Molecular Detection of the Seed-Borne Pathogen Colletotrichum lupini Targeting the Hyper-Variable IGS Region of the Ribosomal Cluster

Abstract

Lupins anthracnose is a destructive seed and airborne disease caused by Colletotrichum lupini, affecting stems and pods. Primary seed infections as low as 0.01–0.1% can cause very severe yield losses. One of the most effective management strategies is the development of a robust and sensitive seed detection assay to screen seed lots before planting. PCR-based detection systems exhibit higher levels of sensitivity than conventional techniques, but when applied to seed tests they require the extraction of PCR-quality DNA from target organisms in backgrounds of saprophytic organisms and inhibitory seed-derived compounds. To overcome these limitations, a new detection protocol for C. lupini based on a biological enrichment step followed by a PCR assay was developed. Several enrichment protocols were compared with Yeast Malt Broth amended with ampicillin, streptomycin, and lactic acid were the most efficient. A species-specific C. lupini primer pair was developed based on rDNA IGS sequences. The specificity was evaluated against 17 strains of C. lupini, 23 different Colletotrichum species, and 21 different organisms isolated from seeds of Lupinus albus cv. Multitalia, L. luteus cv. Mister, and L. angustifolius cv. Tango. The protocol described here enabled the detection of C. lupini in samples artificially infected with less than 1/10,000 infected seed.

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Article
Molecular Detection of the Seed-Borne Pathogen
Colletotrichum lupini Targeting the Hyper-Variable
IGS Region of the Ribosomal Cluster
Susanna Pecchia 1, * , Benedetta Caggiano 1, Daniele Da Lio 2, Giovanni Cafà3,
Gaetan Le Floch 2and Riccardo Baroncelli 4, *
1
Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Pisa, Via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy
2Laboratoire Universitaire de Biodiversitéet Ecologie Microbienne, EA 3882, IBSAM, ESIAB, Universitéde
Brest, Technopôle Brest-Iroise, 29280 Plouzané, France
3CABI Europe-UK, Bakeham Lane, Egham, Surrey TW20 9TY, UK
4Instituto Hispano-Luso de Investigaciones Agrarias (CIALE), University of Salamanca, Calle del Duero 12,
37185 Villamayor (Salamanca), Spain
*Correspondence: susanna.pecchia@unipi.it (S.P.); riccardobaroncelli@gmail.com (R.B.)
Received: 20 June 2019; Accepted: 12 July 2019; Published: 14 July 2019


Abstract:
Lupins anthracnose is a destructive seed and airborne disease caused by Colletotrichum
lupini, affecting stems and pods. Primary seed infections as low as 0.01–0.1% can cause very severe
yield losses. One of the most effective management strategies is the development of a robust and
sensitive seed detection assay to screen seed lots before planting. PCR-based detection systems exhibit
higher levels of sensitivity than conventional techniques, but when applied to seed tests they require
the extraction of PCR-quality DNA from target organisms in backgrounds of saprophytic organisms
and inhibitory seed-derived compounds. To overcome these limitations, a new detection protocol
for C. lupini based on a biological enrichment step followed by a PCR assay was developed. Several
enrichment protocols were compared with Yeast Malt Broth amended with ampicillin, streptomycin,
and lactic acid were the most efficient. A species-specific C. lupini primer pair was developed based
on rDNA IGS sequences. The specificity was evaluated against 17 strains of C. lupini, 23 different
Colletotrichum species, and 21 different organisms isolated from seeds of Lupinus albus cv. Multitalia,
L. luteus cv. Mister, and L. angustifolius cv. Tango. The protocol described here enabled the detection
of C. lupini in samples artificially infected with less than 1/10,000 infected seed.
Keywords:
IGS; ribosomal intergenic spacer; Colletotrichum acutatum;Lupinus; lupins; legumes;
fungal pathogens
1. Introduction
Lupinus spp. are important agronomic crops worldwide, with several species that are grown as
ornamentals or as pioneer plants in soil maintenance programmes [
1
,
2
]. In natural ecosystems, lupin
plants are key components of a wide range of soils and climates, mainly around the Mediterranean basin,
East Africa, and the entire American continent. While the species of Africa, Asia, and Europe are few
and well defined, the American species are many, morphologically intersecting, and intercrossing [
3
].
Lupin is an important crop mainly due to its elevated seed protein content, its adaptability to
low fertility soils, and its valuable influence on crop rotation [
1
,
4
–
6
]. The seed composition of specific
cultivars of white lupin (Lupinus albus) is very similar to soybean (35% proteins and 0.5% starch),
with some species that are able to reach high levels of up to 18% of oil content. The vividly colored
flowers of lupins contribute to their importance as ornamental plants (e.g., L. polyphyllus, also known
as large-leaved lupine), and are amongst the most popular ornamental plants in temperate climate
Plants 2019,8, 222; doi:10.3390/plants8070222 www.mdpi.com/journal/plants

Plants 2019,8, 222 2 of 16
areas [
7
]. For all these reasons, lupin production has rapidly increased in the last 10 years from 778,040
to 1,610,969 tonnes, [
8
]; nevertheless, effective lupin production is limited by diseases, which can lead
to substantial yield and quality losses. In the past four decades, lupin production has encountered a
new challenge: the devastating disease anthracnose affecting all plant tissues caused by Colletotrichum
lupini [9–12].
Anthracnose has become a severe disease of lupin species worldwide, causing significant yield
losses as high as 100%, representing a major limiting factor for lupin production [
11
–
15
]. Symptoms
of anthracnose are similar for all Lupinus spp. [
16
], and are characterised by necrotic tissues with the
presence of orange conidial masses and characteristic stems, petioles, and pods twisting [
4
]. Infected
seeds become necrotic and wrinkled; when seeds are able to germinate, the seedlings show dark
sunken necrosis in the cotyledons or in the hypocotyl [
17
]. The disease is mainly seed-borne [
18
],
with primary seed infections as low as 0.01% that can cause extremely severe infections depending on
climatic and agro ecological conditions [
13
,
19
]. While most lupin species are characterized by wide
genetic diversity, it has been very difficult to find successful resistance sources. Recent achievements in
this area are still limited by a very restricted number of known resistance genes, exposing lupin to the
potential overcoming of such resistances [4].
Most species of the genus Colletotrichum (Ascomycota,Sordariomycetes,Glomerellales, and Glomerellaceae)
are associated with plant diseases, and generally referred to as anthracnose. Colletotrichum spp. can
infect a wide range of hosts and are distributed worldwide. Virtually every crop is susceptible to
one or more species of Colletotrichum, which is considered one of the most important fungal plant
pathogens based on scientific/economic importance [
20
]. Common Colletotrichum spp. hosts include
many dicotyledonous plants and most important cereals. Species of Colletotrichum and Magnaporthe
have a distinct hemibiotrophic lifestyle characterized by a brief biotrophic phase, associated with
large intracellular primary hyphae and a subsequent switch to a necrotrophic phase in addition to
narrow secondary hyphae that spread through the host tissue. In past decades, the genus Colletotrichum
has been the centre of intense debate and frequent taxonomic changes [
20
], with recent multi-locus
phylogenetics that has led to the identification of at least 14 major monophyletic clades known as
“species complexes” [
21
,
22
]. Colletotrichum species identified within and among these complexes
have shown significant differences in their host range. For example, the C. acutatum species complex
includes C. nymphaeae and C. fioriniae, which display a broad host range, and C. lupini, which exhibits
a host preference for lupin species. Due to this biological diversity, the C. acutatum species complex
has been suggested as a suitable model to investigate genomic signatures associated with changes of
key biological characters [
4
,
23
]. Recently, the intraspecific diversity of Colletotrichum associated with
lupin crops in the western area of France and worldwide has been widely investigated [
24
]. All strains
isolated from anthracnose-infected lupin have been identified as C. lupini, confirming that the disease
is exclusively caused by this species. The genetic intraspecific diversity based on eight genomic loci
with high resolution was low and revealed the presence of two distinct genetic groups [24].
The nuclear ribosomal cluster has been the most common DNA marker for PCR primer design
of diagnostic assays for the detection of fungal plant pathogens. Moreover, this method allows for
sensitive detection, as it is organized in units highly repeated within genomes. The cluster contains
rRNA genes (18S, 5.8S, and 28S) separated by two internal transcribed spacers (ITS1 and ITS2) and one
intergenic spacer (IGS) [
25
]. Recent phylogenetic studies have highlighted that the ITS region of the
rDNA does not have sufficient variability to perform a correct taxonomic designation [
26
] or to develop
specific primers for most Colletotrichum species. For this reason, other highly polymorphic single copy
genes have been proposed to develop specific detection methods for Colletotrichum spp. [
27
]. In the
present study, authors decided to focus their attention on the IGS region due its multicopy nature
and high variability. The IGS region is highly polymorphic, and thus is a useful region for specific
molecular diagnostic assays in fungal plant pathogens. These included Botrytis cinerea [
28
,
29
], Fusarium
circinatum [
30
], F. oxysporum f. sp. vasinfectum [
31
], Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense [
32
], Phytophthora
medicaginis [33], Verticillium dahliae and V. alboatrum [34,35], and Macrophomina phaseolina [36].

Plants 2019,8, 222 3 of 16
Infected lupin seeds are the primary source of inoculum of C. lupini, and the development of a
robust and sensitive diagnostic assay for early detection of contaminated seed lots able to screen before
planting remains one of the most effective management strategies. The aim of this work is to provide a
specific, sensitive, and simple molecular diagnostic assay for the early detection of C. lupini on seeds
that could reduce the impact of anthracnose on lupin production.
2. Results
2.1. Evaluation of the Mycoflora Associated with Lupin Seeds
The most common fungi isolated from the three lupin species were Alternaria alternata, Aspergillus
spp., Cladosporium oxysporum,Mucor sp., and Penicillium spp. Overall, fungi of 16 genera and 10 species
were recovered from lupin seeds, in addition to one yeast and one sterile mycelium, as shown in
Table 1. Fungal colonies developing around the seeds were transferred onto fresh Potato Dextrose
Agar (PDA) plates amended with streptomycin before identification, and identification was based on
morphological characteristics observed under stereoscopic and optical microscope. Fungal isolates
with ambiguous taxonomic designation were analysed by molecular characterisation with the DNA
regions of ITS rDNA, β-tubulin, or EF1-α.
Table 1.
Percentage of contaminated seeds and mycoflora composition of the studied lupin varieties.
Methods and accession number of genetic loci used for the characterization of main contaminants are
also reported.
Lupinus spp. albus luteus angustifolius
Method 1
Loci used for molecular
characterization
cultivar Multitalia Mister Tango
Contamination (%) 84 82 60 Accession of reference sequences
Germination (%) 85.5 70.5 93.5 ITS TUB TEF
Alternaria alternata 42 4 2 M&G MK560162 MK567923 -
Alternaria infectoria 2 - - M&G MK560163 MK567924 -
Alternaria tenuissima 4 - - M&G MK560164 MK567925 -
Arthrinium phaeospermum 2 - - M&G MK560165 - -
Aspergillus spp. 6 40 10 M - - -
Botrytis cinerea 2 - - M&G MK560166 - -
Chaetomium sp. - - 2 M - - -
Cladosporium oxysporum 14 28 22 M&G MK560167 MK567926 -
Curvularia hawaiiensis 2 - - M&G MK560168 MK567927 -
Diaporthe sp. 2 - - M - - -
Eurotium sp. - - 2 M&G MK560169 - -
Fusarium incarnatum 2 - - M - - MK567921
Fusarium tricinctum 2 - - M - - MK567922
Lecythophora sp. - - 2 M&G MK560170 MK567928 -
Mucor sp. 8 8 - M - - -
Penicillium spp. 12 22 22 M - - -
Sordaria fimicola - 2 - M&G MK560171 MK567929 -
Trichoderma spp. 2 - 2 M - - -
Meyerozima caribbica 2 - - M&G MK560172 - -
Sterile mycelium - - 2 M - - -
1
Method used for the characterization: M indicates the strains were characterized morphologically, and M&G
indicates morphologically and genetically.
Alternaria alternata,Cladosporium oxysporum, and Penicillium spp. were the main fungi in L. albus
cv. Multitalia. Aspergillus spp., Cladosporium oxysporum, and Penicillium spp. were, instead, the main
fungi isolated from seeds of L. angustifolius cv. Tango and L. luteus cv. Mister. Additional common
fungal pathogens were isolated from the seeds such as Fusarium tricinctum,F. incarnatum,Diaporthe sp.,
Alternaria alternata,Cladosporium oxysporum, and Botrytis cinerea. However, such fungal strains are not
known to be key pathogens of lupins. L. albus cv. Multitalia showed the greatest variability of fungal
genera isolated (15/21), while L. luteus cv. Mister and L. angustifolius cv. Tango showed 6/21 and 9/21
fungal genera isolated, respectively (including 1 sterile mycelium). C. lupini was never isolated from
the seeds of the three lupin species analysed, and therefore the same batch of seeds was used in the
artificial inoculation experiments.

Plants 2019,8, 222 4 of 16
2.2. Artificial Inoculation of Lupin Seeds by the Water-Restriction Technique
The influence of substrate osmotic potential on the growth rate of C. lupini isolate IMI504893 and
on seeds germination of three lupin species was investigated (Figure 1). C. lupini isolate IMI504893 was
growing faster on substrate characterized by osmotic potentials lower than
−
0.3 MPa, corresponding to
the osmotic potential of PDA without mannitol (Figure 1A). No significant differences were found on
colony diameter at each time on PDA osmotically modified with mannitol (
−
0.8,
−
1.0, and
−
1.2 MPa).
On the contrary, data on non-amended PDA (
−
0.3 MPa) were significantly different from corresponding
data on PDA osmotically modified with mannitol (Figure 1). Sterilized seeds of lupin species were
placed onto PDA medium at different osmotic potentials with the aim to evaluate the influence of the
substrate on seed germination (Figure 1B–D). Seed germination was strongly reduced at all the osmotic
potentials used; however, after 96 h of incubation on PDA with an osmotic potential of
−
1.2 MPa, seeds
of L. albus cv. Multitalia (6.67%) and of L. luteus cv. Mister (33.33%) started to germinate (Figure S1).
Plants 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 16
fungal pathogens were isolated from the seeds such as Fusarium tricinctum, F. incarnatum, Diaporthe
sp., Alternaria alternata, Cladosporium oxysporum, and Botrytis cinerea. However, such fungal strains are
not known to be key pathogens of lupins. L. albus cv. Multitalia showed the greatest variability of
fungal genera isolated (15/21), while L. luteus cv. Mister and L. angustifolius cv. Tango showed 6/21
and 9/21 fungal genera isolated, respectively (including 1 sterile mycelium). C. lupini was never
isolated from the seeds of the three lupin species analysed, and therefore the same batch of seeds was
used in the artificial inoculation experiments.
2.2. Artificial Inoculation of Lupin Seeds by the Water-Restriction Technique
The influence of substrate osmotic potential on the growth rate of C. lupini isolate IMI504893 and
on seeds germination of three lupin species was investigated (Figure 1). C. lupini isolate IMI504893
was growing faster on substrate characterized by osmotic potentials lower than −0.3 MPa,
corresponding to the osmotic potential of PDA without mannitol (Figure 1A). No significant
differences were found on colony diameter at each time on PDA osmotically modified with mannitol
(−0.8, −1.0, and −1.2 MPa). On the contrary, data on non-amended PDA (−0.3 MPa) were significantly
different from corresponding data on PDA osmotically modified with mannitol (Figure 1). Sterilized
seeds of lupin species were placed onto PDA medium at different osmotic potentials with the aim to
evaluate the influence of the substrate on seed germination (Figure 1B–D). Seed germination was
strongly reduced at all the osmotic potentials used; however, after 96 h of incubation on PDA with
an osmotic potential of −1.2 MPa, seeds of L. albus cv. Multitalia (6.67%) and of L. luteus cv. Mister
(33.33%) started to germinate (Figure S1).
Figure 1. Mycelial growth of the isolate IMI504893 of C. lupini on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA)
osmotically modified with mannitol after 72 h of incubation (A). Lupin seed germination on PDA
osmotically modified with mannitol: (B) = L. albus cv. Multitalia; (C) = L. luteus cv. Mister; (D) = L.
angustifolius cv. Tango. −0.3 Mpa = PDA alone; −0.8 Mpa = PDA amended with 33.10 g l−1 mannitol;
−1.0 MPa = PDA amended with 47.75 g l−1 mannitol; and −1.2 MPa = PDA amended with 62.46 g l−1
mannitol.
Figure 1.
Mycelial growth of the isolate IMI504893 of C. lupini on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) osmotically
modified with mannitol after 72 h of incubation (
A
). Lupin seed germination on PDA osmotically
modified with mannitol: (
B
)=L. albus cv. Multitalia; (
C
)=L. luteus cv. Mister; (
D
)=L. angustifolius cv.
Tango.
−
0.3 Mpa =PDA alone;
−
0.8 Mpa =PDA amended with 33.10 g L
−1
mannitol;
−
1.0 MPa =PDA
amended with 47.75 g L−1mannitol; and −1.2 MPa =PDA amended with 62.46 g L−1mannitol.
Given that the mycelial growth was stimulated at the osmotic potential of
−
1.2 MPa, and seed
germination was inhibited at the same potential up to 72 h, the artificial inoculation of lupin seeds on
PDA was adjusted at
−
1.2 MPa for 72 h. Inoculation was confirmed by plating 20 seeds of each cultivars
on PDA amended with streptomycin. After 3 days, mycelium of C. lupini IMI504893 developed from
all tested seeds.

Plants 2019,8, 222 5 of 16
2.3. Development of a Specific PCR Assay for C. lupini
Total genomic DNA was successfully extracted from all the fungi listed in Tables 1and 2. PCR
amplification of the ITS region with the primer pair ITS5/ITS4 was performed on non-target species of
Colletotrichum spp. (Table 2) and on fungi isolated from the seeds (Table 1). The ITS region was amplified
as positive control for the extracted DNA, thereby excluding false negative results. Amplicons were
obtained from all the tested fungi and varied between 550 and 700 bp.
Table 2. Colletotrichum isolates used in this study and relative information.
Colletotrichum spp. Isolate 1Host Country 2
GenBank Accession Numbers 3
ITS rDNA
cluster IGS
C. lupini PT30, RB020 Lupinus albus PT MK463722 - MK567906
C. lupini CBS129944, RB042 Cinnamomum sp. PT MH865693 - MK567907
C. lupini CSL1294, RB116 Lupinus polyphyllus GB MK463723 - MK567908
C. lupini G52, RB119 Lupinus albus DE MK463724 - MK567909
C. lupini 96A649, RB120 Lupinus polyphyllus AU MK463725 - MK567910
C. lupini IMI504884, RB121 Lupinus albus CA KJ018635 - MK567911
C. lupini C3, RB122 Lupinus luteus PL MK463726 - MK567912
C. lupini IMI504885, RB123 Lupinus albus ZA MK463727 - MK567913
C. lupini 70555, RB124 Lupinus albus CL MK463728 - MK567914
C. lupini CBS109224, RB125 Lupinus albus AT JQ948172 - MK567915
C. lupini PT702, RB127 Olea europea ES MK463729 - MK567916
C. lupini IMI350308, RB147 Lupinus sp. GB MK463730 - MK567917
C. lupini CBS109221, RB172 Lupinus albus DE JQ948169 - MK567918
C. lupini CBS109225, RB173 Lupinus albus US JQ948155 MK541036 -
C. lupini IMI375715, RB217 Lupinus albus AU JQ948161 - MK567919
C. lupini IMI504893, RB221 Lupinus sp. FR MK463733 MK541037 -
C. lupini CBS509.97, RB235 Lupinus albus FR JQ948159 - MK567920
C. abscissum IMI504790, RB197 Citrus x sinensis US KT153558 MK541030 -
C. costaricense CBS211.78, RB184 Coffea sp. CR JQ948181 MK541033 -
C. cuscutae IMI304802, RB216 Cuscuta sp. DM JQ948195 - -
C. melonis CBS134730, RB237 Malus domestica BR KC204997 - -
C. paranaense IMI384185, RB218 Caryocar brasiliense BR JQ948191 - -
C. tamarilloi CBS129955, RB018 Solanum betaceum CO JQ948189 MK541029 -
Colletotrichum sp. CBS101611, RB170 Fern CR JQ948196 - -
C. nymphaeae IMI 504889, RB190 Fragaria x ananassa DK KT153561 MK541035 -
C. simmondsii CBS 122122, RB179 Carica papaya AU JQ948276 MK541034 -
C. fioriniae IMI 504882, RB111 Fragaria x ananassa NZ KT153562 MK541031 -
C. acutatum CBS 112980, RB175 Pinus radiata ZA JQ948356 - -
C. godetiae CBS 193.32, RB019 Olea europaea IT JQ948415 - -
C. phormii CBS 102054, RB171 Phormium sp. NZ JQ948448 - -
C. salicis CBS 607.94, RB157 Salix sp. NL JQ948460 MK541032 -
C. coccodes RB302 Solanum lycopersicum IT MK531998 - -
C. spinaciae RB305 Spinacia oleracea IT MK531997 - -
C. higginsianum IMI 349063, RB300 Brassica chinensis TT JQ005760 - -
C. graminicola CBS130836, RB301 Zea mays US JQ005767 - -
C. fructicola CSL386, RB003 Fragaria x ananassa US KM246513 - -
C. orchidophilum IMI309357, RB209 Phalaenopsis sp. GB JQ948153 - -
C. tofieldiae IMI288810, RB164 Dianthus sp. GB GU227803 - -
C. trichellum RB306 Hedera sp. IT MK532000 - -
C. truncatum RB308 Glycine max AR MK531999 - -
1
CBS: culture collection of Centraalbureau voor Schimmecultures, Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Utrecht, The
Netherlands; IMI: culture collection of CABI Europe UK Centre, Egham, UK; RB: personal collection of Riccardo
Baroncelli.
2
ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code related to the country of origin.
3
in bold are highlithed the sequences produced
in this study.
The species specific primer pair CLF (5
0
-CCCGAGAAGGCTCCAAGTA-3
0
)/CLR (5
0
-CATAAACGC
CTAAGAACCGC-3
0
) (Figure S2) was designed based on the multiple alignment of the IGS sequences
of C. lupini (IMI504893, CBS109225), C.tamarilloi (CBS129955), C.nymphaeae (IMI 504889), C.costaricense
(CBS211.78), C.abscissum (IMI504790), and C.simmondsii (CBS 122122). The species are taxonomically
included in the C. acutatum species complex clades 1 and 2. The primers were designed from 100%
sequence homology region of C. lupini isolates and from regions of the greatest sequence dissimilarity
among other species.

Plants 2019,8, 222 6 of 16
The primer pair CLF/CLR was used in the PCR amplification with the DNA template of C. lupini
and the Colletotrichum species indicated in Table 2, in addition to the DNA of the isolates of non-target
species associated with lupin seeds (Table 1). Sensitivity of the PCR protocol using the primer pair
CLF/CLR was performed using 10-fold dilutions ranging between 10 ng and 100 fg of mycelial DNA of
C. lupini isolate 70555 (Figure S3).
PCR assay for C. lupini was optimized to increase primer specificity, avoiding primer mismatches
and the probability of producing spurious bands or false positives. The reactions generated amplicons
of the expected size of 700–750 bp in all the tested C. lupini isolates (Figure 2).
Plants 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 16
C. salicis CBS 607.94, RB157 Salix sp. NL JQ948460 MK54103
2 -
C. coccodes RB302 Solanum lycopersicum IT MK531998 - -
C. spinaciae RB305 Spinacia oleracea IT MK531997 - -
C. higginsianum IMI 349063, RB300 Brassica chinensis TT JQ005760 - -
C. graminicola CBS130836, RB301 Zea mays US JQ005767 - -
C. fructicola CSL386, RB003 Fragaria x ananassa US KM246513 - -
C. orchidophilum IMI309357, RB209 Phalaenopsis sp. GB JQ948153 - -
C. tofieldiae IMI288810, RB164 Dianthus sp. GB GU227803 - -
C. trichellum RB306 Hedera sp. IT MK532000 - -
C. truncatum RB308 Glycine max AR MK531999 - -
1
CBS: culture collection of Centraalbureau voor Schimmecultures, Fungal Biodiversity Centre,
Utrecht, The Netherlands; IMI: culture collection of CABI Europe UK Centre, Egham, UK; RB:
personal collection of Riccardo Baroncelli.
2
ISO 3166-1 alpha-2 code related to the country of origin.
3
in bold are highlithed the sequences produced in this study.
The species specific primer pair CLF (5′-CCCGAGAAGGCTCCAAGTA-3′)/CLR (5′-
CATAAACGCCTAAGAACCGC-3′) (Figure S2) was designed based on the multiple alignment of the
IGS sequences of C. lupini (IMI504893, CBS109225), C. tamarilloi (CBS129955), C. nymphaeae (IMI
504889), C. costaricense (CBS211.78), C. abscissum (IMI504790), and C. simmondsii (CBS 122122). The
species are taxonomically included in the C. acutatum species complex clades 1 and 2. The primers
were designed from 100% sequence homology region of C. lupini isolates and from regions of the
greatest sequence dissimilarity among other species.
The primer pair CLF/CLR was used in the PCR amplification with the DNA template of C. lupini
and the Colletotrichum species indicated in Table 2, in addition to the DNA of the isolates of non-target
species associated with lupin seeds (Table 1). Sensitivity of the PCR protocol using the primer pair
CLF/CLR was performed using 10-fold dilutions ranging between 10 ng and 100 fg of mycelial DNA
of C. lupini isolate 70555 (Figure S3).
PCR assay for C. lupini was optimized to increase primer specificity, avoiding primer
mismatches and the probability of producing spurious bands or false positives. The reactions
generated amplicons of the expected size of 700–750 bp in all the tested C. lupini isolates (Figure 2).
Figure 2. Specificity of PCR using the primer pair CLF (5′-CCCGAGAAGGCTCCAAGTA-3′)/CLR (5′-
CATAAACGCCTAAGAACCGC-3′) on 17 isolates of C.lupini (Lane 1–17). Lane 18 = negative control
(without DNA), Lane M = 100 bp DNA ladder.
The amplicons were sequenced in both directions and aligned to compare with the sequences
used to design the primer pair, and to ensure the availability of the partial IGS region in all the isolates
tested. Additional tests were carried out to confirm the specificity of the developed PCR assay by
analysing the Colletotrichum species of Table 2 and the fungal strains isolated from lupin seeds of
Figure 2.
Specificity of PCR using the primer pair CLF (5
0
-CCCGAGAAGGCTCCAAGTA-3
0
)/CLR
(5
0
-CATAAACGCCTAAGAACCGC-3
0
) on 17 isolates of C. lupini (Lane 1–17). Lane 18 =negative
control (without DNA), Lane M =100 bp DNA ladder.
The amplicons were sequenced in both directions and aligned to compare with the sequences
used to design the primer pair, and to ensure the availability of the partial IGS region in all the isolates
tested. Additional tests were carried out to confirm the specificity of the developed PCR assay by
analysing the Colletotrichum species of Table 2and the fungal strains isolated from lupin seeds of
Table 1. The primer pair CLF/CLR proved specific to C. lupini, as no bands were obtained on all the
non-target fungi tested (Figures 3and 4).
Plants 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16
Table 1. The primer pair CLF/CLR proved specific to C. lupini, as no bands were obtained on all the
non-target fungi tested (Figures 3 and 4).
Figure 3. Specificity of PCR using the primer pair CLF/CLR for the detection of C. lupini. Lane 1 =
Alternaria alternata, Lane 2 = Alternaria infectoria, Lane 3 = Alternaria tenuissima, Lane 4 = Arthrinium
phaeospermum, Lane 5 = Aspergillus sp., Lane 6 = Botrytis cinerea, Lane 7 = Chaetomium sp., Lane 8 =
Cladosporium oxysporum, Lane 9 – Curvularia hawaiiensis, Lane 10 = Diaporthe sp., Lane 11 and 24 = C.
lupini IMI 504893, Lane 12 and 25 = negative control (without DNA), Lane 13 = Eurotium sp., Lane 14
= Fusarium incarnatum, Lane 15 = Fusarium tricinctum, Lane 16 = Lecytophora sp., Lane 17 = Mucor sp.,
Lane 18 = Penicillium sp., Lane 19 = Pleospora sp., Lane 20 = Sordaria fimicola, Lane 21 = Trichoderma sp.,
Lane 22 = Meyerozima caribbica, Lane 23 = Sterile mycelium, and Lane M = 100 bp DNA ladder.
Figure 4. Specificity of PCR using the primer pair CLF/CLR for the detection of C. lupini. Lane 1 = C.
tamarilloi, Lane 2 = Colletotrichum sp., Lane 3 = C. costaricense, Lane 4 = C. abscissum, Lane 5 = C. cuscutae,
Lane 6 = C. paranaense, Lane 7 = C. melonis, Lane 8, 17 and 27 = C. lupini IMI 504893, Lane 9 and 28 =
Negative control (without DNA), Lane 10 = C. simmondsii, Lane 11 = C. nymphaeae, Lane 12 = C. fioriniae,
Lane 13 = C. acutatum, Lane 14 = C. godetiae, Lane 15 = C. salicis, Lane 16 = C. phormii, Lane 18 = C.
fructicola, Lane 19 = C. tofieldiae, Lane 20 = C. orchidophilum, Lane 21 = C. higginsianum, Lane 22 = C.
graminicola, Lane 23 = C. coccodes, Lane 24 = C. spinaciae, Lane 25 = C. trichellum, Lane 26 = C. truncatum,
and Lane M = 100 bp DNA ladder.
2.4. Detection of C. lupini in Artificially Infected Seed Samples
The species-specific primer pair CLF/CLR confirmed the presence of C. lupini in all infected seed
lots of L. albus cv. Multitalia, L. luteus cv. Mister, and L. angustifolius cv. Tango, even at contamination
levels as low as 0.01% (Figure 5; Figure S4; DNA concentrations and absorbance ratios are reported
in Table S1).
Figure 5. Specificity of PCR using the primer pair CLF/CLR for the detection of C. lupini in seed
samples artificially infected (1:10,000). Lane 1–2 = L. albus cv. Multitalia, Lane 3–4 = L. luteus cv. Mister,
Lane 5–6 = L. angustifolius cv. Tango, Lane 7 = Positive control (C. lupini IMI 504893), Lane 8 = Seed
Figure 3.
Specificity of PCR using the primer pair CLF/CLR for the detection of C. lupini. Lane 1 =
Alternaria alternata, Lane 2 =Alternaria infectoria, Lane 3 =Alternaria tenuissima, Lane 4 =Arthrinium
phaeospermum, Lane 5 =Aspergillus sp., Lane 6 =Botrytis cinerea, Lane 7 =Chaetomium sp., Lane 8 =
Cladosporium oxysporum, Lane 9—Curvularia hawaiiensis, Lane 10 =Diaporthe sp., Lane 11 and 24 =
C. lupini IMI 504893, Lane 12 and 25 =negative control (without DNA), Lane 13 =Eurotium sp., Lane 14
=Fusarium incarnatum, Lane 15 =Fusarium tricinctum, Lane 16 =Lecytophora sp., Lane 17 =Mucor sp.,
Lane 18 =Penicillium sp., Lane 19 =Pleospora sp., Lane 20 =Sordaria fimicola, Lane 21 =Trichoderma sp.,
Lane 22 =Meyerozima caribbica, Lane 23 =Sterile mycelium, and Lane M =100 bp DNA ladder.

Plants 2019,8, 222 7 of 16
Plants 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16
Table 1. The primer pair CLF/CLR proved specific to C. lupini, as no bands were obtained on all the
non-target fungi tested (Figures 3 and 4).
Figure 3. Specificity of PCR using the primer pair CLF/CLR for the detection of C. lupini. Lane 1 =
Alternaria alternata, Lane 2 = Alternaria infectoria, Lane 3 = Alternaria tenuissima, Lane 4 = Arthrinium
phaeospermum, Lane 5 = Aspergillus sp., Lane 6 = Botrytis cinerea, Lane 7 = Chaetomium sp., Lane 8 =
Cladosporium oxysporum, Lane 9 – Curvularia hawaiiensis, Lane 10 = Diaporthe sp., Lane 11 and 24 = C.
lupini IMI 504893, Lane 12 and 25 = negative control (without DNA), Lane 13 = Eurotium sp., Lane 14
= Fusarium incarnatum, Lane 15 = Fusarium tricinctum, Lane 16 = Lecytophora sp., Lane 17 = Mucor sp.,
Lane 18 = Penicillium sp., Lane 19 = Pleospora sp., Lane 20 = Sordaria fimicola, Lane 21 = Trichoderma sp.,
Lane 22 = Meyerozima caribbica, Lane 23 = Sterile mycelium, and Lane M = 100 bp DNA ladder.
Figure 4. Specificity of PCR using the primer pair CLF/CLR for the detection of C. lupini. Lane 1 = C.
tamarilloi, Lane 2 = Colletotrichum sp., Lane 3 = C. costaricense, Lane 4 = C. abscissum, Lane 5 = C. cuscutae,
Lane 6 = C. paranaense, Lane 7 = C. melonis, Lane 8, 17 and 27 = C. lupini IMI 504893, Lane 9 and 28 =
Negative control (without DNA), Lane 10 = C. simmondsii, Lane 11 = C. nymphaeae, Lane 12 = C. fioriniae,
Lane 13 = C. acutatum, Lane 14 = C. godetiae, Lane 15 = C. salicis, Lane 16 = C. phormii, Lane 18 = C.
fructicola, Lane 19 = C. tofieldiae, Lane 20 = C. orchidophilum, Lane 21 = C. higginsianum, Lane 22 = C.
graminicola, Lane 23 = C. coccodes, Lane 24 = C. spinaciae, Lane 25 = C. trichellum, Lane 26 = C. truncatum,
and Lane M = 100 bp DNA ladder.
2.4. Detection of C. lupini in Artificially Infected Seed Samples
The species-specific primer pair CLF/CLR confirmed the presence of C. lupini in all infected seed
lots of L. albus cv. Multitalia, L. luteus cv. Mister, and L. angustifolius cv. Tango, even at contamination
levels as low as 0.01% (Figure 5; Figure S4; DNA concentrations and absorbance ratios are reported
in Table S1).
Figure 5. Specificity of PCR using the primer pair CLF/CLR for the detection of C. lupini in seed
samples artificially infected (1:10,000). Lane 1–2 = L. albus cv. Multitalia, Lane 3–4 = L. luteus cv. Mister,
Lane 5–6 = L. angustifolius cv. Tango, Lane 7 = Positive control (C. lupini IMI 504893), Lane 8 = Seed
Figure 4.
Specificity of PCR using the primer pair CLF/CLR for the detection of C. lupini. Lane 1
=C. tamarilloi, Lane 2 =Colletotrichum sp., Lane 3 =C. costaricense, Lane 4 =C. abscissum, Lane 5 =
C. cuscutae, Lane 6 =C. paranaense, Lane 7 =C. melonis, Lane 8, 17 and 27 =C. lupini IMI 504893, Lane 9
and 28 =Negative control (without DNA), Lane 10 =C. simmondsii, Lane 11 =C. nymphaeae, Lane 12
=C. fioriniae, Lane 13 =C. acutatum, Lane 14 =C. godetiae, Lane 15 =C. salicis, Lane 16 =C. phormii,
Lane 18 =C. fructicola, Lane 19 =C. tofieldiae, Lane 20 =C. orchidophilum, Lane 21 =C. higginsianum,
Lane 22 =C. graminicola, Lane 23 =C. coccodes, Lane 24 =C. spinaciae, Lane 25 =C. trichellum, Lane 26 =
C. truncatum, and Lane M =100 bp DNA ladder.
2.4. Detection of C. lupini in Artificially Infected Seed Samples
The species-specific primer pair CLF/CLR confirmed the presence of C. lupini in all infected seed
lots of L. albus cv. Multitalia, L. luteus cv. Mister, and L. angustifolius cv. Tango, even at contamination
levels as low as 0.01% (Figure 5and Figure S4; DNA concentrations and absorbance ratios are reported
in Table S1).
Plants 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 16
Table 1. The primer pair CLF/CLR proved specific to C. lupini, as no bands were obtained on all the
non-target fungi tested (Figures 3 and 4).
Figure 3. Specificity of PCR using the primer pair CLF/CLR for the detection of C. lupini. Lane 1 =
Alternaria alternata, Lane 2 = Alternaria infectoria, Lane 3 = Alternaria tenuissima, Lane 4 = Arthrinium
phaeospermum, Lane 5 = Aspergillus sp., Lane 6 = Botrytis cinerea, Lane 7 = Chaetomium sp., Lane 8 =
Cladosporium oxysporum, Lane 9 – Curvularia hawaiiensis, Lane 10 = Diaporthe sp., Lane 11 and 24 = C.
lupini IMI 504893, Lane 12 and 25 = negative control (without DNA), Lane 13 = Eurotium sp., Lane 14
= Fusarium incarnatum, Lane 15 = Fusarium tricinctum, Lane 16 = Lecytophora sp., Lane 17 = Mucor sp.,
Lane 18 = Penicillium sp., Lane 19 = Pleospora sp., Lane 20 = Sordaria fimicola, Lane 21 = Trichoderma sp.,
Lane 22 = Meyerozima caribbica, Lane 23 = Sterile mycelium, and Lane M = 100 bp DNA ladder.
Figure 4. Specificity of PCR using the primer pair CLF/CLR for the detection of C. lupini. Lane 1 = C.
tamarilloi, Lane 2 = Colletotrichum sp., Lane 3 = C. costaricense, Lane 4 = C. abscissum, Lane 5 = C. cuscutae,
Lane 6 = C. paranaense, Lane 7 = C. melonis, Lane 8, 17 and 27 = C. lupini IMI 504893, Lane 9 and 28 =
Negative control (without DNA), Lane 10 = C. simmondsii, Lane 11 = C. nymphaeae, Lane 12 = C. fioriniae,
Lane 13 = C. acutatum, Lane 14 = C. godetiae, Lane 15 = C. salicis, Lane 16 = C. phormii, Lane 18 = C.
fructicola, Lane 19 = C. tofieldiae, Lane 20 = C. orchidophilum, Lane 21 = C. higginsianum, Lane 22 = C.
graminicola, Lane 23 = C. coccodes, Lane 24 = C. spinaciae, Lane 25 = C. trichellum, Lane 26 = C. truncatum,
and Lane M = 100 bp DNA ladder.
2.4. Detection of C. lupini in Artificially Infected Seed Samples
The species-specific primer pair CLF/CLR confirmed the presence of C. lupini in all infected seed
lots of L. albus cv. Multitalia, L. luteus cv. Mister, and L. angustifolius cv. Tango, even at contamination
levels as low as 0.01% (Figure 5; Figure S4; DNA concentrations and absorbance ratios are reported
in Table S1).
Figure 5. Specificity of PCR using the primer pair CLF/CLR for the detection of C. lupini in seed
samples artificially infected (1:10,000). Lane 1–2 = L. albus cv. Multitalia, Lane 3–4 = L. luteus cv. Mister,
Lane 5–6 = L. angustifolius cv. Tango, Lane 7 = Positive control (C. lupini IMI 504893), Lane 8 = Seed
Figure 5.
Specificity of PCR using the primer pair CLF/CLR for the detection of C. lupini in seed samples
artificially infected (1:10,000). Lane 1–2 =L. albus cv. Multitalia, Lane 3–4 =L. luteus cv. Mister, Lane
5–6 =L. angustifolius cv. Tango, Lane 7 =Positive control (C. lupini IMI 504893), Lane 8 =Seed control
(100 seeds of L. angustifolius cv. Tango), Lane 9 =Negative control (without DNA), and Lane M =100 bp
DNA ladder.
The results were supported by the presence of a signal within the positive control (DNA of pure
culture of C. lupini IMI504893), and no-signal within the negative control (not infected seed lots). The
amplicons obtained from the 0.01% infection level of each species were sequenced (Table 2), with
alignments carried out against the reference sequence of C. lupini IMI504893, showing 100% identity.
3. Discussion
Seed-borne fungi are one of the major biotic constraints in seed production worldwide. They are
responsible for both pre- and post-emergence death of seeds reducing germination, seedling health,
and plant morphology. Seed health tests include [
37
] visual examination and incubation methods,
which require mycological skills; they are time consuming and their sensitivity/specificity is low or
moderate [38,39].
In this work, a new protocol for early detection of C. lupini was developed based on a biological
enrichment step, followed by a targeted PCR. The diagnostic assay included incubation of the seeds
with amended Yeast Malt Broth to increase C. lupini biomass before DNA extraction. The seeds
are incubated in the liquid culture, allowing the development of all culturable fungi, without the
utilization of selective or semi selective media (BIO-PCR) that require specific knowledge of the target

Plants 2019,8, 222 8 of 16
organism [
38
]. The biological enrichment step allows for the detection only of viable cells, and reduces
false positives, which constitute a limitation of PCR diagnostic assays [
40
]. It also allows for the
development of all the fungi present on/in the seeds and promotes the development of the target fungus
biomass before DNA extraction and amplification by PCR. This step is usually very useful in cases
of low infection levels. The incubation of seeds in liquid fungal growth media has been previously
undertaken with positive results for the detection of Fusarium circinatum in pine seeds [
41
], Alternaria
brassicae in cruciferous seeds [
42
], Ascochyta rabiei in chickpea seeds [
43
], and Magnaporthe grisea in
rice seeds [
44
]. The presence of bacteria may, however, reduce fungal growth though the addition of
antibiotics to the media or the use of specific media, which can circumvent these problems [43,45].
The optimal osmotic potential and the incubation period were defined according to the germination
process of the seeds and the growth of C. lupini at different osmotic potentials. No seeds of the three
lupin species germinated on PDA adjusted at
−
1.2 MPa at 72 h and, in the same conditions, C. lupini
growth was stimulated. For these reasons, it was decided to perform the seed inoculation on PDA
adjusted with mannitol at
−
1.2 MPa for 72 h. Concerning the sensibility of the method, the PCR assay
developed in this study was able to reveal infection levels below 0.01% (1:10,000) in the samples tested.
Assuming a 100% DNA recovery from 1 infected seed (DNA resuspended in 100
µ
L), 1
µ
L of template
DNA would contain the equivalent of 0.01 infected seed in a reaction.
The new CLF/CLR primer pair was used for amplification and sequencing of a target of about
736 bp in C. lupini of the IGS region of the ribosomal cluster. Bioinformatic analyses were performed on
the entire sequence of the clusters, and more specifically the complete IGS region of species belonging
to the Colletotrichum acutatum species complex clades 1 and 2 (C. lupini,C. tamarilloi,C. nymphaeae,
C. costaricense,C. abscissum, and C. simmondsii). PCR-based detection systems exhibit higher levels
of sensitivity than conventional techniques. However, when applied to seed tests they require the
isolation of high-quality DNA of target organisms for detection above the background noise of other
organisms and inhibitory seed-derived compounds. Niepold (2003) designed a primer pair from an
already sequenced ITS1 region in order to detect C. lupini. The sequences, when subjected to a BLASTn
search, showed 100% identity with many other Colletotrichum species (e.g., C. acutatum,C. scovillei,
C. simmondsii,C. salicis,C. godetiae,C. phormii, and C. nymphaeae). More recently, Szuszkiewicz (2016),
during a study on the molecular detection of C. lupini in lupin seeds, developed a species-specific primer
pair based on ITS region that was specific to the C. acutatum species complex.
Dubrulle et al. (2019)
used specific primers targeting a single copy gene to detect C. lupini DNA in winter and spring lupin
fields in France. Of the 47 samples collected, C. lupini was quantified in six samples above the limit of
quantification (LOQ) (10
−3
ng DNA), although all at a very low level (between 10
−3
and 5
×
10
−3
ng
DNA) [
24
]. IGS region could be an attractive alternative to the ITS region when closely related taxa or
even different species need to be investigated. The IGS region tends to accumulate more variability than
the ITS region of the ribosomal cluster and, therefore, contains more sequence polymorphisms. It occurs
in multiple copies, increasing the sensitivity of PCR-based diagnostics compared to single-copy target
sequences and allowing its amplification using generic PCR primers [
46
]. The greatest amount of
sequence variation in the ribosomal cluster exists within the IGS region, even if it poses more difficulties
for amplification and sequencing, as it is long (2000–5000 bp) and rich in GC [
47
]. To our knowledge,
besides the potential of the target, no published studies reported the use of the IGS region for the
molecular diagnosis of Colletotrichum.
Seed-borne mycoflora of the three lupin species used in this study L. albus cv. Multitalia, L. luteus
cv. Mister, and L. angustifolius cv. Tango were evaluated for three main reasons: (i) to assess the level of
seed contamination/infection by cultivable fungi, (ii) to collect a data set of fungi associated with lupin
seeds to be used as non-target fungi in the development of the species specific PCR assay, and (iii) to
investigate the presence of C. lupini in the seed lots used. L. albus,L. luteus, and L. angustifolius showed
84, 82, and 60% seed contamination, respectively. Most of the fungi recovered on seeds of the three
lupin species were also reported in several published studies on the mycoflora associated with white,
yellow, and blue lupin [48–52].

Plants 2019,8, 222 9 of 16
In this study, C. lupini was never isolated from seeds of the three lupin species analysed, and
therefore seeds were used in the artificial inoculation experiments and in the preparation of seed
batches by mixing artificially infected seeds and healthy seeds in different proportions. Seeds were
kept in direct contact with developing colonies of the fungal pathogen on agar media amended with an
osmotic compound that inhibited seed germination. 2,4-D (sodium salt of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic
acid), mannitol, sodium, and potassium chlorides can be used to modify the osmotic potential of
PDA [
53
]. In this study, mannitol was used to obtain PDA with different osmotic potentials. Mycelial
growth of C. lupini was stimulated at all the osmotic potentials higher than
−
0.3 MPa (PDA without
mannitol). In general, development of fungi is not reduced by osmotic potential lower than
−
2.0 MPa,
and in the range between
−
0.3 and
−
1.0 MPa growth of some fungi are stimulated. Similar results were
reported for the inoculation of Phaseolus vulgaris seeds with Colletotrichum lindemutianum and cotton
seeds with Colletotrichum gossypii var. cephalosporioides [
54
,
55
]. Germination rate of each lupin cultivar
used in this study decreased as osmotic potential increased. Similar results were observed in cotton,
rice, sunflower, and common bean seeds [
53
,
56
,
57
]. Several studies reported that the incubation period
to obtain inoculated seeds ranged between 24 and 144 h [58–61].
DNA concentration has been taken into consideration by Cullen et al. [
62
] to exploit the sensitivity
of PCR for the specific detection of Helminthosporium solani in seeded soils. The molecular detection of
fungi on seeds can be influenced by factors such as low concentration of target pathogen, the presence of
other organisms, and other natural compounds of the seeds. Gondran and Pacault [
17
] recommended
that seed testing for L. albus should detect as little as one anthracnose-infected lupin seed in 10,000
(0.01%). Shea et al. [
63
] reported that in Western Australia, a PCR test, based on research carried out at
the Centre for Legumes in Mediterranean Agriculture and the State Agricultural Biotechnology Centre,
was able to detect one infected seed in 10,000. The test was improved over time to become quantitative,
providing an estimation of the seed infection level based on the amount of C. lupini DNA present in the
sample. However, the PCR protocol has not been published but only described as a useful seed-testing
service for lupin growers in high-risk areas.
The protocol described in this work is a useful diagnostic tool for the routine detection of C. lupini in
seed lots: the assay is simple, reliable, economic, and sensitive. Over time, with a greater understanding
of the anthracnose disease, seed testing should be widely utilised as a tool for seed certification, for
local seed supply, and for international seed biosecurity. The use of pathogen-free seeds is an essential
strategy for the integrated and sustainable management of plant diseases.
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Fungal Cultures
Isolates used in this study and relative information are summarized in Table 2. Purified fungal
cultures were routinely grown on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA, Difco Laboratories, Detroit, MI, USA)
and were maintained on PDA slants covered with mineral oil at 4 ◦C for long-term storage.
4.2. DNA Extraction
Fungal mycelium for DNA extraction was grown in 125 mL of Yeast Malt Broth (YMB—0.3%
yeast extract, 0.3% mal extract, 0.5% peptone, and 1% dextrose) at 150 rpm for 2–4 days at 24
±
1
◦
C in
the dark. Mycelium was harvested by filtration through sterile Miracloth (Calbiochem, San Diego, CA,
USA), washed thoroughly using sterile distilled water, and pressed dry between sterile paper towels.
The harvested mycelium was either used immediately for DNA extraction or stored at
−
20
◦
C until use.
Total genomic DNA was extracted using the SDS-CTAB method described by Kim et al. [
63
] with
some modifications. Mycelium (200 mg) was placed into a 2 mL extraction tube prefilled with 0.5 mm
Silica glass beads (acid washed) (Benchmarck Scientific Inc., Sayreville, NJ, USA), 50 mg of PVP40
(Sigma-Aldrich, Saint Louis, MS, USA), and 400
µ
L of ice-cold lysis buffer (150 mM NaCl, 50 mM EDTA,
10 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.4, 30
µ
g mL
−1
Proteinase K). The mycelium was homogenized by a bead-beating

Plants 2019,8, 222 10 of 16
method using the BeadBug
™
Microtube homogenizer (Benchmarck Scientific Inc., Sayreville, NJ, USA).
Tubes were subjected to three beating cycles of 30 s at 4000 rpm followed by a 30 s interval. During
the interval and after the cycle, the samples were cooled down in ice. SDS was added to a final
concentration of 2% (w/v), and the mixture was incubated at 65
◦
C for 40 min. The lysed suspension
was centrifuged for 10 min at 4
◦
C and 2500 g, the volume of supernatant was measured, and the NaCl
concentration was then adjusted to 1.4 M and 1/10 volume of 10% CTAB buffer (10% CTAB, 500 mM
Tris-HC1, 100 mM EDTA, and pH 8.0) and added. After thorough mixing, the solution was incubated
at 65
◦
C for 10 min. After cooling at 15
◦
C for 2 min, extraction with chloroform-isoamyl alcohol (24:1
v/v) was conducted for 10 min at 4
◦
C and 6700 g. DNA was precipitated with two volumes of 95%
cold ethanol. Samples were stored at
−
20
◦
C (for a minimum of 1 h) and centrifuged for 1 min at
4
◦
C and 11,600 g, and the resulting pellet was rinsed once with 70% cold ethanol, vacuum-dried, and
dissolved in sterile nuclease-free water. DNA solutions were stored at −20 ◦C until use.
DNA concentration was estimated with a GeneQuant II spectrophotometer (Pharmacia Biotech,
Cambridge, UK), whereas its integrity was examined visually by gel electrophoresis on 0.8% (w/v)
agarose gels run in 0.5
×
TBE buffer followed by GelRed
™
staining (Biotium Inc., Fremont, CA, USA),
according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Following quantification, the genomic DNA was diluted
to a final concentration of 25–50 ng µL−1.
4.3. Evaluation of Mycoflora Associated with Lupin Seeds
A hundred non-sterilized seeds of Lupinus albus cv. Multitalia, L. luteus cv. Mister, and L. angustifolius
cv. Tango were plated on PDA amended with streptomycin (300 mg L
−1
), five seeds per Petri plate, and
incubated at 24 ±1◦C under a 12 h near-ultraviolet light/12 light cycle for 7 days.
Plates were examined under stereoscopic and compound microscopes to identify the developing
fungal colonies. Hyphal-tip and/or single-spore isolation techniques were used to obtain pure
cultures. Fungi were identified according to their morphological properties and, when necessary, by
DNA sequencing.
The ITS and 5.8 S region of rDNA was amplified with the primer pair ITS5 (5
0
-GGAAGTAA
AAGTCGTAACAAGG-3
0
), and ITS4 (5
0
-TCCTCCGCTTATTGATATGC-3
0
) [
25
]. The partial
β
-tubulin
gene region was amplified with the primer pair BT2A (5
0
-GGTAACCAAATCGGTGCTGCTTTC-3
0
) and
BT2B (5
0
ACCCTCAGTGTAGTGACCCTTGGC-3
0
) [
64
]. The partial sequences of the elongation factor-1
alpha gene (tef1) were amplified with the primer pair EF1-728F (5
0
-CATCGAGAAGTTCGAGAAGG-3
0
)
and EF1-986R (5
0
-TACTTGAAGGAACCCTTACC-3
0
) [
65
]. Sequence chromatograms obtained by direct
sequencing were visualised and analysed using Chromas Lite (v. 2.1.1) and BioEdit (v. 7.2.5) programs.
Each sequence was used to perform individual nucleotide-nucleotide searches with the BLASTn
algorithm at the NCBI website (https://blast.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/). Sequence-based identities with a cutoff
of 97% or greater were considered significant in this study, and the best hit was defined as the sequence
with the highest maximum identity to the query sequence.
Seed germination was determined according to the procedure described by the International Seed
Testing Association (ISTA, 2019).
4.4. Genome Data and Analysis of Ribosomal IGS Region
Based on whole genome sequencing project available on GenBank, a set of four raw sequencing
data information sets from high-throughput sequencing platforms stored in the sequences reads archive
(SRA) database were downloaded: accession number for C. simmondsii SRP074810, for C. nymphaeae
SRP074816, for C. fioriniae SRP074685, and for C. salicis SRP074780 [
66
]. Raw data reads were assembled
using SPAdes v 3.11.1 [
67
], and high-coverage scaffolds were extracted with a homemade script.
Scaffolds corresponding to the ribosomal RNA encoding gene cluster were identified by BLASTN
searches based on available references. When the software failed to assemble the region in one
unique scaffold, a manual approach based on local alignment of raw reads to assembled scaffolds with
Bowtie2 [68] was used to increase the size of the scaffolds and to reach an overlap of at least 50 bp.

Plants 2019,8, 222 11 of 16
Annotated genome sequences of C. lupini IMI504884 and CBS109225, C. abscissum IMI504890,
C. costaricense IMI309622, and C. tamarilloi CBS129955 were downloaded from the MycoCosm portal [
69
]
and the ribosomal cluster sequence retrieved.
All sequences were analysed and compared. The sequences starting with the forward primer
CNL12 (5
0
CTGAACGCCTCTAAGTCAG3
0
) and ending with the reverse primer CNS1 (5
0
GAGA
CAAGCATATGACTACTG3
0
), which are universal primers, located at the 3
0
end of the 28S gene and
the 5
0
end of the 18S gene, respectively, were used for the amplification of complete IGS region in many
fungi [25,70].
The sequences were aligned using the MAFFT v. 7 [
71
] and were visually checked for regions
having homologies among isolates of C. lupini but not among other C. acutatum species.
4.5. Development of Specific Oligonucleotide PCR Primers
Conserved regions among the isolates that were specific to C. lupini were selected to design
species-specific oligonucleotides. Two primers, forward and reverse, were designed using Primer3Plus
online software with default options [
72
]. The forward (CLF: 5
0
CCCGAGAAGGCTCCAAGTA3
0
)
and reverse (CLR: 5
0
CATAAACGCCTAAGAACCGC3
0
) primers yielded a product of 736 bp. The
theoretical specificity of the primer set was checked with the sequences from the other fungi in the
GenBank by using BLASTn analysis.
4.6. Development of a Specific PCR Assay for C. lupini
The specific primer pair CLF/CLR designed during this study was used for amplification. The
optimized PCR amplification protocol was performed in a total volume of 25
µ
L containing 25–50 ng
of template DNA, 0.2
µ
M of each oligonucleotide primer, and 12.5
µ
L of GoTaq
®
Green Master Mix
(Promega, Madison, WI, USA). An initial denaturation step of 94
◦
C for 2 min was followed by 25 cycles
of a 45 s at 94
◦
C (denaturation step), 15 s at 63
◦
C (annealing step), and 45 s at 72
◦
C (extension step).
After 25 cycles, samples were incubated for 7 min at 72
◦
C (final extension step). Negative controls (no
DNA) were included for each set of reactions.
Templates were represented by (i) DNA of C. lupini and other Colletotrichum species (Table 2) and
(ii) DNA of isolates of non-target fungi associated with lupin seeds and isolated in this work (Table 1).
When more than one species was isolated (e.g., Aspergillus spp.), the most representative was chosen.
PCR products were analysed by electrophoresis in 0.5
×
TBE buffer with 2% (w/v) agarose gels and
detected by UV fluorescence after GelRed
™
staining (Biotium Inc., Fremont, CA, USA), according to
the manufacturer’s instructions. The 100 bp DNA ladder (Promega, Madison, WI, USA) was used as
molecular size marker. PCR products of 17 C. lupini isolates were purified using the QIAquick PCR
purification Kit (Qiagen, Milano, Italy) and sequenced in both directions to confirm the nucleotide
sequence. Sequence chromatograms were visualised and edited using Chromas Lite (v. 2.1.1) and
BioEdit v.7.2.5 [73] and deposited in GenBank (Table 2).
4.7. Artificial Inoculation of Lupin Seeds by Water Restriction Technique
The water restriction technique [
56
], also known as ‘osmo-priming’ process [
74
] is based on the
control of the osmotic potential of the substrate to inhibit or reduce the seed germination process, which
allows for the inoculation of seeds without producing any radicle protrusion during the incubation
period. This technique, at the same time, does not affect microorganisms associated with seeds.
Before the artificial inoculations of lupin seeds, in order to choose the best conditions, we evaluated
the effect of water restriction on the mycelial growth of the pathogen and on lupin seed germination.
The effect of water restriction on C. lupini, and mycelial growth on osmotically modified PDA medium
containing mannitol, was evaluated. Osmotic potential of
−
0.8 (33.10 g L
−1
),
−
1.0 (47.75 g L
−1
), and
−
1.2 (62.46 g L
−1
) MPa was used for the incorporation of the osmotic solute into the PDA medium. The
osmotic potential of PDA without the solute was estimated to be
−
0.35 MPa [
57
]. Agar plugs (6 mm
diameter) were removed from the edge of an actively growing colony of C. lupini (isolate IMI504893)

Plants 2019,8, 222 12 of 16
and placed at the center of PDA plates (9 cm) amended with mannitol. Plates were incubated at
24 ±1◦C under a 12 h near-ultraviolet light/12 light cycle for 9 days. Mycelial growth was measured
taking the average of two diameters of colonies at appropriate angles to each other at different day
intervals. The experiment was performed in triplicate.
Two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Tukey’s multiple-comparison post-test were
conducted with colony diameter data obtained from the experiment using GraphPad Prism version
7.00 for Windows (GraphPad Software, La Jolla, CA, USA). Differences were considered significant at a
pvalue <0.05.
To evaluate the effect of water restriction in the absence of the fungus, seeds of the three lupin
species were placed on Petri plates containing PDA osmotically modified with mannitol for 7 days, as
described above. Seeds of L. albus cv. Multitalia, L. luteus cv. Mister, and L. angustifolius cv. Tango were
disinfected with 1% NaOCl (v/v) for 2 min, rinsed twice in sterile distilled water, and dried at room
temperature on sterile filter paper before plating. Percentage of germinated seeds was recorded.
At the end of these experiments, according to the results obtained, lupin seeds were inoculated with
the isolate IMI504893 of C. lupini, using the ‘osmo-priming’ technique with the following conditions:
osmotic potential adjusted to
−
1.2 MPa with mannitol over a 72 h incubation period. Lupin seeds
of each species were disinfected and placed in a single layer on the fungal colonies under the same
conditions previously described. The seeds were then shade-dried and kept at 4
◦
C for future mixing
with healthy seeds. Inoculation accuracy was confirmed at the end of the experiments, and after six
months by placing 20 seeds on the surface of PDA plates amended with streptomycin (300 mg L
−1
) for
1 week at 24 ±1◦C.
4.8. Detection of C. lupini in Seed Samples with Different Fungal Incidence
To determine the efficacy and the sensibility of the PCR technique in the detection of C. lupini in
lupin seed samples, seed batches were prepared by mixing infected seeds and healthy seeds in the
following proportions to produce seed lots with the following infection levels: 1:10 (10%); 1:100 (1%);
1:1000 (0.1%); 1:10,000 (0.01%), and 0.00%. One thousand seed batches’ weights were 281.42 g for
L. albus cv. Multitalia, 135.46 g for L. luteus cv. Mister, and 146.85 g for L. angustifolius cv. Tango. The
artificially infected seeds, before mixing, were disinfected with 1% NaOCl (v/v) for 2 min, rinsed twice
in sterile distilled water, and dried at room temperature on sterile filter paper.
Seed batches were placed in sterile Erlenmeyer flasks (between 250 and 6000 mL depending on
the cultivar and the batch), covered with liquid culture YMB medium amended with streptomycin
(0.03%), ampicillin (0.0025%) and lactic acid (0.1%), and incubated for 72 h at 24
±
1
◦
C with continuous
shaking (150 rev min
−1
). This incubation step is an enrichment phase that allows an optimal increase
of the fungal biomass from seed.
At the end of the incubation period, the content of each flask was harvested by filtration through
sterile Miracloth (Calbiochem, San Diego, CA, USA). The seeds were discarded after harvesting the
mycelium. After thoroughly washing with deionized sterile water, the resulting mycelium was pressed
dry between sterile paper towels and was either used immediately for DNA extraction or stored at
−20 ◦C until use.
DNA extraction, PCR, and agarose electrophoresis were undertaken as described above.
The universal primer pair ITS5/ITS4 [
25
] was used as a positive control to assess the quality of
the extracted DNA. DNA from pure cultures of C. lupini isolate IMI504893 was used as a positive
control in the assays. Furthermore, the specific PCR product obtained was eluted by gel extraction,
and DNA sequencing was carried out to confirm that the designed primers correctly amplified the
expected consensus region of the target organism. The molecular assay was carried out with two
replicates, and the experiments were repeated twice for each level of seed infection.

Plants 2019,8, 222 13 of 16
Supplementary Materials:
The following are available online at http://www.mdpi.com/2223-7747/8/7/222/s1.
Figure S1: Influence of PDA osmotically modified with mannitol on seed germination of L. albus cv. Multitalia, L.
luteus cv. Mister and L. angustifolius cv. Tango.
−
0.3 MPa =PDA alone;
−
0.8 MPa =PDA amended with 33.10 g L
−1
mannitol;
−
1.0 MPa =PDA amended with 47.75 g L
−1
mannitol; and
−
1.2 MPa =PDA amended with 62.46 g L
−1
mannitol. The red rectangle indicates the osmotic potential and the time chosen for the artificial inoculations of
lupin seeds. Figure S2: Specific 736 bp IGS region flanked by the primer pair CLR/CLF. The sequences of C. lupini
RB221 (IMI504893) and RB173 (CBS109225) were used as references. Some isolates of C. acutatum species complex
belonging to clades 1 and 2 were compared and used to design the specific primer pair. Figure S3: Sensitivity of
PCR using the primer pair CLF/CLR for the detection of C. lupini. The assay was performed using 10-fold dilutions
ranging between 10 ng and 100 fg of mycelial DNA of C. lupini isolate 70555 (Lanes 1-6). Lane 7 =Negative control
(without DNA). Marker =100 bp DNA ladder. Figure S4: Specificity of PCR with the primer pair CLF/CLR for
detection of C. lupini in seed samples artificially infected (a =1:10, b =1:100, c =1:1000). Lane 1–2 =L. albus cv.
Multitalia, Lane 3–4 =L. luteus cv. Mister, Lane 5–6 =L. angustifolius cv. Tango, Lane 7 =positive control (C. lupini
IMI504893), Lane 8a =seed control (100 seeds of L. albus cv. Multitalia), Lane 8b =seed control (100 seeds of =
L. angustifolius cv. Tango), Lane 8c =seed control (100 seeds of =L. luteus cv. Mister), Lane 9 =negative control
(without DNA), and Lane M =100 bp DNA ladder. Table S1: DNA concentrations and absorbance ratios of
Lupinus spp. seed batches artificially infected with Colletotrichum lupini IMI504893
Author Contributions:
conceptualization, S.P. and R.B.; methodology, S.P., B.C., D.D.L., and R.B.; formal analysis,
S.P., B.C., D.D.L., and R.B.; investigation, S.P., B.C., D.D.L., and R.B.; data curation, S.P., G.C., G.L.F., and R.B.;
writing—original draft preparation, R.B. and S.P.; writing—review and editing, S.P., G.C., G.L.F., and R.B.; funding
acquisition, G.L.F.
Funding:
This research was partially funded by the regions of Bretagne and Pays de la Loire and FEADER,
“The Prograilive” project grant number RBRE160116CR0530019.
Acknowledgments:
Grateful thanks are expressed to: Agroservice Spa and Semfor srl Companies for kindly
providing lupin seeds used in this study, Grazia Puntoni for the helpful technical support, and Prof. Luciana G.
Angelini and Lucia Ceccarini for the help provided in performing seed germination tests.
Conflicts of Interest:
The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the
study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to
publish the results.
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