there are only a few legal definitions of consent in the criminal law, or in case law. One
Irish case has tried to define consent as to how it should be communicated to the jury in trial
cases. The baseline is, when there is sexual intercourse and no consent, it is rape.77 If the
accused knew that the woman did not consent to the sexual intercourse, the lack of consent is
easily established. When the accused has acted recklessly, by ignoring the fact that a
reasonable man would have understood that the women did not consent, and taking an
unjustified risk, it is often assessed as there is no consent from the women’s side.78 Matters
become even more difficult in cases where the accused believed that the sexual intercourse
73 Casey Quackenbush, ‘'You Have to Look at the Way She Was Dressed.' Ireland Protests After Lawyer Cites a
Thong as Consent’ (Time, 16 November 2018).
74 Amnesty, ‘Denmark: Government commitment to amend rape law is a hard-won victory’ (Amensty
International News, 26 June 2019).
75 Anna Bluś, ‘Sex without consent is rape. So why do only eight European countries recognise this?’ (Amnesty
International, 23 April 2018).
76 Merriam-Webster, The definition of consent.
77 Director of Public Prosecutions v O'R, [2016] IESC 64, Irish Supreme Court, para. 35.
78 Director of Public Prosecutions v O’R, [2016] IESC 64, Irish Supreme Court, paras. 41, 47.
24
was consensual. The Irish Supreme Court held that: “there must be “an honestly held belief”
that the woman was actually consenting, and the jury must consider whether this honest
belief of actual consent was reasonably held.”79 Other Irish cases have discussed about the
level of knowledge of the accused, that it matters only how the individual would have
understood the situation, and not how a reasonable man would have seen it. Therefore, if the
man honestly believed that the sexual interaction was consensual, it can be used as a
defence.80
Comparing to other countries that have consent-based legislation, the United States does not
have a uniform rape legislation as each state can legislate on this matter, but on the federal
level, rape has been defined as: “penetration, no matter how slight, of the vagina or anus with
any body part or object, or oral penetration by a sex organ of another person, without the
consent of the victim”.81 Regarding the definition of consent, the American Law Institute
(ALI) has created a comprehensive definition for consent by stating that it is “a person’s
willingness to engage in a specific act of sexual penetration or sexual contact”. Consent can
be also expressed, or inferred from behaviour, depending on the context and circumstances. It
also states that there is no requirement of verbal or physical resistance in order to express
non-consent. The consent may be also withdrawn at any stage by verbal refusal. 82
The definition of consent in English law is stated as: "a person consents if he agrees by
choice, and has the freedom and capacity to make that choice”.83 Additionally, there is a code
for prosecutors on how rape should be charged, and it also approaches the evidentiary issues
by providing instructions. It addresses the issue that often rape cases are difficult to prove
since the only evidence is words of the victim or the defendant. The prosecutors are advised
to work with the police in order to make cases stronger for the court. Regarding whether to
press charges against the perpetrator, the prosecutor must view the report produced in line
with the Directors Guidance.”84
79 Clare Feikert-Ahalt, “Ireland: Judgment Clarifies Definition of Consent in Rape Cases” (Global Legal
Monitor, 21 November 2016).
80 The People (DPP) v C O’R [2016] IESC 64, [2016] 3 IR 322, Irish Supreme Court, para. 45.
81 Office of the Attorney General, ‘AN UPDATED DEFINITION OF RAPE’ (The United States Department of
Justice Archives, 6 Januari 2012)
82 Jennifer Morinigo, ‘Updated “Consent” Definition’ (The ALI Adviser, 19 December 2016).
83 Sexual Offences Act 2003, section 74.
84 CPS, Rape and Sexual Offences - Chapter 2: Sexual Offences Act 2003 - Principal Offences, and Sexual
Offences Act 1956 - Most commonly charged offences. Non-consensual offences.
25
If states start to change their rape legislation to a consent-based one, a definition of consent is
also needed. The current states that have consent-based legislation, there are only a few
official or legal definitions for consent, or it is created through case law. The problem lies in
the understanding of consent, since every individual may have their own interpretation of
what is consent. When there is no universal definition of it or no definition in the national
legislation, it is difficult to understand what consent is actually. Another problem lies in how
the consent can be proven since often rape cases happen in private sphere between two
individuals.
Obtaining consent
Another issue in regard to the consent-based model is how to obtain the consent. Should there
be a verbal confirmation of consent, or is it sufficient to rely on physical actions? The
definition provided by the ALI provided the widest definition for consent, as it provides that
consent can be expressed or inferred in behaviour. The expression can be in a form of decline,
but it remains unclear what kind of behaviour is regarded as consent or non-consent.
Additionally, should there be a requirement of asking before acting whether it is fine to
proceed with the sexual activity, instead of expressing no when the other person is acting
already. These kinds of questions are not likely to be solved through legislation, but with for
example teaching how to act in sexual interaction. The focus should be put also on the
importance of consent and respecting the sexual autonomy of a person.
Problems of consent-based legislation
Not everybody agrees with the reform towards consent-based rape legislation, since there are
still some problems that need to be solved. Firstly, in some states, the definition of consent is
still lacking a legal definition as discussed above. Secondly, it is unclear how can consent or
non-consent be proven, and this should be addressed in order to make uniform decisions
regarding rape cases. Other critique has been addressed to the fact that the law is difficult to
enforce. Enforcement issues concern the determination of what kind of acts will be
punishable, and of proving the obtainment of consent.85
85 Elin Hofverberg, ‘Sweden: Parliament Makes Lack of Consent the Basis for Rape Charges, Introduces
Criminal Liability for Negligent Sexual Assault’ (Global Legal Monitor, 3 July 2018).
26
In Sweden, a non-profit association is working on promoting the culture of consent, which
will enable to make sure that everyone understands what consent is. As the amendment has
been quite recent, and there is not a lot of case law, it is important that consent is discussed
elsewhere.86 Their website includes definitions of consent and rape, with the objective to
make consent a basis of every relationship.87 This type of approach of involvement of
associations should be taken into account when amending legislation to consent-based, as
associations may help with the problems of defining and obtaining consent. It is likely that if
Finland amends the legislation to consent-based, that they will also try to create a definition
for consent. If Swedish law is working on defining consent, it can influence also on the
Finnish view of consent.
Problems of coercion-based legislation
The reasons for moving towards consent-based legislation from coercion-based is due to the
fact that violence is always required in the coercion-based model. The requirement of
violence or the threat of it implies that a person will always resist a sexual act if they are not
consenting to the act. This leaves out the fact that victims may not resist the act if they suffer
from involuntary paralysis, where the person cannot move due to fear or other state of
helplessness. As this is a common response to sexual assault, this results that the perpetrator
did not have to use violence in the act. Therefore, these kinds of acts remain unpunished due
to the fact that consent is assumed when the victim did not physically resist the act, but in
reality, they did not voluntarily participate in the act. The coercion-based model leaves out
completely this kind of situations.88 Compared to the consent-based legislation, a simple
decline is enough for the case to amount as a rape, where the other person has commenced or
86 Linda Söderlund, ‘Samtyckeslagen har haft effekt på domarna i Sverige - men fortfarande behandlas endast
en bråkdel av våldtäkterna i domstol’ (Svenska Yle, 14 June 2019). “Fatta jobbar nu vidare för att det ska finnas
en samtyckeskultur, det vill säga att det ska vara tydligt för alla vad samtycke innebär i praktiken.” Author’s
own translation: ”Fatta now works to ensure that there is a culture of consent, that is, it must be clear to
everyone what consent means in practice.”
87 Fatta, ‘Fatta Samtyckte’ (2019). “Syftet med metodmaterialet ”Let’s talk about consent baby! – Sex steg till
en samtyckeskultur” är att få oss att fundera kring vad samtycke egentligen innebär och hur vi kan se till att vi
tillämpar det i alla mellanmänskliga relationer, inte bara sexuella. För om samtycke ska kunna tillämpas i
sexuella situationer, är det viktigt att det blir grunden för alla relationer.” Author’s own translation: “The
purpose of the method material "Let's talk about consent baby! - Six steps to a culture of consent " is to make us
think about what consent really means and how we can ensure that we apply it in all interpersonal relationships,
not just sexual. Because if consent is to be applied in sexual situations, it is important that it becomes the basis
for all relationships.”
88 Amnesty, ’Nordic countries: Survivors of rape unite to end impunity for rapists and break barriers to justice’
(Amnesty International News, 3 April 2019).
27
continued a sexual act. This similar case would not be interpreted as rape in coercion-based
legislation if there was no violence or threat of it involved in the act.
Recommendations for rape legislation
Consent-based legislation can provide more adequate protection for individuals, because
rapes can happen in situations where there is no violence required from the perpetrator in
order to rape another person. As the victim may be terrified or suffer from involuntary
paralysis due to the initiation of the sexual act, the victim may not physically resist. When the
victim is not physically resisting, for example, due to fear, the perpetrator may not need
violence in order to carry out the act. The consent-base model focuses on the protection of
sexual autonomy, it is for the individual to decide whether or not to engage in sexual acts, and
if they do not participate voluntarily, it is a punishable offence. This protects the rights of the
individual and does not require the individual to be able to resist and possibly prevent the
attack. Additionally, the provision should be gender-neutral, and protect individuals within
relationships and marriages, as individuals deserve protection no matter of their gender or
other factors. Legislative reform, that would include these elements, has a possibility to
protect individuals the most. Also, the view that non-consensual acts are punishable shows
that sexual autonomy is a protected interest, and further will change the morals and views that
consent is always needed in sexual relations.
28
7 CONCLUSION
Rape has been legislated previously, and nowadays still in some countries, as forceful
intercourse, where a man penetrates a vagina. Previously sexual crimes were penalised in
order to protect the male relatives or husband of a woman and mainly protecting against rapes
where violence was used. The violence criteria is still in use in countries that have coercion-
based legislation, where violence or the threat of it is required for the qualification of rape.
The tight criteria for qualification of rape is due to the fact that states have been reluctant to
interfere with the private life of individuals, and also because rape is difficult to prove
without physical marks of violence. There is also a fear of false rape accusations when the
threshold is lowered to lack of voluntariness or lack of consent. Despite this, several countries
have changed their rape legislation to the consent-based model, including Sweden that
changed their rape legislation in 2018.
The reason for the trend towards consent-based legislation is due to the reason that rape is
seen nowadays as a violation of an individual’s integrity and sexual autonomy in several
countries including Sweden. Therefore, it is important to have adequate legislation to protect
individuals from rape and other sexual crimes. The consent-based model is seen as a more
adequate model to protect individuals from rapes as it includes non-violent and non-
consensual acts, where the coercion-based model only protects from non-violent sexual acts.
Consent is seen as an important factor since non-consensual sexual acts violate the person's
sexual autonomy, where the individual can decide whether they want to engage in sexual acts.
The coercion-based model does not cover cases where the victim did not physically resist the
act, or when the perpetrator did not have to use violence because the victim was suffering
from involuntary paralysis due to fear. This kind of cases happen, but these are not regarded
as rapes in countries that use the coercion-based legislation. This leaves out a large number of
possible convictions. Additionally, the European approach is to protect individuals from non-
consensual sexual acts, therefore, the countries that use the coercion-based model are not in
line with this approach.
Even though consent is seen as an important quality in legislation, it is not necessarily the
most adequate way to protect individuals. Gender-neutrality is one important quality, as a
perpetrator or a victim can be any gender. Often the older rape legislations were only
penalising a forceful penetration to vagina by penis, where it only applies to cases where the
perpetrator was male and victim female. Additionally, it is important to protect individuals in
29
relationships and marriages. Previously, and still some countries, do not penalise when the
husband rapes his wife. Sweden and Finland have had reformed their penal codes, where the
provision was amended as gender-neutral, and marital rape was penalised.
Regarding the Swedish consent-based legislation, it will remain to be seen how much does
the new law affect the rape convictions. Already in 2018, there were four cases where
consent-based legislation resulted in a conviction of rape. Finland will likely amend their
legislation to consent-based soon, and therefore Finland will also be in line with the European
approach.
To answer the question of how can consent-based legislation protect individuals better in
comparison to the coercion-based legislation, it must be mentioned that even though it seems
that consent-based legislation can possibly result in more convictions, there will be the
problem of how to prove consent. Sexual activity often occurs in private, there are less likely
to be any witnesses to the act. It is also possible that the other person is not capable of giving
informed consent. Consent should be obtained before initiating a sexual act, or at the latest
non-consent should be understood if the other person says “no” or behaves in such a manner.
As consent-based legislation is emerging trend within Europe, it seems that it is a better fit
for rape legislation in comparison to the coercion-based legislation. Nowadays, rape is seen
as a non-consensual act, the requirement of violence seems unreasonable. Therefore, it seems
that the consent-based legislation fits more to the morals of today in Europe due to the
changed mindset. As human integrity and sexual autonomy are seen as important rights of the
individual, it should be understood that sexual activity requires consent.
30
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