Performance Management Systems – Proposing and Testing a Conceptual Model

Abstract

The utility of performance measurement and management system can be said to have been proven, but the problem faced by both the theoreticians and practitioners is to set the right performance indicators. Developed models are tools that managers can use to measure and manage performance, but they need to be tailored to the context. Also, the trend towards using non-financial performance indicators makes it very difficult for managers to design a performance measurement and management system because it involves the integration of qualitative and non-quantitative variables and a profound understanding of the internal and external environment of the company.

Full text

Studies in Business and Economics no. 14(1)/2019
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DOI 10.2478/sbe-2019-0018
SBE no. 14(1) 2019
PERFORMANCE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS –
PROPOSING AND TESTING A CONCEPTUAL MODEL
ȘERBAN Radu-Alexandru
Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Romania
HERCIU Mihaela
Lucian Blaga University of Sibiu, Romania
Abstract:
The utility of performance measurement and management system can be said to have been
proven, but the problem faced by both the theoreticians and practitioners is to set the right
performance indicators. Developed models are tools that managers can use to measure and manage
performance, but they need to be tailored to the context. Also, the trend towards using non-financial
performance indicators makes it very difficult for managers to design a performance measurement
and management system because it involves the integration of qualitative and non-quantitative
variables and a profound understanding of the internal and external environment of the company.
Key words: indicators, management, model, performance, system
1. Introduction
Even though performance management systems are very popular, several studies
show consistent results from organisations that do not manage their performance well.
They have to take into account the complexity of the performance-creating value link, and
the approaches in conceptualising this link in performance management and implementing
a long-term strategy at company level have created great difficulties and debates in this
direction. Unless more attention is paid to performance-based behaviour, where managers
act as a model, the performance management system is impossible to be effective. On the
one hand, the implementation of the performance management system depends on the
behavioural factors of employees and managers, and on how managers direct/train their
employees towards the performance management system, and on the other hand the
proper set of performance indicators are the measures that gives the organization a clear

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idea if it moves in the right direction and at the right speed and gives a good overview to
the board of directors about the company's progress in terms of strategy.
2. Literature review
The association of the word “system” with performance management is due to its
connotations with the notion of mechanism, according to Armstrong (2009) and it is used
by several authors such as Neely et al. (2000), Magretta and Stone (2002), Davis and
Albright (2004) which also include the term “measurement” in discussion, Lohman et al,
(2004), Franco and Bourne (2005), Lee (2005), Olsen et al. (2007), Ferreira and Otley
(2009) and Melnyk et al. (2013). Indeed, the phrase “performance management system” is
generally used. The explanation is that it requires the application of some interdependent
activities that are treated as a whole, and that's what a system does, Armstrong (2009)
argues. Even though the authors mentioned above share a similar terminology, the
approaches might vary. For eg. Magretta and Stone (2002) claim that the performance
management system communicates the strategic intention and its importance to the rest of
the organization in relation to what has been measured and what has not been measured,
or the approach of Lohman et al. (2004) and Olsen et al. (2007) who proposed a change in
the perspective of an integrated performance management system going through the
“design approach” to the “coordination approach”. Also, Deloitte (2013) used the integrated
approach as a foundation when they came up with the “Deloitte IPM wheel”. On the other
hand others have been focusing on what it is measured in the performance management
system, like BCG's performance management system approach, where the key
performance indicators or KPI's play a crucial role in the system, and it requires both
relevant and consistent performance metrics that capture the critical aspects of the
business strategy.
The evolution of performance management and/or measurement systems were
influenced by the approaches that were in trend at that time. At the beginning (1900-1914)
the accounting perspective shaped the systems (e.g. DuPont Model), then the financial
perspective came in the scene (e.g. Tableau de Bord), later on, the integrative approach
combined with the previous ones were the basis for numerous frameworks developed, one
that became very popular, Norton and Kaplan's Balanced Scorecard (1992). It's popularity,
and large-scale use came from the idea behind The Balanced Scorecard which was to
focus more on non-financial indicators, considering that at that time companies were only
starting to see the potential of intangible assets. Some have criticized the Balanced
Scorecard for being too simplistic and less aware of the external environment, and by
others for the stakeholder issue arguing that this model ignores employees and regulators
(Bourne and Bourne, 2012).
They are starting from the 'weakness' of the scorecard model, which does not
include all the stakeholders, the nowadays approach that has a great influence on the
performance and/or measurement systems used by companies. The focus has moved
towards who benefits from performance results, and Porter and Kramer introduced the
concept of "Creating Shared Value" or CSV in 2011, but what has become the mainstream
today, are sustainability, ESG - Environmental, Social and Governance and circular
economy. What these concepts did was a wake-up call for the private sector,

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governmental institutions, academics, general population and so on, that we need to be
more concerned about how we handle the resources and how to build a future for the next
generations. As a result, it has an impact on how performance management and/or
measurement system is designed because of it vital to include the aspects mentioned
above by developing metrics that are capable of measuring the results of implementing
such a system for all the stakeholders.
3. Performance management system – Conceptual model
The multitude of approaches that the concept of performance has, highlights its
importance for both academics and practitioners. On the one hand, for the academic
environment, the challenge is to identify and synthesize the most important factors that
determine a company's performance and include them into a performance management
and measurement system, and for practitioners the challenge comes from adapting these
systems to realities: economic, financial, social, environmental, etc.
The utility of a performance management model to best capture the concept of
performance measured both financially, and non-financially will have a direct impact on the
system. For this reason, we can see that systems have evolved, increased in complexity
and gave a new dimension to the concept of performance.
Based on the facts presented above, and taking into consideration that in
management, the objective of a systemic approach is to understand and control complex
and evolutionary structures, in addition, the great contribution made by the systemic
approach is that it studies the organization from a multidisciplinary point of view,
integrated, both analytically and synthetically, starting from the expected strategic
objectives and taking into account the multiple interdependencies between its components,
we proposed a conceptual model of a performance management system, see figure 1.
Figure 1: Performance management system - conceptual model

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Within the model, the long-term strategy is central, then based on the results of the
value chain and “big-data” analysis the goals can be set based on the particularities of the
company, after setting goals, to measure the progress towards achieving those goals,
performance indicators have to be selected.
After the set of indicators is established the progress can be traced by using real-
time analysis. The dashboards are useful tools to present the results to various
stakeholders which might not have a financial background but are presented in a
comprehensible manner. At the end of the fiscal year using a model to calculate a
performance score based on the results provided by the set of indicators the company can
calculate it's score and also compare it with its peers.
The support elements within the model have a very important role in creating value
and achieving performance by the company, and these elements have the following
features:
a) Analysis of the value chain – to understand how some business models work,
it's important to know where, within the value chain, the company gets the most
profits. Although a company could offer a large number of products and services, a
business element could contribute to most profits. For example in the Healthcare &
Household Products sector companies such as Pfizer, Johnson & Johnson,
Novartis, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Merck, Sanofi, earn a significant portion of profits by
capitalising on intangible assets in the form of patents in exchange for
considerable sums of money. This element of the value chain of these companies
is the result of investment in R & D. To identify how a firm creates value based on
its business model, it is possible to use the analysis of the value chain proposed
by Michael Porter or the techniques of value analysis by Lawrence Miles;
b) “Big Data” analysis – managing “big data” results in better business knowledge,
and this helps to improve decision-making and improves performance. Today the
leaders in the digital era such as Apple, Google, Facebook and Amazon have built
an empire of data used to shape and control the digital world. The various APIs
used are processing large volumes of data that can help a company to analyse for,
eg. the productivity of its employees, customer preferences and buying habits,
where to cut costs and how to increase profitability. With the widespread use of AI
- Artificial Intelligence, computing power has grown significantly, allowing for the
exploration of larger sets of possible results. The “Big Data” analysis for large
corporations is easier to achieve due to access to information on various platforms
or services provided by companies that collect and process “big data”. Such
platforms are Yahoo Finance, Google Finance, Bloomberg Terminal, Thomson
Reuters, S & P, etc. However, access to a large amount of data allows with
software such as SPSS, Excel, RapidMiner, etc. analysing data and formulating
assumptions about how these companies create value and which indicators
(financial and/or non-financial) lead to performance;
c) Setting goals – The corporate strategic objective is to increase the total corporate
value to be higher than the sum of individual business units. A company's goals
must first of all focus on a long-term perspective, then be flexible (can be adapted
in the context of important internal or external events to the firm); accepted by

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stakeholders; measurable through a set of indicators, motivating, appropriate,
understandable and achievable. A few key concepts by which objectives can be
formulated with a long-term perspective and embraces the above features are
“shared value” and “sustainable development”. Large corporations, but not only,
are using these concepts as guidelines to set their goals;
d) Selection of performance indicators – After the first steps were made, analyzing
the value chain, “big data" analysis, and setting goals, it is necessary for a
company to establish those indicators that measure the value created and
performance results, taking into account the particularities of its business model.
Based on the fact that performance is given by some elements at a company level,
performance indicators are selected to cover all sources that contribute less or
better to global performance; please see figure 2. To measure the overall
performance of a company, we were considering selecting indicators based on the
following criteria, indicators that measure: company value, sustainability, solvency,
liquidity, profitability, indebtedness, operational performance, and global
performance. The effect on the overall performance of selected indicators can be
seen in asset growth rates, net profit, revenue, added value and sustainability.
Figure 2: Performance indicators
e) Real-time analysis – Once the performance indicators have been selected, either
static analysis can be based on annual, semestrial or quarterly results from
financial reports, or by using software packages that can collect, process, and
analyse real-time performance indicators in real time. Considering that this
component of the performance management system involves a substantial
investment from the company, it can be outsourced, with specialised companies
on the real-time data analysis being present on the market;

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f) Generating dashboards – Dashboards are visual information management tools
through graphs, which analyse and display performance indicators and key data to
monitor a company's situation. They are customizable to meet the specific needs
of a company. Behind such a dashboard is a database that is then displayed in the
form of tables, charts, etc. Such an instrument is the most effective way to track
multiple data sources because it provides a central location for companies to
monitor and analyse performance. The best dashboards are the ones that focus
on the most important aspects of the company. Unlike advanced business
intelligence tools, dashboards are designed for quick analysis and informational
awareness, especially for those stakeholders who do not have a financial
education but can form an image of the company's state of affairs, such an
example is shown in figure 3.
Figure 3: Dashbord performance indicators – Sanofi
g) Analysis of performance scores – By going through the previous stages of the
performance management system and applying, on the one hand, the
performance score model by normalizing (standardizing) the indicators, and on the
other hand applying the Z score function, we can analyze the scores at the
company level, industry or sector level by comparing with the competitors. An
important component of this stage is the impact analysis of the stakeholders.
Figure 4: Stakeholders impact analysis and value distribution

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The results obtained by the company are analysed. Such an analysis allows the
company to identify those critical stakeholders for its survival and to ensure that
the satisfaction of their needs is of paramount importance. Most companies that
have gone through this process quickly conclude that the needs of the three
stakeholder groups (clients, employees and shareholders) must be met above all if
a company wants to survive, be competitive and prosper. As a matter of fact, few
companies have the resources to manage the needs, interests, goals of all
stakeholders. Also at this stage, the dashboards can be used as a tool for
presenting information on the performance scores obtained by the company,
please see figure 5.
Figure 5: Dashbord performance scores - Sanofi
As a result of the steps in the company's overall performance management
system, we achieve results or outputs in the form of a performance level (achieved or
exceeded), business insight, added value etc. Successful implementation of the model for
a company involves firstly establishing a long-term strategy and a systemic approach,
these being the premises from which it starts. Then, the pattern having a cyclical character,
after completing a cycle, at the beginning of the next cycle, the “inputs” category adds the
“outputs” or the results of the previous cycle that help improve continuously.
4. Performance management system in the technology sector
Companies from the tech sector had strong growth in 2017 and 2018, due to the
global spendings in purchasing software and tech services but also hardware and
communication equipment. The performance of the tech sector was due to the robust
growth of US, China, India, Indonesia, South Korea and the from the emerging countries
like Brazil and Russia which resulted into a global tech market increase, but also the
increased spending from the so-called “business technology”, around 28% (Bartels, 2017)
in CRM, e-commerce, business analytics and other tech services.

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US companies dominate the tech sector with Apple and Amazon, the companies
that in 2018, hit a market capitalisation of 1 trillion $ each, which together with Facebook,
Netflix and Google have a market capitalisation of about 3 trillion $, approximately 10% of
the value of the S&P 500. After US tech companies, China, South Korea and Taiwan
complete the top 10 tech sector with companies like Samsung (South Korea), Hon Hai
Precision (Taiwan) and Tencent (China).
By analysing the value chain in the tech sector, the most value is created by the
groundbreaking products and services in terms of software, hardware and other tech
products. Also in the past decade for the tech sector, the value came also from goodwill,
which is similar to intangible assets, it is shown on the balance sheet of the company, and
it is recorded when a merger or an acquisition happens. Goodwill is considered a “premium
fee” because it shows up only when “the purchase price is higher than the sum of the fair
value of all identifiable tangible and intangible assets purchased in the acquisition and the
liabilities assumed in the process (Hargrave, 2019).”
Even though goodwill has some similarities with intangible assets, there are
important differences, such as various accounting approaches in estimating the value of
goodwill, and most of the times the components of goodwill are subjectively valued.
Goodwill is an important factor in the value chain for the tech sector due to the
increased of acquisitions, both in number and value. When Google (Alphabet) acquired
YouTube in 2006 for 1,65 bn. $ it was a huge deal, but ten years later, the amount
increased significantly, with Microsoft acquiring LinkedIn for 26,2 bn. $ (2016), IBM
acquiring Red Hat for 34 bn. $ or the Dell acquiring EMC for 67 bn. $, making this the
largest deal in the tech sector so far.
For the tech companies ranked by profit from the Global Fortune 500 in 2017, the
value of goodwill for 32 companies, please see figure 6, counted for almost 300 bn. $.
The companies selected to apply the steps from the performance management
system - conceptual model, are the most profitable companies from the tech sector, based
on the ranking provided by the Global Fortune 500 Magazine, in 2017. These companies
had in 2017 a value (enterprise value) of over 7 trillion dollars, a net income of 245 billion
dollars and over 1 million employees worldwide, as shown in tables 1 and 2.
Table 1: Tech companies, industry-based
Industry No. of companies Net income
(mil. $)
Avg. no. of
employees
Computer Software 3 29.567 108.995
Computer, Office Equipment 6 54.178 157.631
Electronics, Electrical Equipment 6 51.493 313.338
Information Technology Services 5 13.058 253.208
Internet Services and Retailing 5 51.699 85.787
Network and other Communication
Equipment 2 12.075 52.417
Semiconductors and other Electronic
Components 5 33.174 104.914
TOTAL 32 245.244 1.076.290

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$43,76
$35,12
$29,77
$24,39
$24,03
$24,00
$18,22
$16,75
$13,35
$9,65
$8,35
$8,22
$6,62
$5,72
$5,62
$5,00
$4,67
$3,64
$3,49
$1,12
$0,93
$0,62
$0,38
$0,19
$0,13
$0,12
$0,03
$0,01
$0,00 $5,00 $10,00 $15,00 $20,00 $25,00 $30,00 $35,00 $40,00 $45,00 $50,00
Oracle
Microsoft
Cisco Systems
Intel
SAP
Alibaba
Fa ce bo ok
Alphabet
Amazon.com
DXC Technology
Canon
Onex
Qualcomm
Apple
Hewlett Packard
Accenture
Sony
Panasonic
Tencent
Flex LTD
NEC
SK Hynix
Fujitsu
Taiwan Semiconductor
LG Electronics
Hon Hai Precision
Pegatron
Quanta Computer
Based on the data from table 1, the most profitable industries from the tech sectors
were Computer, Office Equipment (54 bn. $) followed by Internet Services and Retailing
(51,7 bn. $) and Electronics, Electrical Equipment (51,5 bn. $). Also, the Electronics,
Electrical Equipment has the highest no. of employees.
Figure 6: Goodwill value (bn. $)
The figure above shows that goodwill in an important factor in the tech sector, and
for the companies selected (32) the value of goodwill (294 bn. $) is around 10% of the
value of the total assets, which count for about 2,9 trillion $.
Table 2: Top most profitable tech companies
Company Industry Country
Enterprise
Value (bn.
$)
Apple Computer, Office Equipment Unites States $1.120
Amazon.com Internet Services and Retailing Unites States $974
Microsoft Computer Software Unites States $784
Alphabet Internet Services and Retailing Unites States $712
Alibaba Internet Services and Retailing China $456

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Facebook Internet Services and Retailing Unites States $429
Tencent Internet Services and Retailing China $415
Samsung Electronics, Electrical Equipment South Korea $263
Intel Semiconductors and other Electronic Components Unites States $230
Taiwan
Semiconductor Semiconductors and other Electronic Components Taiwan $205
Cisco Systems Network and other Comm. Equip. Unites States $200
Pegatron Computer, Office Equipment Taiwan $191
Quanta
Computer Computer, Office Equipment Taiwan $187
Oracle Computer Software Unites States $184
IBM Information Technology Services Unites States $167
SAP Computer Software Germany $148
Compal
Electronics Computer, Office Equipment Taiwan $115
Accenture Information Technology Services Ireland $105
Qualcomm Network and other Comm. Equip. Unites States $90
Sony Electronics, Electrical Equipment Japan $69
SK Hynix Semiconductors and Other Electronic Components South Korea $59
Hon Hai
Precision Electronics, Electrical Equipment Taiwan $45
Canon Computer, Office Equipment Japan $35
Onex Semiconductors and other Electronic Components Canada $32
Hewlett
Packard Computer, Office Equipment Unites States $32
DXC
Technology Information Technology Services Unites States $30
Panasonic Electronics, Electrical Equipment Japan $30
LG Electronics Electronics, Electrical Equipment South Korea $21
Fujitsu Information Technology Services Japan $17
LG Display Electronics, Electrical Equipment South Korea $11
Flex LTD Semiconductors and other Electronic Components Singapore $9
NEC Information Technology Services Japan $9
TOTAL
$7.372
The top is dominated by the US companies (12), followed by Japan (5), Taiwan (5)
and South Korea (4), China (2), Germany, Ireland, Singapore and Canada with one
company each country.
In the tech sector, the goals set to improve the overall performance identified by
the their leaders are: to refine the internal systems; to continue the research on industry
and customers; increase the use of blockchain applications; to educate the customers
about new tech; reduce operational costs; increase the delivery of value to customers; to
be prepared for tech sector upcoming changes; to improve the actual products and
services; to expand to larger markets, suggests Forbes Technology Council (2018).

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In order to measure the global performance of the tech sector, and calculate the
performance score we have selected the following performance indicators: ESG score and
Controversy level from Yahoo Finance, provided by Sustainalytics; Tobin’s ratio;
Enterprise multiple; General solvency; Quick ratio; Net profit margin;
Goodwill+Intangible assets to total assets ratio; Financial leverage and the DuPont
Identity. The financial data for the 32 companies were collected from Yahoo Finance and
the financial statements.
After we computed the data collected and calculated the indicators, we normalised
(standardised) the variables using the formula below, and the scores calculated by sectors
are shown in table 3.
xijnorm = 90 * +10
Generic performance score = +10
Where:
xij – is the result of variable i for company j
ximin – represents the minimum level of variable i
ximax – represents the maximum level of variable i
The normalization (standardization) interval is [10; 100]
Table 3: Performance scores of the sample companies in the tech sector
Company A B C D E F G H I J Performance
score
Facebook 22 100 32 36 100 47 100 47 50 65 60
Samsung 68 100 25 11 41 100 50 18 51 64 53
SAP 79 55 30 46 29 15 48 100 52 62 52
Qualcomm 68 100 28 31 22 66 34 35 54 57 49
Microsoft 72 78 41 40 16 10 64 39 58 69 49
Alibaba 15 55 36 76 30 35 68 54 52 63 48
Intel 100 78 27 21 27 11 44 57 52 60 48
Taiwan
Semiconductor
91 33 30 24 48 34 91 11 51 66 48
Amazon.com 10 78 79 100 14 14 12 30 63 59 46
Apple 61 100 35 34 18 11 58 13 56 73 46
Cisco Systems 86 55 27 32 24 16 55 49 53 61 46
Alphabet 47 100 31 42 53 16 35 25 50 57 46
IBM 77 55 35 25 13 14 25 61 72 71 45
SK Hynix 68 55 25 10 47 14 91 15 51 71 45
Tencent 15 55 40 56 23 21 79 23 53 69 43
Oracle 61 55 29 28 17 28 31 68 57 57 43

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Accenture 75 33 41 38 20 15 32 45 54 74 43
Onex 19 10 27 34 13 17 31 67 100 100 42
DXC
Technology
52 55 25 16 20 13 25 89 55 60 41
Canon 68 55 24 17 29 20 22 51 52 57 40
Pegatron 61 55 82 19 18 15 11 10 57 58 39
Sony 70 55 27 19 14 13 22 19 68 62 37
Panasonic 52 78 25 15 16 14 15 28 59 60 36
NEC 82 55 23 17 18 14 12 24 57 55 36
Fujitsu 77 55 25 14 19 14 18 19 56 61 36
Hon Hai
Precision
56 78 24 22 18 14 15 10 57 60 35
Quanta
Computer
47 10 100 23 15 15 12 10 63 59 35
LG Display 58 55 23 12 24 13 24 15 53 60 34
Flex LTD 65 33 26 22 15 12 12 28 62 61 34
LG Electronics 65 55 24 14 18 11 15 16 56 59 33
Compal
Electronics 24 55 64 20 16 13 10 10 59 56 33
HP 86 55 10 26 10 14 20 37 10 10 28
Note A – ESG Score; B – Controversy level; C – Tobin’s ratio; D – Enterprise multiple; E – General solvency; F –
Quick ratio; G – Net profit margin; H – Goodwill+Intangible assets to total assets ratio; I – Financial leverage; J –
DuPont Identity.
Based on the calculated performance score, Facebook (US) has the highest score
(60), followed by Samsung – South Korea (53) and SAP – Germany (52). The minimum
score is 28 – HP (US), the maximum score is 60 – Facebook (US) while the average score
for the selected 32 companies is 42.
In figure 7 based on the performance scores calculated and the data collected, a
dashboard sample is presented with main information about the company. Several users
can use it, shareholders, analysts, etc. people without a financial background. The results
presented in the dashboard aim to briefly present the current situation of the company and
compared with its peers. Due to the fact that the performance management system is used
over a long period, and the outputs of this year become inputs for the next year circle, it
accumulates data, and it can show the evolution of various key indicators of the company.
In the example from figure 7, Accenture has a performance score just above the
average of the tech sector. The information shown is the country (Ireland), industry
(Information technology services), sector (Technology), employees (449.000), ESG score
(75, maximum 100), Controversy level (1, maximum 5) and performance score (43).

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Figure 7: Dashboard – Accenture
5. Conclusion
Focusing only on maximising the value of the company or shareholder wealth as
the primary objective, highlighted by voices like Milton Friedman (1970), pushed managers
towards a short-term oriented approach that caused damage to the long-term perspective
of the companies. Today we have to take into consideration the needs of various parties
(stakeholders) that bring value to the company and include them into the management
system. Furthermore, concepts like “shared value” and “sustainability” led in the first phase
to a change of perspective in the field, but then but has highlighted an already existing
problem, namely how we measure and manage it?
Although companies are currently pursuing and reporting countless financial,
social, and environmental indicators, in part through the social sector's efforts to develop
more sophisticated social impact assessment methods, there is also the need for
integrated reporting aimed at adding sustainability measures to financial statements.
Based on the conceptual performance management system model, we are trying
to integrate the main concerns mentioned above: pursue a long-term strategy, the model is
a cyclical one, can and will be used year after year improving by the outputs that will
become valuable inputs; takes into consideration the stakeholders not only the

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shareholders, then it provides a set of indicators that covers both financial and non-
financial indicators, by including important topics like “sustainability”.
By applying the performance management system – conceptual model on a sector
of activity gives the possibility to identify the main value creators, analyze and select from
huge amounts of data, set goals, select the proper indicators, create an interactive
dashboard, analyze it with various stakeholders, share the performance results and the
value created, and use in the end use all the outputs as inputs for the next cycle.
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