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Impact of Conception of Ability and Sex-Type of Task on Male and Female Self-Efficacy
... Μany attempts have been made to investigate the factors that may affect different performance and achievement of the two genders' defining perceptions about the self as a key parameter (e.g., Eisenberg, Martin, & Fabes, 1996). Gender differences in psychological parameters have been reported by many researchers and perhaps the most researched topic in sport psychology has been in the area of self-efficacy/self-confidence (Lirgg, George, Chase, & Ferguson, 1996). ...
... Earlier studies provided support for this theory. For example, findings supported that if an activity is considered more masculine, females will have less self-efficacy in the task (Corbin, & Nix, 1979;Lirgg et al., 1996;Sanguinetti, Lee, & Nelson, 1985). On the other hand, females had higher selfperceptions of ability and expectancies for success than males on activities considered more feminine, for example dance, gymnastics, figure skating, cheerleading, etc. (Lirgg et al, 1996;Clifton, & Gill, 1994). ...
... For example, findings supported that if an activity is considered more masculine, females will have less self-efficacy in the task (Corbin, & Nix, 1979;Lirgg et al., 1996;Sanguinetti, Lee, & Nelson, 1985). On the other hand, females had higher selfperceptions of ability and expectancies for success than males on activities considered more feminine, for example dance, gymnastics, figure skating, cheerleading, etc. (Lirgg et al, 1996;Clifton, & Gill, 1994). In general, females were less confident than males on a perceived masculine task, and males were less confident than females on a perceived feminine task (Lirgg, 1996). ...
The aim of the study was to examine differences between male and female university students
and their gymnastics specific self-efficacy and performance in gymnastics. In the study, 201
male and 160 female students and their 7 teachers participated voluntarily. The students
attended the second year in the School of Physical Education and Sport Science (SPESS) and
were obliged to take the course "Teaching of Gymnastics" for two semesters. Students’ self-
efficacy was evaluated by suitable questionnaires at the beginning of the academic year, at
the end of the first semester, and at the end of the academic year. Gymnastics skills’ difficulty
was evaluated by teachers, and students’ performance was graded by their teachers at the
end of the first semester, and at the end of the academic year. The main findings were: (a)
both genders increased their self-efficacy during the academic year, while females had higher
overall self-efficacy towards all gymnastics apparatus than males’ in the three measurements;
(b) there were no gender differences in the average of the three measurements of self-efficacy
toward common gymnastics skills; (c) there were no differences in gymnastics skills’ difficulty
performed by males and females, and (d) females received higher grades than males.
Considering the limitations of the study, the findings can be very useful for more effective
organization and teaching of university gymnastics courses.
... Furthermore, in this research, male athletes presented a lower self-efficacy than females, contrary to other studies showing higher self-efficacy in men than in women [18,19,[25][26][27][28][29]. Perceptions of gender stereotypes about male or female sports or tasks can affect self-efficacy in terms of physical activity, exercise, and athletic performance [24,25,30,31]. ...
... H1. Women will score lower than men in self-efficacy [18,19,[25][26][27][28][29][30][31]] and predisposition to sport success [55] but not differently from males in BAS. ...
... Contrary to hypothesis H1, gender differences were not found in this study. Previous studies showed that men scored higher in self-efficacy [18,19,[25][26][27][28][29][30][31]] and predisposition to sport success [55], which was determined by the perception of gender stereotypes [24,25,30,31]. However, speed skating is a relatively new sport and may not be associated with any stereotypical perception. ...
Background:
While the association between self-efficacy and sports success has been well established in previous studies, little is known regarding whether the basic approach motivation system contributes to this relationship in athletes. The study examines associations between self-reported temperamental approach disposition, self-efficacy, and predispositions to sports success in athletes.
Methods:
A cross-sectional study was performed between August 3 and 30 November 2020. The participants were 156 athletes, aged 16-34 years (M = 21.57, SD = 3.58, 41.67% women), in two groups: 54 elite athletes in speed skating (EASS) and 102 physical education students (PES). The online survey consisted of the Reinforced Sensitivity Questionnaire (RSQ), General Self-Efficacy Scale (GSES), and Sports Success Scale (SSS).
Results:
There were no differences in self-efficacy and sports success in terms of gender, sports discipline, and level of competitions. The Behavioral Activation System (BAS) results were lower in the EASS sample compared with in the PES group. Self-efficacy plays a mediating role in the relationships between BAS and sports success among athletes, with sport discipline as a moderator between BAS and self-efficacy. Sports success in speed skating relies strongly on BAS, while a weak link has been found in other sports disciplines.
Conclusions:
BAS is directly correlated to sports success and indirectly related through self-efficacy. Mental training should be focused on maintaining self-efficacy and reward motivation in athletes to increase their sports success.
... Second, theoretical constructs (e.g., agency, communion) have been implemented to create gender role-oriented experimental tasks (Smith et al., 1998). Finally, participants have been asked to rate experimental tasks on masculinity and femininity (Lirgg, Chase, George, & Ferguson, 1996). Both studies examining gender role of the individual and gender roleorientation of the experimental task will be discussed in this section. ...
... Based upon the literature previously described, Lirgg and colleagues (Lirgg, Chase, George, & Ferguson, 1996) examined 81 male and 79 female college student participants' confidence in their ability to perform a masculine gender role-oriented task (martial arts) and a feminine gender role-oriented task (baton twirling) in a laboratory setting. A pilot study with 227 males and females was performed to ensure that these tasks were perceived as masculine and feminine, respectively. ...
... Hypothesis 4. No previous studies have examined the combined effects of gender and gender role on perceived confidence to perform an exercise task. However, based on the findings of Lirgg et al. (1996), it was hypothesized that males would report greater confidence to perform the martial arts task than the baton twirling task, whereas females would report greater Gender, gender role, and gender role-orientation of exercise task 17 confidence to perform the baton twirling task than the martial arts task. ...
... In the physical domains, limited research has been done to investigate the relationships between ability conceptions and motivational patterns and outcomes. Several researchers have investigated how ability conceptions influence self-efficacy, affect, motivation, and performance from a situational perspective (Jagacinski & Nicholls, 1984;Jourden, Bandura, & Banfield, 1991;Kasimatis, Miller, & Marcussen, 1996;Lirgg, George, Chase, & Ferguson, 1996). The findings were consistent with theoretical predictions and classroom research, indicating that individuals in incremental conditions were more likely to show interest/enjoyment and positive affect, develop stronger self-efficacy, persist longer, and obtain better performance than those in entity conditions. ...
... Researchers have also focused on the effect of various treatment methods for increasing an individual's self-efficacy beliefs, and findings have demonstrated that efficacy beliefs in sport and physical activity settings can be enhanced (e. g. Feltz & Riessinger, 1990;Jourden, Bandura, & Banfield, 1991;Lirgg, George, Chase, & Ferguson, 1996;Martocchio, 1994). ...
... Some research in physical activity settings has focused on the relationship between selfefficacy and other motivational patterns and the links among self-efficacy, motivational patterns, and performance or achievement (Feltz, 1992). For example, several studies have shown that conceptions of ability influence self-efficacy (Jourden, et al., 1991;Kasimatis, et al., 1996;Lirgg, et al., 1996;Martocchio, 1994;Wood & Bandura, 1989). ...
... In 1996, Lirgg, George, Chase, and Ferguson once again found females to have less confidence in their abilities in a male activity. Hill (1992) found males and females to have similar levels of confidence for activities that were sex-typed feminine. However, Lirgg et. al(1996) found males to be less confident in their success in a female sex-typed activity than females yet males still had confidence in their skills. Males draw the analogy if an activity is feminine then the activity is easy and if the activity is easy then of course their physical skills will grant them success (Lirgg, et. al, 1996). "The thr ...
... yped feminine. However, Lirgg et. al(1996) found males to be less confident in their success in a female sex-typed activity than females yet males still had confidence in their skills. Males draw the analogy if an activity is feminine then the activity is easy and if the activity is easy then of course their physical skills will grant them success (Lirgg, et. al, 1996). "The threat of playing a 'good opponent' seems to create a vulnerability in females which is not present in males" (Corbin, 1981, p. 269). Women predicted they would do well in a feminine activity but had less confidence in a male sex typed activity (Lirgg, et. al, 1996). Yet, women were successful in masculine activities if they were ...
... ctivity is easy then of course their physical skills will grant them success (Lirgg, et. al, 1996). "The threat of playing a 'good opponent' seems to create a vulnerability in females which is not present in males" (Corbin, 1981, p. 269). Women predicted they would do well in a feminine activity but had less confidence in a male sex typed activity (Lirgg, et. al, 1996). Yet, women were successful in masculine activities if they were told prior to the activity they had the ability to be successfiil. Young girls as well did not lack confidence in their abilities prior to the activity if the girls did not believe the activity had been labeled with a gender tag ( Corbin, Stewart, & Blair, 1981). Lirgg, et ...
^.^,ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ^O,I rnust start by first thanking my wonderful teacher, committee chair, and friend, COO. t/ Dr. Karla Jensen. You never gave up on me despite my procrastination, bad attitudes, and excuses. You have an amazing passion for your students and I only hope I can follow in your footsteps and remember,to lead and teach straight from the heart. I must thank Dr. David Roach. You believed in me from the beginning and allowed me to take advantage of your generosity by defending a week earlier than I should have. I extend a thanks to Dr. Brian McGee. You remained very flexible with your time and agreed to help out a student you just met. I thank my incredible committee for understanding how important it was for me to graduate in May. There were three additional people who did a tremendous amount of work to help me finish on time. My beautifial mother who with all of her heart wants me to succeed and be the best I can. Thank you Mom!! You worked,and prayed just as hard as I did. Look at me now!! I love you! To the wonderful Cheryl Pritchard - you went out of your way to help me and to see me graduate. I could not have done this with out your support and love. To my friend and "husband" Craig Swanson - can you believe they said we would not get along? Thank you for helping me with all of those hundreds of notecards. I thank my family. Mom, Dad, Jamey, and Grandma-ma, for spending everyday of
... If students stepped outside the realm of social acceptability, they viewed themselves at risk for some sort of social penalty. Higher selfperceptions of ability are reported when females are involved in a gender appropriate activity (Clifton & Gill, 1994;Corbin, 1981;Lirgg, et al., 1996;Solmon et al., in press). The results of these studies underscore the importance of providing a learning environment that meets the needs of all students. ...
... In the academic literature, there is ample data showing that students who find value and meaning in an activity will try harder to succeed and feel more competent (Pajares & Miller, 1994, 1995. In physical activity, when the activities offered are viewed as gender appropriate and meaningful, expectancies for success increase thereby raising students' perceptions of competence (Belcher & Solmon, 2000;Harrison, Lee, & Belcher, 1999;Lee et al., 1999;Lirgg, et al., 1996). ...
... Sex typing of tasks. Although Lenney's notions and the work of Eccles are based on research studying achievement in academic situations, there are numerous studies to support similar conclusions in sport and various physical activities (Belcher, Lee, Solmon, & Harrison, 2003;Clifton & Gill, 1994;Corbin, 1981;Corbin, Landers, Feltz, & Senior, 1983;Corbin & Nix, 1979;Corbin, Stewart, & Blair, 1981;Daley & Buchanan, 1999;Gill, Gross, Huddleston, & Shifflet, 1984;Lirgg, Chase, George, & Ferguson, 1996;Petruzzello & Corbin, 1988;Solmon, Lee, Belcher, Harrison, Wells, in review;Stewart & Corbin, 1988). In general, boys consistently report higher perceptions of their overall physical competence and are more positive than girls about their ability in most traditional sport activities (Eccles et al., 1989;Harter, 1982;Marsh, Barnes, Cairns, & Tidman, 1984). ...
Acknowledgments There are many people that have helped, guided, encouraged, supported, and inspired me in this endeavor. It took me a long time to complete this goal, and without the following people, it would not have been possible. First, I would like to thank my family and friends. My husband, Ed; my children, Randy and Matthew; my parents, Ray and Gloria (deceased, August 2001); and my friends, Mike and Adrienne; Pat and Don; Michelle and Terry; Tammy,and Wiley; and Don and Judy; have been there for me when I was struggling to finish and encouraged me to persevere when I was tempted to quit. Even though they didn’t fully understand exactly what I was doing, they were interested and willing to listen to what my project was all about. Another very important group of people who have seen me through this are my colleagues, Wayne Lee, Jr.; Ed Walkwitz; Madge Ashy; Dan Hollander; Bob Kraemer; Linda and Bob Synovitz; Harold Blackwell; Dee Jacobsen; Betty Baker; Karen Lew; Cary Berthelot; Shelia Anthony and the rest ofthe faculty and staff in the Department of Kinesiology at Southeastern Louisiana University. They servedas a source of inspiration, encouragement, and support. Many helped with proof reading, collecting data and offered advice and suggestions with data analysis. In addition to my colleagues, the kinesiology and teacher education students at SLU have been supportive. They helped with pilot studies and expressed a sense of empathy when I
... Task difficulty, effort expenditure, and the amount of guidance received all influence the effects of performance accomplishments upon self-efficacy expectations. Specifically, individuals will attain self-efficacy beliefs greatest during performance when the task is hard, they expend little effort, and they receive little external guidance (Bandura, 1986; Feltz, 1988; Lirgg, George, Chase, & Ferguson, 1996). Within sport, the relationship between performance accomplishments and self-efficacy has been widely researched (e.g., George, 1994; Haney & Long, 1995; Kane, Marks, Zaccaro, & Blair, 1996; Okwumabua, 1986; Watkins, Garcia, & Turek, 1994); however, to date, no research has examined the influence of different types of PAI on self-efficacy beliefs in sport. ...
... Despite previous literature showing a relationship between self-efficacy and sports performance (e.g., Bandura, 1997; Feltz, 1988; Feltz & Lirgg, 2001; Feltz, Short & Sullivan, 2008; Hepler & Chase, 2008; Wurtele, 1986) and highlighting the influence of performance accomplishments towards self-efficacy development (e.g., Bandura, 1997; Feltz, 1988; Lirgg et al., 1996) no research has made a direct comparison of PAI types and their effects upon self-efficacy. This current study aimed to examine the relative contribution of different types of performance accomplishment information (PAI) towards self-efficacy levels immediately prior to, and post, competitive golf-performance for amateur golfers of varying skill level. ...
... Existing research in the area has outlined several mitigating factors that moderate the influence of past performance towards self-efficacy beliefs. These Downloaded by [Adam Mark Bruton] at 11:56 03 March 2013 include perceived task difficulty, effort expenditure, external guidance, the temporal pattern of success and failure, and the individual's perception of the skill/ability (Bandura, 1986; Lirgg et al., 1996). As we did not consider these variables within our research this may explain the lack of relationship between previous performance and pre-round self-efficacy beliefs. ...
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... Differences between the sexes were also explored. Because French boxing is a male-oriented physical activity (Koivula, 1995), males' self-efficacy beliefs (Lirgg et al., 1996;Legrain et al., 2003) and, consequently, performance outcomes (Bandura, 1997;Legrain et al., 2003) were expected to be higher than those of females. Given the inconsistent findings in the literature related to sex differences in intrinsic motivation (Amorose and Horn, 2000) and in tutoring skills (Topping and Whiteley, 1993), no hypotheses were forwarded for differences in intrinsic motivation and in coachings skills between males and females. ...
... Based on previous findings in the sport psychology literature (Lirgg et al., 1996;Legrain et al., 2003), we predicted that males' self-efficacy beliefs, form score and performance would be higher than those of females. Consistent with our hypotheses, females expressed lower self-efficacy for form score and less certain judgements about their performance than their male counterparts. ...
... Males also demonstrated a better offensive performance than females. This pattern of results would confirm the masculine connotation of the tasks (Lirgg et al., 1996). As a masculine-oriented activity (Koivula, 1995), the French boxing task might have appeared less familiar to females than to males, thus rendering the latter more confident (Legrain et al., 2003) and offensive. ...
The aim of this study was to examine the potential motivational and behavioural benefits of two peer tutoring programmes for tutors in a sport setting. Differences between the sexes were also explored. Thirty two college-age males and females, all novices on a French boxing task, were assigned to a 2 x 2 [sex x training type: physical practice associated with trained peer tutoring (TPT) vs physical practice associated with untrained peer tutoring (UPT)] factorial design. All participants were given six French boxing lessons of 2 h each. The TPT programme included structured methods to prepare the participants to fulfil their role of tutors, whereas the UPT programme did not. The results demonstrated that the TPT programme resulted in higher scores for coaching skills. Furthermore, interaction effects revealed that the TPT programme yielded better offensive outcomes for males and better defensive outcomes for females. Although the UPT participants expressed higher self-efficacy, no differences emerged for intrinsic motivation and causal attributions. Finally, male tutors displayed higher self-efficacy and offensive outcomes than female tutors. The results are discussed in the light of previous findings in the educational and sport psychology literature.
... Physiological arousal helps a person determine her/his arousal and anxiety towards a threatening situation (Bandura, Adams, & Beyer, 1977). The goal of the individual isBandura, 1977Bandura, , 1986 Duncan & McAuley, 1987; Lirgg et al., 1996; Martin & Gill, 1995; McAuley et al., 1989; Weinberg et al., 1981; Weiss et al., 1989; Wurtele, 1986). Hence, there are three purposes to this study, one is to determine how children sex-type motor activities, another is to determine the effects masculine and feminine activities would have on a child's self-efficacy, and finally, to determine if manipulating the outcome of a performance would be instmmental in altering the self-confidence of future trials. ...
... Four independent t-tests were performed to further examine the interaction (Keppel, 1982). The four independent t-tests were mn on: (1) giris pre self-efficacy scores when participating in hopscotch and girls pre self-efficacy scores when participating in football; (2) boys pre self-efficacy scores when participating in hopscotch and boys pre self-efficacy scores when participating in football; (3) girls pre self-efficacy scores when participating in hopscotch and boys pre self-efficacy scoresTable 4.2: Mean self-efficacy scores across pre and post test scores as a function of gender (boys or giris), activity (football or hopscotch), and performance manipulation (better or worse).Table 4.3: Summary of dependent t-tests for pre and post self-efficacy scores as a function of gender (boys or girls), activity (football or hopscotch) and performance manipulation (better or worse).Bandura, 1977Bandura, , 1986 Duncan & McAuley, 1987, Lirgg et al., 1996 Martin & GiU, 1995; McAuley et al., 1989; Weinberg et al., 1981; Weiss et al., 1989; Wurtele, 1986) Findings from the present study, also suggest that females do possess lower levels of self-efficacy when participating in a masculine activity. This information could be useful for several aspects of life. ...
Thesis (M.S.)--Texas Tech University, 1997. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 59-62).
... To test the effects of this particular attribution, researchers typically use a manipulation where participants are told that completing certain tasks depend either on natural ability or can be learned with practice (e.g. Jourden et al., 1991;Lirgg et al., 1996;Solmon et al., 2003). In general, those who are led to believe that the skills needed to complete the task can be acquired are shown to be more self-efficacious. ...
... There is also some evidence (e.g. Lirgg et al., 1996) showing that females are more affected by the conception of ability manipulations (and that these results interact with the "sex type" of the task). In their study, participants either learned baton twirling (female sex-typed task) and kung fu (male sex-typed task). ...
... These findings suggest that in accordance with previous research (e.g. Lirgg, George, Chase, & Ferguson, 1996), female world-class athletes tend to be situationally dependent on external information in establishing performance expectations. Vealey et al. (1998) suggested that athletes who derive their confidence from uncontrollable sources could develop weaker or unstable perceptions of control and competence. ...
... It is possible that male and female worldclass athletes experience similar trait sport confidence, but in accordance with previous research (e.g. Corbin, 1981;Hays et al., 2007;Lirgg et al., 1996), females might be more susceptible to confidence debilitating factors than males. Support for this contention was found in the interview transcripts. ...
... These findings suggest that in accordance with previous research (e.g. Lirgg, George, Chase, & Ferguson, 1996), female world-class athletes tend to be situationally dependent on external information in establishing performance expectations. Vealey et al. (1998) suggested that athletes who derive their confidence from uncontrollable sources could develop weaker or unstable perceptions of control and competence. ...
... It is possible that male and female worldclass athletes experience similar trait sport confidence, but in accordance with previous research (e.g. Corbin, 1981;Hays et al., 2007;Lirgg et al., 1996), females might be more susceptible to confidence debilitating factors than males. Support for this contention was found in the interview transcripts. ...
... As the implicit theory of ability profile analyses revealed, this seems particularly to be the case for pupils who do not manage to keep up any optimistic beliefs regarding their potential to learn more (high fixed beliefs/low incremental beliefs). A strong belief that ability is a stable entity, unaffected by effort, may reinforce external control beliefs among pupils (Pintrich & Schrauben, 1992;Skinner, 1995) and generate low perceived self-efficacy (Lirgg, Chase, George, & Ferguson, 1996). Externally referenced control beliefs and low self-efficacy may leave pupils with little optimism regarding their potential to learn new motor tasks by means of effort and hard work. ...
... The implicit theory of ability profile analysis complemented these results by showing that the high fixed/low incremental subgroup was the group of pupils least likely to regulate their effort and persist when confronted with failure or boring tasks. These results indirectly support previous research showing that a fixed or innate conception of ability, denoting that ability is unchangeable by effort, leads to reduced perception of self-efficacy for motor tasks and reduced interest in physical activity (Jourden, Bandura, & Banfield, 1991;Lirgg et al., 1996;Wang & Biddle, 2001). Bandura (1986) contends that self-efficacy acts as a cognitive mediator of behaviour including task choice, persistence in an activity when faced with adverse conditions, and effort expended during an activity. ...
Previous research has shown that cognitive processing and achievement strategies are important for motor learning and achievement. Despite this, there are few studies identifying the role of motivational beliefs in the cognitive self-regulation of students' learning in physical education classes. This study reports the results of multivariate analyses of the relationships between thirteen to fourteen-year-old secondary school pupils' (n=343) implicit theories of ability and their self-regulated learning in PE. Self-regulation measures included metacognitive/elaboration strategies, effort regulation and adaptive help seeking. Results revealed consistent relationships between motivational beliefs and pupils' use of self-regulation strategies. The results underscore the educational value of reappraising pupils' implicit theories of ability, making them believe in the modifiability of ability through effort and hard work and learning. The results illustrate the importance of linking pupils' motivational and cognitive characteristics to provide a fuller understanding of their self-regulation of learning in physical education.
... These findings suggest that in accordance with previous research (e.g. Lirgg, George, Chase, & Ferguson, 1996), female world-class athletes tend to be situationally dependent on external information in establishing performance expectations. Vealey et al. (1998) suggested that athletes who derive their confidence from uncontrollable sources could develop weaker or unstable perceptions of control and competence. ...
... It is possible that male and female worldclass athletes experience similar trait sport confidence, but in accordance with previous research (e.g. Corbin, 1981;Hays et al., 2007;Lirgg et al., 1996), females might be more susceptible to confidence debilitating factors than males. Support for this contention was found in the interview transcripts. ...
In this study, we examined the role of confidence in relation to the cognitive, affective, and behavioural responses it elicits, and identified the factors responsible for debilitating confidence within the organizational subculture of world-class sport. Using Vealey's (2001) integrative model of sport confidence as a broad conceptual base, 14 athletes (7 males, 7 females) were interviewed in response to the research aims. Analysis indicated that high sport confidence facilitated performance through its positive effect on athletes' thoughts, feelings, and behaviours. However, the athletes participating in this study were susceptible to factors that served to debilitate their confidence. These factors appeared to be associated with the sources from which they derived their confidence and influenced to some extent by gender. Thus, the focus of interventions designed to enhance sport confidence must reflect the individual needs of the athlete, and might involve identifying an athlete's sources and types of confidence, and ensuring that these are intact during competition preparation phases.
... Previous studies have suggested that the gender appropriateness of a task influences self-efficacy (Lirgg, 1991). For example, if an activity is considered more masculine, females will have less self-efficacy in the task (Lirgg, George, Chase, & Ferguson, 1996). Clifton and Gill (1994) found that for most cheerleading tasks (a traditionally feminine activity) females were more confident than males. ...
Research has shown a consistent correlation between efficacy and sport performance (Moritz, et al., 2000). This relationship has been shown to be dynamic and reciprocal over seasons (e.g., Myers, Payment, et al., 2004), within games (e.g., Butt, et al., 2003), and across trials (e.g., Feltz, 1982). The purpose of the present study was to examine self-efficacy and performance simultaneously within one continuous routine. Forty-seven undergraduate students performed a gymnastic sequence while using an efficacy measure. Results indicated that the efficacy-performance relationship was not reciprocal; previous performance was a significant predictor of subsequent performance (p < .01; ßs ranged from .44 to .67). Results further revealed significant differences in efficacy beliefs between groups with high and low levels of performance [F(I, 571) = 7.16,/? < .01]. Findings suggest that high levels of performance within a continuous physical activity task result in higher performance scores and higher efficacy beliefs
... Driving self-efficacy represents the driver's self-assessment of his/her capacities to meet the requirements of the driving situation. In sport, incremental beliefs positively predict self-efficacy (Kasimatis et al., 1996;Lirgg et al., 1996;Wood & Bandura, 1989). In education, self-efficacy is positively correlated with incremental beliefs, while self-efficacy is negatively correlated with entity beliefs (Diseth et al., 2014;Komarraju & Nadler, 2013). ...
Implicit theories focus on how ability may be perceived by individuals. There are two main beliefs: entity beliefs (i.e., driving ability is a gift) and incremental beliefs (i.e., driving ability is improvable through effort). Implicit theories have been studied in various domains (e.g., education, sport), but never in driving, even though they could improve the knowledge of drivers’ psychological characteristics. The first objective of the present study was to develop and validate a questionnaire measuring implicit theories in driving. The second objective was to assess the predictive role of implicit theories on violations and driving self-efficacy, and the moderating role of gender. In study 1, confirmatory factor analysis, analyses of gender invariance, and concurrent validity were assessed to validate the questionnaire named Implicit Theories in Driving Questionnaire (ITDQ). In study 2, the predictive role of implicit theories on violations and driving self-efficacy was evaluated using multiple regression analyses. Moderation analyses evaluated the moderating role of gender on the relationships between implicit theories and violations, along with driving self-efficacy. The ITDQ showed acceptable psychometric properties. The results highlighted that entity beliefs positively predicted aggressive violations and negatively predicted driving self-efficacy. Conversely, incremental beliefs negatively predicted ordinary violations and positively predicted driving self-efficacy. The ITDQ is a valid scale now available for assessing implicit theories in driving, that have been shown to influence self-reported driving behavior. Future research on implicit theories in driving may help to better understand the psychological characteristics of at-risk drivers and improve driver’s training, to reduce the number of road accidents.
... Previous research has shown that the congruence between gender and the sex-type of an activity can affect perceived competence (Vancouver & Ilgen, 1989), such that females experience higher levels of perceived competence while completing feminine (vs. masculine) sex-typed activities (Lirgg, Chase, George, & Ferguson, 1996). If so, then the primary finding from Experiment 1 could have arisen due to differences in how females in the experimental conditions perceived the sex-type of the riddle-solving task. ...
Despite the increasing use of self‐tracking technologies, surprisingly little empirical research has examined the effect of self‐tracking in effortful activities on consumers' task experience. Accordingly, the present research examined the moderating role of gender in the effect of self‐tracking in effortful activities on perceived competence and task experience (namely, enjoyment and subjective vitality). Across three experiments, results suggested that self‐tracking in effortful activities increases the perceived competence, enjoyment, and subjective vitality of females more than males, and that perceived competence explains these interaction effects. Interestingly, an experimental manipulation designed to prompt overestimation of abilities attenuated these positive effects among females. As such, the present research contributes to the literatures on self‐tracking and feedback instrumentality, and offers important practical implications for marketers.
... As expected, females expressed lower strengths of self-efficacy for performance and form scores and displayed lower performance outcomes. This would confirm the role played by the gender connotation of tasks (Lirgg, 1991;Lirgg, George, Chase, & Ferguson, 1996). Theoretically (Bandura, 1997), the lower performance of the females compared to the males might have influenced self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation. ...
... As expected, females expressed lower strengths of self-efficacy for performance and form scores and displayed lower performance outcomes. This would confirm the role played by the gender connotation of tasks (Lirgg, 1991;Lirgg, George, Chase, & Ferguson, 1996). Theoretically (Bandura, 1997), the lower performance of the females compared to the males might have influenced self-efficacy and intrinsic motivation. ...
This study examined the potential benefits of a peer tutoring program for tutors in a physical learning setting. Gender differences were also explored. Thirty-two college-age males and females identified as novices in a French boxing task were assigned in a 2 × 2, Gender × Training Type: Physical Practice (PP) versus Physical Practice associated with Peer Tutoring (PT) factorial design. All the participants were given six 2-hr French boxing lessons. The PT program included 6 min of peer coaching per lesson. Results indicated that the PT program entailed higher scores in boxing performance form, self-efficacy, interest-enjoyment, and personally controllable causal attributions and lower scores in tension-pressure. Males reported more certain expectancies and displayed higher performance outcomes than did females. Results are discussed in relation to the educational psychology literature.
... According to Wigfield, Battle, Solomon, & Eccles (2002), from childhood through adolescence there are gender differences in beliefs about competency, specifically for tasks that are stereotyped as being appropriate for only females or males. Numerous researchers have reported that individuals' expectations for success are related to their perceptions of the physical activity in terms of gender-appropriateness (Lee, Fredenburg, Belcher, & Cleveland, 1999;Lirgg, George, Chase, & Ferguson, 1996). Griffin (1985) suggested that when given a choice, the middle school students in her study selected physical education units based on the perceived gender-appropriateness of the units (e.g., boys selected football; girls selected gymnastics). ...
... Children who are high in entity beliefs tend to disengage from tasks following a setback because setbacks are indicative of low ability. This typically "helpless" response may also led to low levels of self-efficacy (Lirgg, Chase, George, & Ferguson, 1996), with both high levels of entity beliefs and low levels of selfefficacy likely to lead to the belief that the potential to master new skills is minimal (Ommundsen, 2003). Such beliefs are detrimental to positive youth development because they have significant negative impacts on developmental assets such as identity. ...
The main goal of this volume is to analyze human training to achievement contexts. Using examples of developmental and high performance contexts, topics related to talent development, athletes and teams' training for high performance situations, and leaders' training to maximum professional efficacy (including mainly the cases of sports coaches) are discussed. How to coach individuals, teams, and leaders to high performance is addressed by numerous authors. This is a journey through the complexity of human functioning being assumed in this book; it is a broad and deep perspective of the factors involved in human adaptation, human development, and human training. In summary, this book addresses the fundamental challenge referred to by Kennon M. Sheldon in the Preface of this book, namely, how to make things go right in our lives.
... Males in this study were found to be more likely to endorse PAp goals, which have been found to be associated with higher levels of performance, self-confidence, and selfconcept in achievement domains (30,37). Males have been found to report higher levels of self-confidence and competence in the physical domain in numerous studies to date, particularly in situations that are considered more genderappropriate or gender-stereotyped (25,38). Although Cross-Fit is marketed toward and encourages participation for both genders, the focus on strength training may still be seen as a more "masculine" activity, due to the persistent cultural belief that muscles equal masculinity (6,26). ...
CrossFit is a growing fitness trend in the United States; however, little systematic research has addressed specific motivational principles within this unique exercise environment. The purpose of the study was to explore the influence of gender and membership time on perceptions of motivational climate and goals within the CrossFit environment. Specifically, people may set goals related to self-improvement (i.e., mastery), or focus on their performance in comparison to others (i.e., performance). Motivational climate refers to an individual's perception of being encouraged to focus on either mastery or performance goals from CrossFit trainers. A total of 144 members (88 female; 56 males) completed questionnaires to assess participants' perceptions of CrossFit goal structures, as well as perceptions of the motivational climate encouraged by the trainer within their CrossFit box. Results indicated a significant main effect for gender on preferred goals (p < .05), with males reporting higher levels of Performance Approach goals and females reporting higher levels of Mastery Approach goals. Participants who reported shorter membership times were found to have significantly higher Mastery related goals than individuals who reported longer membership times (p < .05). The results from the study suggest that practitioners should consider how perceptions of the motivational climate and goals in group-based exercise settings such as CrossFit may vary based on demographic variables, and that these differences may impact how to most effectively motivate, encourage, and instruct group members, particularly with regard to helping members set goals that most effectively address their approach to the CrossFit regimen.
... Perceived competitive advantage was a confidence source identified by the female athletes only. This suggests that synonymous with previous research (e.g., Lirgg, George, Chase, & Ferguson, 1996), female athletes tended to be situationally dependent on external information in establishing performance expectations. Vealey et al. (1998) proposed that athletes that derive their confidence from uncontrollable sources such as the environment, may develop weaker or unstable perceptions of control and competence. ...
This study identified the sources and types of confidence salient to 14 (7 male, 7 female) successful World Class athletes. Nine sources of confidence were identified: Preparation, performance accomplishments, coaching, innate factors, social support, experience, competitive advantage, self-awareness, and trust. A testament to the multi-dimensional nature of sport confidence, six types of sport confidence were also identified: skill execution, achievement, physical factors, psychological factors, superiority to opposition, and tactical awareness. Gender was related to both the sources of confidence and the subsequent types of confidence experienced by the athletes. For example, females placed more importance on good personal performances than males who derived confidence from winning. Results were discussed in the context of previous sport confidence literature and implications for sport psychology and coaching practices were drawn.
... Initially, two separate multivariate analyses of variance were conducted to determine whether gender influenced either selfefficacy or imagery use. These analyses were undertaken as a result of evidence from Lirgg, George, Chase and Ferguson (1996), who found that selfefficacy can differ as a function of gender, and from Gammage et al. (2000), who reported gender differences in relation to imagery use. In the present study, no gender differences were found for either self-efficacy or imagery use (P /0.05). ...
The aim of the present study was to investigate the relationship between self-efficacy and imagery use in older male (n = 40) and female (n = 52) exercisers. Participants’ self-efficacy was evaluated using the Self-Efficacy Questionnaire for Exercisers, and their use of imagery was evaluated using the Exercise Imagery Questionnaire. Results revealed that older adult exercisers were most efficacious in terms of the task, followed by scheduling physical activity into their daily routines, and finally overcoming barriers related to physical activity. Older adult exercisers also reported using appearance and technique imagery to much the same extent, but used both significantly more than energy imagery. In addition, energy imagery predicted task self-efficacy but none of the three functions of imagery predicted barrier and scheduling self-efficacy.
... A review of the literature has found clear and consistent findings that individuals with a growth mindset (as opposed to a fixed mindset) will have higher selfefficacy (Kanfer, 1990), persist longer and put forth more effort (Jourden, Bandura, & Banfield, 1991), perform better in physical activities (Lirgg, George, Chase, & Ferguson, 1996;Ommundsen, 2003), and make better management decisions (Wood & Bandura, 1989). Specifically, Wood and Bandura (1989) examined conception of ability and management decision-making. ...
The purpose of this article is to examine how individuals' personal beliefs about the antecedents of leadership ability influence their leadership behavior and ultimate effectiveness. The relevant literature is reviewed to highlight current thinking in relation to the debate over whether leadership is innate or learned. A leadership mindset that differentiates between a fixed or a growth mindset (Dweck, 2006) is presented. A person with a fixed mindset would view leadership as an innate quality, or believe that people are born leaders. A person with a growth mindset would believe that leadership abilities can be learned and acquired through effort and experience. The leadership mindset is a critical component related to effectiveness and success as a leader. Coaching education and leadership training programs should consider focusing on helping coaches and leaders develop a growth mindset about their leadership abilities, and suggestions are offered for ways to incorporate the study of and emphasis on a growth leadership mindset in sport.
... Studies examining the influence of conceptions of ability on performance or learning have either compared individuals with different dispositional conceptions of ability (e.g., Belcher, Lee, Solmon, & Harrison, 2003;Li, Lee, & Solmon, 2005Sarrazin, Biddle, Famose, Cury, Fox, & Durand, 1996;Tabernero & Wood, 1999) or used instructions to induce certain views of ability (e.g., Jourden, Bandura, & Banfield, 1991;Kasimatis, Miller, & Marcussen, 1996;Lirgg, George, Chase, & Ferguson, 1996;Martocchio, 1994;Wood & Bandura, 1989;Wulf & Lewthwaite, 2009). In general, experimental instructions designed to induce specific conceptions of ability tend to override any dispositional conceptions participants may bring to the laboratory. ...
The present study investigated the effects of different ability conceptions on motor skills learning in 6-, 10-, and 14-year-old children. In each age group, different groups were given either inherent-ability or acquirable skill instructions before they began practicing a throwing task. Participants were blindfolded and were asked to throw beanbags at a target placed on the floor at a distance of 3 m. All participants performed 40 practice trials and received feedback about the accuracy of their throws after each trial. One day after practice, retention and transfer (greater target distance) tests without instructions or feedback were conducted to assess learning effects. Older participants generally had higher accuracy scores than younger participants. Importantly, instructions emphasizing the learnability of the skill resulted in greater throwing accuracy on the retention test than did those implying an underlying inherent ability. On the transfer test, the same effect was seen for the 14-year-olds, but not for the younger age groups, suggesting that adolescents may be more vulnerable to the threat of their inherent ability being exposed. The present findings demonstrate the importance of ability conceptions for motor learning in children and adolescents. They also add to the mounting evidence of motivational influences on motor skill learning.
... Drawing on Fuchs' (2007) motivational and volitional model of exercise participation, the main purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which spontaneously occurring planning explains additional variance over and above the variance predicted by behavioural intention in a sample of Swiss adolescents (see Figure 1, part 2). Specifically, five hypotheses were tested in the present study: Hypothesis 1: Based on past research, we expected significant gender differences regarding exercise self-efficacy, exercise motivation, exercise intention, and exercise behaviour (Caspersen et al., 2000;Lirgg, George, Chase, & Ferguson, 1996;Solmon, Lee, Belcher, House, & Wells, 2003) with boys reporting higher scores. No a-priori hypotheses were proposed for gender differences regarding perceived outcome expectancies and the use of action and coping planning strategies. ...
The purpose of this study was to examine the extent to which action planning, coping planning and the interaction with past behaviour explain additional variance over and above that predicted by behavioural intention in a sample of 210 Swiss high school students (160 boys, 150 girls, mean age = 17.43 years). Participants filled in a questionnaire designed to assess exercise intention, action planning coping planning, past and current exercise behaviour at baseline and after three months. The findings show that adolescents’ exercise participation was predominantly regulated by exercise intention. Stronger exercise intentions were found among adolescents with positive outcome expectancies, high self-efficacy and self-determination scores. Spontaneous implementation intentions had no substantial influence on exercise participation. No significant interactions occurred between intention × Action Planning and Intention × Coping Planning. The effects of exercise intentions were stronger among students with high baseline exercise levels. In summary, action and coping planning explained little variance in adolescents’ exercise behaviour. More research is warranted to distinguish between organized and non-organized sport participation and to find out whether implementation intentions can be manipulated experimentally in this age group.
... The influence of past performance experiences on self-efficacy beliefs also depends on the perceived difficulty of the performance, the effort expended, the amount of guidance received, the temporal pattern of success and failure, and the individual's conception of a particular " ability " as a skill that can be acquired versus an inherent aptitude (Bandura, 1986; Lirgg, George, Chase, & Ferguson, 1996). Bandura has argued that performance accomplishments on difficult tasks, tasks attempted without external assistance, and tasks accomplished with only occasional failures carry greater efficacy value than tasks that are easily accomplished, tasks accomplished with external help, or tasks in which repeated failures are experienced with little sign of progress. ...
... However, recent research has shown that male athletes use imagery more frequently than female athletes (Weinberg et al., 2003), and that male and female athletes respond differently to imagery interventions . In addition, there is evidence that males and females differ in efficacy beliefs (Lenney, 1977;Lirgg, 1991;Lirgg, George, Chase, & Ferguson, 1996). For these reasons, future research should use samples of both males and females. ...
The factors that influence whether an athlete chooses to engage in imagery are largely unknown. One reason may be the amount of confidence athletes have in their ability to image. The aim of this study was to examine the relationships among efficacy in using imagery, imagery use and imagery ability. Consistent with Bandura's (1986, 1997) theory, it was hypothesized that there would be a positive correlation between efficacy in using imagery and imagery use, and that efficacy in using imagery would mediate the relationship between imagery ability and imagery use. Participants were 74 female athletes from various sports. The instruments we used were the Movement Imagery Questionnaire-Revised (Hall & Martin, 1997) for imagery ability, the Sport Imagery Questionnaire (Hall, Mack, Paivio, & Hausenblas, 1998) for imagery use, and a modified version of the latter questionnaire for efficacy in using imagery. Correlations showed that the more athletes were confident in their ability to use a certain image, the more they used it. Efficacy in using imagery was found to mediate only the relationship between imagery ability and cognitive imagery use.
Self-efficacy plays a vital role in an athlete’s injury and rehabilitation experience and is linked to successful rehabilitation outcomes. We sought to develop a deeper understanding of self-efficacy sources throughout injury rehabilitation using an interpretative phenomenological analysis design grounded in a pragmatist paradigm. Semistructured interviews were conducted with nine male Division II collegiate athletes throughout injury rehabilitation. Seven themes were identified as sources of athletes’ self-efficacy during rehabilitation phases, and two themes were identified as influencing participants in their selection and weighing of the sources of self-efficacy. Athletes described several sources as negatively impacting their self-efficacy, and differences were observed in the sources reported across the phases of injury rehabilitation. Results suggest the influence of sources of efficacy information fluctuates over the course of injury rehabilitation. These findings can contribute to further research in the area, as well as strategies and interventions to better assist athletes through injury rehabilitation.
This study undertook a preliminary examination of the influence of sport injury-related growth (SIRG) upon the relationship between perceived impact of injury, level of self-efficacy and psychological wellbeing upon return to sport following injury. One hundred and twenty participants (61 male, 59 female, M(age) = 29) who had been absent from sport for at least four weeks due to injury within the last two years completed measures of subjective distress, stress-related growth, return to sport efficacy and psychological wellbeing. Preacher and Hayes’s (2008) mediation analysis indicated sport injury-related growth did not mediate the relationship between the subjective distress caused by injury and self-efficacy upon return to sport. Sport injury-related growth did mediate the relationship between the subjective distress and psychological wellbeing. These findings indicate that sport injury-related growth can aid an individual to achieve increased psychological wellbeing in the return to sport following injury. Future research should seek to explore in-depth the potential mechanisms underpinning the impact of SIRG upon an individual’s cognitive-affective state, and consider the measurement of the construct in relation to assessing growth explicitly related to trauma from sport injury.
An analysis of self-efficacy and its effect on employment was performed with data obtained from Food Industry Engineering Students (FIES), with strong food engineering, food manufacturing and innovation-related competencies, from 2019 to 2021. The aim was to determine if there is a relationship between self-efficacy and employment in FIES to define potential actions for educational institutions looking to reduce the gender disparity in professional life. Results showed differences in self-assessment categories regarding gender, with men having a better self-perception, especially in economic analysis and clarity in professional objectives. Women rate higher only in food development, traditionally associated with women from household to the food industry. Except for the entrepreneur positions favoring men, these differences were not observed in the employment data 1 year after graduation. This might be due to the national context where entrepreneurship is associated with masculine traits. Tasks commonly associated with specific genders seem to influence student self-efficacy, but this is not reflected in the employment rate of FIES at least within the evaluated period. Food Industry Engineering is considered atypical within STEM disciplines because more women graduate than men depicting gender roles similar to those in the national environment. These results are important for employers, government, and higher education institutions to create strategies to improve self-efficacy among students to reach their full potential as employees and as entrepreneurs to create a better environment for national economic development.
Two hundred forty-six students (132 boys, 114 girls) were tracked from fifth to eighth grades, and changes in gender stereotypes about running as a male sport, running performance, interest in running, and intention for future running participation were assessed. Results revealed that neither sex held gender stereotypes about running as a male sport and students were less likely to hold such stereotypes as they progressed through school. Compared to girls, boys were more likely to perceive running to be more appropriate for boys. Girls with higher gender stereotyping mean scores reported lower interest in running and intentions for future running participation, while boys recording increases in running stereotyping were more likely to retain interest in running and future running participation. This study provides empirical documentation of running as a gender-neutral activity over time in a physical education/athletic setting. From the expectancy-value lens, including gender-neutral activities such as running may encourage interest and participation levels among boys and girls alike.
The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to gather, catalogue, assess, and evaluate the available evidence examining implicit beliefs about ability in the sport, physical activity, and physical education contexts. A total of 43 studies were found, of which 39 were subjected to meta analyses. With only 7 experimental studies, the strength of evidence is moderate, and the field would benefit from greater experimental work. Overall, incremental beliefs were moderately associated with a small group of theoretically derived correlates, while entity beliefs were only weakly associated. The field would benefit from expanding these outcomes to include a wider range of pertinent outcomes. Researchers should focus their efforts on systematically exploring the most powerful ways of inducing adaptive implicit beliefs with the aim of providing solutions to significant problems such as preventing dropout from organised sports, improving academic grades in and beyond physical education, and increasing levels of physical activity.
Objective
To evaluate the factorial validity of the Athletic Injury Self-Efficacy Questionnaire (AISEQ) and the predictive relationships among self-efficacy, imagery use, and rehabilitation adherence.
Design and Setting
Survey administered in an outpatient physiotherapy clinic.
Participants
270 injured athletes.
Main Outcome Measures
AISEQ, Athletic Injury Imagery Questionnaire, and an adherence measure.
Results
A confirmatory factor analysis of the AISEQ revealed a 2-factor model. Athletes were higher in task efficacy than coping efficacy and used more cognitive and motivational imagery than healing imagery. In addition, athletes rated their frequency and duration of exercise performance higher than their quality of exercise performance. Cognitive imagery significantly predicted task efficacy, task efficacy predicted quality of exercise, and coping efficacy predicted frequency of exercise. Both task and coping efficacy were predictors of duration of exercise.
Conclusions
Results support a 2-factor solution of the AISEQ. In addition, task and coping self-efficacy appear to be key aspects in rehabilitation adherence.
Over the past 20 years, many theories on achievement motivation have been established to understand the complex interaction of motivational variables and identify the conditions that can enhance individuals' motivation. This review explores the role of conceptions of ability, its relations to other major motivational frameworks and factors affecting individuals' conceptions of ability, with the goal of identifying the major contributions to the research knowledge base. Research findings show that beliefs about the nature of ability are critical elements to all other major theories. Conceptions of ability and all other major theories directly affect motivational patterns and outcomes. Finally, based on the literature reviewed, a conceptual theoretical model is proposed.
Implicit beliefs about the nature of human abilities have significant motivational, behavioral, and affective consequences. The purpose of this article was to review the application of implicit beliefs to the youth sport context and to provide theoretically derived and evidence-based instructional strategies to promote adaptive implicit beliefs about human abilities within this context. A narrative overview of theory and a review of research pertaining to implicit beliefs in education, sport, and physical activity are undertaken. Theoretically derived and evidence-based instructional strategies are outlined, and specific coaching behaviors are suggested. Six instructional strategies to promote adaptive implicit beliefs in these contexts are suggested: focusing on effort and persistence, facilitating challenge, promoting the value of failure, defining success as effort, the promotion of learning, and providing high expectations. It is concluded that instructional strategies may be used to facilitate positive motivational, behavioral, and affective outcomes for young people within a sport context.
Sex differences in performance exist in the athletic domain. The goal of this thesis is to understand, in a social psychological perspective, the role of sex stereotypes in the athletic performance, by examining two ways of influence: the one exerted through PE teachers, and the one exerted through the internalisation of stereotypes in the self and through their activation in evaluative contexts. This thesis shows that although teacher expectations were biased in favour of boys, they did not lead to sex inequalities in performance through self-fulfilling prophecies or perceptual biases (e.g., Jussim, Eccles, & Madon, 1996). However, the stereotype relative to male superiority in sports may affect the performance of girls who endorse it, this relation being explained by a low perception of competence. Moreover, this stereotype may also affect girls' performance when it is activated during the realisation of a motor task (Steele, 1997). In addition, negative stereotypes may positively influence people who are not concerned by the stereotype, by enhancing their self-confidence and task engagement. To conclude, this doctoral work corroborates the idea that sex inequalities in performance are not only due to sex differences in natural ability, but may be explained by cultural beliefs relative to sex differences in sporting and physical activities.
Coed sport environments can be paradoxical settings where pre-existing gender biases influence participants' enjoyment and success. Furthermore, gendered messages and stereotypes as well as low expectations for females within coed sports can create participation barriers by reducing feelings of confidence and performance. Within university intramural sport programs, administrators have a significant role in determining participation opportunities and experiences. From a critical perspective, this investigation examined administrators' perspectives about coed intramural flag football gender modifications. Specifically, four research questions guided this study: (1) How do intramural sport administrators view coed flag football gender modifications? (2) To what extent do intramural sport administrators perceive gender modifications to impact coed flag football environments? (3) What level of awareness do intramural sport administrators have about the gendered messages of coed flag football gender modifications? and (4) To what extent are intramural sport administrators willing to modify their perceptions of the rules in light of critical questioning? Qualitative interviews were used to obtain the perspectives of 12 intramural administrators from across the USA. Administrators reported that coed gender modifications impacted perceptions about female ability, often by sending messages of inequity. Moreover, administrators revealed that the modifications created competitive strategy that often diminished the integrity of the game and undermined perceptions of female ability. Findings also indicated that administrators were highly influenced by previously existing gender stereotypes, leading to an endorsement of the modifications. Endorsements were accompanied by questioning of the rules but reluctance to enact changes. These findings elucidate the importance of scrutinizing the existence and application of coed gender modifications. Furthermore, engaging flag football participant feedback on the specific attributes of the coed modifications is important to better understand the needs of female populations. Lastly, eliminating modifications may help diminish the gendered messages that currently exist within coed flag football.
http://revistahorizonte.ulagos.cl/revistas/Diciembre_2014.pdf
Two studies explored the gendered nature of racial discrimination for Black men, focusing on the relationship between race, discrimination, and masculinity threat. Specifically, we hypothesized that racial discrimination may also represent a threat to Black, but not White, men's masculinity. Both studies examined the target's perspective (i.e. Black and White men's perspectives) on the experience of racism and threat. Black men who experienced discrimination reported greater endorsement of male gender norms and were more vigilant to masculinity threat cues than were those who did not experience discrimination. Additionally, Black men engaged in masculine-typed behaviors–for our purposes, completing more pushups–in proportion to their experience of masculinity threat. Conversely, White men disengaged from the pushup task after experiencing discrimination. Study 2 suggests that White men's disengagement is mediated by affirming their social status. Our data suggest the importance of considering the gendered consequences of racial discrimination toward subordinate-group men.
The experimental design utilized in this study tested the phenomenon of trash talk as the pivotal component under investigation. Madden™ NFL 08 Football video-game players (N = 40; Mean age = 20.68, SD = 2.00) were randomly assigned to two conditions in which they participated in two games of Madden™ NFL 08 Football. In the first condition (Silent-Talk) players conducted their first game in complete silence, and in the second game players were permitted to trash talk. This scenario was reversed for condition two (Talk-Silent), players being permitted to talk in the first game, and enforced to be silent for game two. All players in the study completed 5 separate measures for; Madden™ NFL 08 Football Self-Efficacy, Positive Affect (PA), and Negative Affect (NA). Players also completed a short trash talk survey and made two specific choices prior to a hypothetical “Game 3” which was never played. Choices related to a player’s ability to talk or remain silent, and whether to permit their opponent to talk or to enforce them to remain silent in “Game 3.”
Measurements were taken immediately prior to each game played, after players had received their instructions for the game (Talk or Silence), immediately after games 1 and 2 had been played, and finally before the hypothetical “Game 3,” which was not played. Results confirmed that the ability and freedom to trash talk in a competitive setting is considered extremely important by Madden™ NFL 08 video-game players. Players were adamant that trash talking was a motivational tool, which they used when competing in the game; almost all (95%) players admitted to using trash talk in physical sports environments outside the milieu of computer gaming.
RM ANOVAs revealed several significant (p < .05) results for the variables of interest (self-efficacy, positive affect, negative affect, and performance), but not all in line with the stated hypotheses. Contrary to expectations, performance measures for specific talk and silent games revealed no discernible differences for scoring, rushing, or passing. Although non-significant (p < .05) effects were noted for experimental conditions in overall performance measures, winners differed from losers on these variables. Winning performance resulted in significantly better overall performance measures across both games, with the exception of game 1 and rushing yards.
Players enforced to be silent in the first game (Silent-Talk condition) instantaneously exhibited lower self-efficacy, lower PA, and higher NA than players permitted to talk in game 1. Players’ self-efficacy remained relatively consistent after winning game 1. However, players subsequently instructed to remain silent in the second game showed markedly decreased self-efficacy compared to players permitted to talk in game 2. All the losers in game 1 reported decreased self-efficacy scores following a loss. However, players permitted to talk in the second game showed a significant increase in efficacy compared to players who lost and were also instructed to be silent in game 2. Prior to the hypothetical “Game 3,” after players’ trash talk choices (i.e., talk or silence in “Game 3”, both personally and for an opponent) had been made, self-efficacy displayed a sharp increase for both experimental conditions and outcome (win/loss).
Winners in the talk-silent condition decreased in PA after game 1 and prior to game 2, in which they had to remain silent. However, this decrease was more pronounced for losers who displayed a consistent downward trend in PA following game 1, and prior to game 2 in which they were to remain silent. Winners in the silent-talk condition exhibited a gradual increase in PA throughout the first three measures. Losers reported a slight decline after losing game 1, but a marked increase in PA after being instructed to talk in game 2. Both experimental conditions resulted in a significant increase in PA after trash talk choices were made prior to “Game 3.” This was replicated for winners and losers who both showed increased PA after their trash talk choices.
Elevation in NA was noted for both winners and losers after game 1, but this increase was more acute for losers. Players in both conditions showed an increase in NA after game 1, and both conditions showed a very similar decrease in NA immediately prior to game 2. Winners in both conditions maintained very similar NA scores across the first three measures, whereas losers showed an increase in NA after game 1, before finally decreasing immediately prior to game 2. Across both conditions winners’ NA decreased following game 2, whilst losers perceived NA increased distinctly. After trash talk choices were made, losers’ NA decreased, whilst winners’ NA unexpectedly increased.
The majority (95%) of players chose to be free to talk in “Game 3” of the study. Unexpectedly, many players preferred not to enforce silence upon their opponent for “Game 3.” Players who did choose to enforce silence upon their opponent most commonly did so when they had been victorious in the silent game played, or they had lost both of their games. The majority of players in the study felt that their enforced silence had helped their opponent. However, several players who won the silent game believed their enforced silence had no effect on their opponent.
The order in which the games were played (Talk-Silent or Silent-Talk) dramatically impacted the amount of trash talk used in the ‘talk’ games. The silent-talk condition resulted in 58% more coded trash talk occurrences than the talk-silent condition. Two conceivable reasons were the potential to reference game 1 as a source of conversation, and the reluctance of players to trash talk a total stranger.
Overall, results reveal self-efficacy was impacted by the freedom to trash talk, and by winning and losing in line with the hypotheses outlined at the inception of this study. Specifically, when permitted to talk and when winning games players experienced personal autonomy, a sense of control, and positive mastery experiences, which are all key tenets of bolstering self-efficacy (Bandura, 1992, 1997). As self-efficacy changed due to experimental conditions and outcome there were simultaneous effects on both PA and NA, which echoes previous research on self-efficacy expectations as a mediator to changes in affect (Feltz & Lirgg, 2001). However, unlike self-efficacy, emotions (PA and NA) were less predictable and idiosyncratic, even when the outcomes or conditions were seemingly optimal (Boutcher, 1993; Robazza et al., 1998). Whereas self-efficacy measures appeared to remain contingent on experimental condition or outcome throughout the study, affect scores exhibited features which support the assertion that most significant emotions are invariably personal relevant, regardless of tangible outcomes (Hanin, 2000, 2007).
The aim of this study was to describe how young female athletes perceived the influences of a self-strengthening programme. The self-strengthening programme for young female athletes was run by the Swedish Sport Confederation. The programme was designed to empower young female athletes. The study methodology was based on a phenomenographic approach and entailed interviews with a strategically selected group of 14 participants in the programme. The informants were between 13 and 20 years of age and came from individual and team sports. The findings show that perceived influences of the programme were: a feeling of self-confidence; a feeling of being seen and confirmed; awareness of women’s issues; a feeling of belongingness; and an improvement in coaching skills. The self-strengthening programme empowered young female athletes due to increased self-efficacy and an increased awareness of women’s issues.
The purpose of this study was to explore gender differences in reasoning about the relationships between natural ability,
effort/practice, and final skill level/performance across 16 physical activities at both elite and recreational levels. The
participants were 153 college students enrolled in 6 physical activity classes. They completed 2 questionnaires. The results
indicated that in physical activity domains, male students tended to rate natural ability as more influential for successful
skill level or performance than did female students, but the beliefs seemed to vary for activities that are gender-linked.
For all the participants, natural ability was viewed as more important at the elite level than at the recreational level.
A strategy for practitioners and coaches to use foster beliefs in the efficacy of effort must be developed by challenging
the conception of sports as gender-typed and promoting the concept of sports for all.
Although there has been a long-standing debate about whether a single-sex or mixed-sex environment is better for students in many Western countries, coeducation is one of the taken-for-granted issues in the modern Turkish education system. This study examined commonly expressed concerns about gender equity in a mixed-sex environment within the context of physical education (PE) in Turkey. The purpose of the study was to examine teacher-student interaction in the coed PE classroom, focusing on gender-stereotyped beliefs. Participants consisted of two PE teachers and 37 eighth-grade students from a private school situated in suburban Ankara Turkey. The modified observational instrument with the combination of Teacher-Student Interaction (TSI) and Interactions for Sex Equity in Classroom Teaching Observation System (INTERSECT) was used to assess teacher-student interaction in the classroom. In order to understand students' and teachers' gender-stereotyped beliefs, individual interviews were also conducted. The findings of this study indicated that both male and female PE teachers interact more frequently with boys, and this interaction was influenced by gender-stereotyped beliefs of both teachers and students. In sum, similar to many other western countries, the movement toward coeducation in Turkey has not automatically brought equal opportunities for girls or boys in PE.
The purpose of this study was to determine the influence of beliefs about gender appropriateness and conceptions of ability on perceived and actual competene and patterns of behavior during practice of the hockey wrist shot. Sixty-eight undergraduate women formed four treatment conditions based on their beliefs about gender appropriateness and conceptions of ability. Four teachers taught across the treatment conditions for a total of 16 learning groups. Data were collected through a three-part questionnaire and from audio-video taping of the entire episode to ascertain the paticipants' competency beliefs, effort, and performance. Gender appropriateness impacted the participants' perceptions of competence and actual performance in the study, while beliefs about conceptions of ability did not produce a significant difference. This study reaffirms that educators must work diligently to combat the stereotypical beliefs many hold with respect to the gender appropriateness of physical activities.
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