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M
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A Journal of Pacific Maritime History
Maritime Museum of San Diego Vol. 52: 1 & 2 Winter/Spring 2016
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$12.95
Diving in San Diego
A Concise History Encompassing the World
MaritiMe M useuM of s a n Diego
8
Scientifi c Diving at Scripps
Institution of Oceanography
Cheng Kui Tseng
helmet diving, c. 1942.
Courtesy of Victor B. Scheffer,
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service
A Concise History
Scientifi c diving is more than making observations in the water: the
objective of science is to understand the important processes that
defi ne and regulate natural patterns. The science component is much
more diffi cult than the diving, and the Scripps Institution of Oceanography
(SIO) diving program has built its reputation by making excellent scientists
into safe divers. A complete history of scientifi c diving at SIO would fi ll a
book, so highlights are presented in this shorter form. The focus of this
history is on scientifi c diving: many SIO divers were active recreational
divers in San Diego, and were well known in the San Diego and Southern
California recreational diving community.
By Peter Brueggeman
MaritiMe MuseuM o f s a n Diego
8
9
Peter Brueggeman is the retired and fi nal Director of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography
Library and Archives, University of California San Diego Library. Peter would like
to thank Paul Dayton,
Christian McDonald, Mary Lynn Price, and Kevin Hardy for their assistance with this article. Peter also thanks
James Stewart for certifying him into the SIO scientifi c diving program in 1990, which led to countless
interesting diving experiences outside the walls of the SIO Library where Peter worked.
The fi rst scientifi c diver at SIO was Cheng Kui Tseng. Tseng, a Chinese
marine botanist, who came to SIO in 1942, on a post-doctoral fellowship
from the University of Michigan. In early 1942, after his arrival at SIO, U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service scientists approached Tseng to enlist him in the
cultivation and utilization of marine algae for agar, due to the wartime loss
of Japanese agar imports that had provided ninety percent of U.S. needs.
Tseng assessed developing a renewable domestic source of agar, and
learned that a few Southern California divers with assistants were already
collecting up to two wet tons a day of Gelidium red
algae. Starting in 1942, Tseng made monthly helmet
dives in San Diego, with surface-supplied air to thirty-
foot depth, to tag and measure Gelidium cartilagineum
red algae, comparing its growth rate in natural versus
artifi cial laboratory conditions. Tseng also collected
seawater samples to analyze for nutrient content to
study their relation to algal growth.
Starting in October 1946, Frank Haymaker of
SIO began helmet diving in the local La Jolla
submarine canyons using surface-supplied air, as
part of SIO geologist Francis Parker Shepard’s research
on submarine canyons and their formation. Shepard
had been studying several submarine canyons for
many years, and of particular interest to Shepard were
the canyons in San Diego’s backyard – the La Jolla
and Scripps Submarine Canyons. Immediately offshore
of SIO and approaching in a single canyon from the
west, they branch into the La Jolla Submarine Canyon,
with its canyon head off La Jolla Shores beach, and the
Scripps Submarine Canyon, with its canyon head off
the south end of Black’s beach. Shepard began
probing these local underwater canyons in the 1930s,
using a rowboat, plotting position with a sextant and
landmarks, and dropping weighted sounding lines
with a hand reel, to measure and plot both underwater
canyons to learn their fi ner structure – data not
available in extant navigational charts, or possible with echo
sounding into steep-walled underwater canyons.
Frank Haymaker in helmet diving gear,
on the SIO ship E. W. Scripps, c. 1947
Courtesy of Mary Lynn Price,
from the Sam Hinton Private Collection
Frank Haymaker
at SIO, c. 1947.
Courtesy of
Mary Lynn Price,
from the Sam Hinton
Private Collection
MaritiMe M useuM of s a n Diego
10
from its anchor in rough seas and was lost with most
of the diving gear.
Conrad Limbaugh and Andreas Rechnitzer were
graduate zoology students under Boyd Walker at
UCLA (when SIO was administratively part of UCLA),
where they taught themselves to use the (at the time)
new Cousteau Aqua-Lung scuba apparatus. These
were the third and fourth sold in the U.S., one being a
triple tank unit and the other
a single tank, and purchased
with Walker’s funds. There
was no training or manual
available; Limbaugh and
Rechnitzer learned on
their own. Limbaugh and
Rechnitzer transferred to
SIO in spring 1950, under
ichthyologist Carl L. Hubbs,
and started using scuba
diving at SIO to tag fishes,
collect specimens, do kelp
bed surveys, and explore
the submarine canyons off
La Jolla. Funding support
for kelp bed surveys came
from the Kelco Company,
which was harvesting kelp.
Limbaugh and Rechnitzer used clothing like long
johns, surplus Air Force survival suits, and greasy
skin coatings to ward off chilling from diving in
La Jolla’s relatively cold water. Their scuba tanks
were filled with air from several 160 cubic feet
tanks that were filled and shipped from Los Angeles.
imbaugh and Rechnitzer began instructing
others in scuba diving at SIO, including
several from the Submarine Geology Division.
Training was both in the ocean and at the La Jolla
Beach & Tennis Club swimming pool early in the
morning. In 1951 or 1952, Limbaugh and Rechnitzer
developed a “Diving Training and Field Procedures
Syllabus.” In 1952, Limbaugh was authorized by
SIO Director Roger Revelle to train and grant permits
for SIO scientific divers. In 1953, two UC Berkeley
students drowned while scuba diving, and UC diving
was halted pending development of a formal course
Shepard and staff had done almost 2,000 depth
soundings off La Jolla by 1934, and their
continuing research measured the submarine
canyon heads, dredged rocks and analyzed sediment,
measured canyon bottom currents, among other
data collection. Underwater observations and
collecting through diving presented tremendous
opportunity to further Shepard’s research.
Frank Haymaker was
a former Navy diver, and
Haymaker’s helmet diving
for Shepard resulted in more
detailed descriptions of
submarine canyon topography,
including the gas-bubbling
decomposing debris fields on
the canyon bottoms. He utilized
underwater photography to
document his findings. From
October 1946 to January 1948,
Haymaker made sixty-two dives
into both La Jolla and Scripps
Submarine Canyons, at depths
down to 190 feet, supported
by a thirty-eight-foot surplus
U.S. Navy Utility Boat, with
two-way surface telephone
communication with Shepard. Haymaker’s dives
were tended by D. B. Sayner and Robert L. Wisner.
Haymaker collected rocks in a canvas bag using
hammer and chisel, and made sediment core samples
of the canyon floor by hammering in a pipe that was
then capped and pulled up to the surface from the
boat. Haymaker placed sediment traps in the canyons,
and made observations of canyon bottom currents
reported to the boat via telephone. If there was good
underwater visibility, a 25mm film Ewing submarine
camera was lowered to Haymaker for photography
of canyon features; if not, he gave verbal descriptions
of what he observed via telephone to Shepard in the
boat. Haymaker taught helmet diving to other SIO
personnel including Sam Hinton, the SIO aquarist, and
the SIO ship E. W. Scripps was their diving support
boat. Haymaker and Shepard’s diving operations
ceased in January 1948 when the boat broke loose
Shepard and staff
had done almost 2,000
depth soundings off
La Jolla by 1934,
and their continuing
research measured
the submarine canyon
heads, dredged rocks
and analyzed sediment,
measured canyon bottom
currents, among other
data collection.
MaritiMe MuseuM o f s a n Diego
10
11
Local and submarine canyon life and physical
processes were studied by many SIO scientific
divers, including Conrad Limbaugh, Andreas
Rechnitzer, Charles Fleming, Robert Dill, Earl A.
Murray, Dick Mills, Wheeler J. North, Harris B.
Stewart, Jr., Theodore K. Chamberlain, and others.
Limbaugh made extensive fish and invertebrate
surveys of the La Jolla Submarine Canyon
encompassing diving, dredging, and photography.
In February and March 1953, SIO’s John McGowan
studied
and subsequently published observations on
an unusually large spawning of market squid, mating
and laying eggs at the head of La Jolla Submarine
Canyon off La Jolla Shores beach. This is one of the
few areas where
scuba
divers can access and observe
this phenomena nearshore and in relatively shallow
water. Recreational
scuba
divers can be seen night
diving off La Jolla Shores beach to observe these
infrequent squid runs. The squid runs attract large
numbers of sea lions feeding on the squid, and these
sea lions enjoy buzzing the sightseeing
scuba
divers
in the dark at depth.
of diving and safety instruction. In December 1953,
Limbaugh was appointed Marine Diving Specialist by
Revelle, and became the first SIO diving officer, tasked
to develop and maintain a training program, write a
diving manual, and issue diving permits. All University
of California scuba diving training was done at SIO,
and UC scuba diving was coordinated at SIO until
1960, thereafter being decentralized. Limbaugh’s SIO
program was influenced by Navy diver training, and
became the basis of the first public scuba diving
certification founded in Los Angeles County in 1954,
which led to the founding of other recreational diving
certification programs.
Conrad Limbaugh, 1959.
Courtesy of Scripps Institution
of Oceanography Archives,
UC San Diego Library
11
MaritiMe M useuM of s a n Diego
12
In 1956, SIO biologist Edward W. Fager
started nearshore sand-bottom faunal
studies using
scuba
diving, recognizing
its ability for direct observational and
sampling access. Arthur O. Flechsig was
Fager’s technician and fellow diver in
studying marked locations in front of SIO
from eighteen to sixty feet deep, leading
to an understanding of the nearshore
community ecology. Many of Fager’s
graduate students did extensive
research diving, including Ray Ghelardi,
Bob Clutter, Dick Ford, and Ann C.
Hurley Hartline.
SIO scientific diving involved a
learning process about diving itself.
On July 31, 1953, a deep
scuba
dive
of 225 feet was made into the Scripps
Submarine Canyon by UC Berkeley
physicist Hugh Bradner and SIO’s Conrad
Limbaugh and Robert Dill, with Raymond
McAllister as a safety diver, in order to
make observations and certify Dill as
an SIO diving instructor. Hugh Bradner
had invented the neoprene wetsuit and
the divers were all wearing Bradner’s wetsuit. With contemporary diving
physiological knowledge, this was a risky dive to conduct breathing normal
air in the
scuba
tanks, since the toxic effects on the brain of the increased
partial pressure of oxygen can appear around 218 feet depth. Today, SIO’s
scientific diving program would not allow such diving under its auspices.
T
he underwater canyons off La Jolla have continued to be of
scientific interest studied via diving. In the 1990s, SIO graduate
student Eric Vetter conducted over 300 dives in Scripps Submarine
Canyon and found the canyon’s debris mat of drift kelp, eel and surf
grass,
washed down along San Diego County’s coastline by its longshore
current, supporting the highest reported natural secondary productivity in
the world’s ocean. Secondary production is those animals and unicellular
protists that eat photosynthetic organisms and bacteria, and La Jolla’s
underwater canyon debris mats support
intense microbial and invertebrate
populations, on which fish flock in to
feed. This rich canyon sea life attracts
the considerable scuba diving seen at
La Jolla Shores, wherein easy access
is afforded to a diverse underwater
environment. There are few similarly rich
underwater canyons so close to shore
SIO diver Earl Murray, 1958.
Later Murray was a Sealab II aquanaut.
Courtesy of Scripps Institution
of Oceanography Archives,
UC San Diego Library
On July 31, 1953, a deep scuba dive
of 225 feet was made into the Scripps
Submarine Canyon by UC Berkeley
physicist Hugh Bradner and SIO’s Conrad
Limbaugh and Robert Dill, with Raymond
McAllister as a safety diver, in order to
make observations and certify Dill as an
SIO diving instructor.
13
and sufficiently shallow that scuba divers
can visit them.
In conjunction with SIO scientific
interest in La Jolla’s underwater
canyons, the physical environment
of the long La Jolla beach with its waves,
rip currents, and sand movements
functioned as a scientific laboratory, and
was studied by several SIO scientists,
and in the 1950s diving became a tool
to install measuring instruments, and
make observations. Converted U.S. Navy
surplus DUKWs were used to transport
equipment and divers from SIO through
the surf zone to nearshore research
areas. The steep concrete ramp just
north of the SIO Pier and leading from
the beach up to SIO, was the DUKW
driveway on and off the beach; the concrete block
building to the left at the top of that ramp garaged the
DUKWs, and is now the SIO Diving Locker.
In the 1950s, scuba divers were finding large numbers
of small Native American grinding mortars or bowls in
shallow waters inshore of the La Jolla Submarine Canyon
head, in front of the La Jolla Beach and Tennis Club,
just south of SIO. SIO divers James R. Moriarty and
Neil F. Marshall published research on them, postulating
that rising sea level had drowned the site. Currently,
the California State Department of Parks
and Recreation notes
that 2,000 bowls have
been found there, at
depths to eighty feet.
SIO DUKW exiting the beach, early 1950s.
Courtesy of Scripps Institution of Oceanography Archives, UC San Diego Library
SIO DUKW used for diving, at the head of Scripps
Submarine Canyon. Douglas Inman is adjusting the
diver’s tank, early 1950s.
Courtesy of Scripps Institution of Oceanography Archives,
UC San Diego Library
13
SIO PIER
View south from
Black’s Beach
MaritiMe M useuM of s a n Diego
14
Scripps scientific diving extended beyond Southern California waters.
An early overseas scientific diving endeavor occurred during SIO’s
Capricorn Expedition to the South Pacific, in 1952-1953. Scientific
diving on this SIO expedition involved six divers: Willard N. Bascom,
Robert F. Dill, Philip E. Jackson, Robert S. Livingston, John B. MacFall,
and Walter H. Munk, who did scuba diving between December 1952 and
February 1953 in order “to apply underwater man as an oceanographic
tool.” The divers used U.S. Divers Aqua-Lung regulators that had been
modified at SIO to be more responsive to respiratory demand; they also
used a Lambertsen Amphibious Respiratory Unit.
Diving on Alexa Bank during the
Capricorn Expedition, December
9, 1952. Left to right: William King
(profile at left edge) and SIO divers
Robert Dill (in tee shirt), Walter Munk,
Robert Livingston, Philip Jackson,
John MacFall (from behind, holding
an underwater camera).
Courtesy of Scripps Institution
of Oceanography Archives,
UC San Diego Library
15
Dives were made at Banaba Island
(aka Ocean Island) in Kiribati,
Alexa Bank in Fiji, Tonga, Samoa,
Tahiti, Takaroa in the Tuamotus, and Nuku
Hiva in the Marquesas. Underwater work
focused on coral atoll surveying and
geological observations, experiments on the
effects of diver distance from underwater
explosions used in seismic surveying work,
and the location and exploration of a sunken
Navy tanker, the Chehalis, in 163 feet of
water at Pago Pago, Samoa. MacFall took
color underwater photographs.
James Stewart started as a volunteer diver
at SIO in 1952, helping in research diving and
in diver training. After many years of skin
diving, Stewart had started Aqua-Lung scuba
diving in 1950, and interacted with many SIO
divers locally, including Limbaugh. Throughout
the 1950s, there were various SIO scientific
expeditions to Mexico, including Clipperton
Island, Guadalupe Island and Cabo San Lucas;
Conrad Limbaugh and others participated
as divers. In 1955, a Scripps research team
travelled to Enewetak/Eniwetok and Bikini
atolls to study the aftermath of atomic bomb
testing. James Stewart and other SIO divers
participated in the research diving component
of that work on trips in successive years.
From the late 1950s on, ichthyologist and
fish collection curator Richard Rosenblatt
used diving to collect fish. In 1958, Michael
Neushul, Jr., an SIO research biologist, made
thirty-three dives in the South Shetland Islands
and the Antarctic Peninsula using wet and
dry suits, Pirelli closed circuit rebreathers, and open circuit scuba gear. After he
came to SIO in 1970, Paul Dayton continued his Antarctic research diving on
benthic ecology, spending more than an aggregate of fifty months at McMurdo
Sound, doing more than nine hundred research dives through 1989, under the
ocean’s thick overlying ice sheet. The scientific papers that resulted from Dayton’s
extensive research diving on Antarctic benthic ecology set a standard for such work.
By 1955, Stewart was employed
part time at SIO, and later full time
in 1956. In 1960, Conrad Limbaugh
drowned in a cave diving accident
in France, and James Stewart was
named to replace Limbaugh as SIO’s
Diving Safety Officer.
SIO divers on Guadalupe Island during Andreas Rechnitzer’s
research project, November 1954. From left: James Stewart,
Andreas Rechnitzer, Charles Fleming, John Carter, Thomas Urban
Thies (U.S. Navy UDT diver) and Earl Murray.
Courtesy of Scripps Institution of Oceanography Archives, UC San Diego Library
Paul Dayton diving under
the sea ice ceiling in
Antarctica, 1974
.
Courtesy of Gordon Robilliard
In 1955, a Scripps research team
travelled to Enewetak/Eniwetok and
Bikini atolls to study the aftermath
of atomic bomb testing.
MaritiMe M useuM of s a n Diego
16
In 1965, Stewart was a diving
coordinator for the Office of Naval
Research’s Sealab II underwater
habitat. Sealab II involved three
teams of ten men living two weeks
at a time in a steel cylinder. It was
located half a mile off the SIO pier,
at 205 feet depth, on a slope above
Scripps Submarine Canyon.
mong the many Sealab II
diving inhabitants were
SIO divers Earl A. Murray,
Arthur O. Flechsig, and SIO graduate
students Thomas A. Clarke, J. Morgan
Wells, and Richard W. Grigg. From
Sealab II, saturated divers swam
out and made observations and
performed experiments for military
and scientific interests as well
as diving physiology, performance
and equipment.
James Stewart at the SIO Pier, 1965.
Courtesy of Scripps Institution
of Oceanography Archives,
UC San Diego Library
Sealab II being readied for
submergence into Scripps
Submarine Canyon off SIO, 1965.
Courtesy of the U.S. Navy
A
17
Dives were made down to a depth of 300 feet.
SIO divers published that the Sealab II habitat
functioned as an artificial reef, with fish biomass
increased thirty-five times compared to nearby areas.
F rom Sealab II to date, SIO divers have
occasionally participated in research projects
conducted via underwater habitats. Notable
was Mission 6, of the Tektite II underwater habitat
in 1970, which included SIO graduate student
divers Alina Szmant and Ann C. Hurley Hartline.
SIO scientific divers have also conducted research
in the Hydrolab and Aquarius underwater habitats.
Above:
Sealab II divers
perform hand-eye
coordination test, 1965.
Courtesy of the U.S. Navy
Above:
SIO graduate
student divers Alina
Szmant (left) and
Ann C. Hurley Hartline
at SIO Pier, April 1, 1970.
They were research
divers in Mission 6,
of the Tektite II
underwater habitat.
Courtesy of SIO
Photographic Lab
The Tektite II
habitat, 1970
Courtesy of the U.S.
Dept. of the Interior
17
MaritiMe M useuM of s a n Diego
18
T he kelp beds off San Diego have long been
a focal point of SIO research diving. In the
1950s, the San Diego-based kelp harvesting
company Kelco had a contract with SIO’s Carl Hubbs
to study fish life in kelp
beds and the effects of
harvesting kelp, which
incorporated diving.
Divers Conrad Limbaugh,
James Stewart and others
worked on this multiyear
project, integrating
diving research and
observations. The Point
Loma kelp forest, offshore
San Diego and crossed
by the sewage treatment
plant outfall, supports
sport and commercial
fisheries, and its kelp
was harvested for many
decades. In the 1950s, the
kelp forest was stressed
by minimally treated
sewage, and virtually
collapsed in the late
1950s El Niño. In 1956,
the State of California
funded a five-year Kelp
Program study, beginning
in 1956 and directed by
SIO diver Wheeler J.
North, using divers James
Stewart (the chief diving
technician), Jay C. Quast, Jean Kauanui, Chuck Mitchell,
David Leighton, Earle G. Cunnison and others, to
determine the reasons for the diminishing kelp and
the relationships of harvesting, pollution, and fisheries.
Support for kelp research came from other sources,
and a boat from SIO was commonly seen supporting
scientific divers in the Point Loma kelp beds. Divers
studied the impact of harvesting techniques, measured
kelp growth rates, transplanted Mexican kelp adapted
to warmer water, and studied sea urchin grazing on
kelp. The SIO Kelp
Program itself ended by
1963, and some kelp
research continued.
Since 1971,
long-term kelp
studies led by
SIO divers Paul Dayton,
Mia Tegner and Ed
Parnell, and utilizing
SIO divers: Richard J.
Rosenthal, Kristin Riser,
Peter Edwards, Vickie
Currie, Bob Butler, and
others, have examined
permanent study sites in
Point Loma kelp forest
habitats. Divers conduct
up to five dives a day
several times a week
and have logged over
30,000 dives to date, with
Kristin Riser logging over
7,000 of them. Divers
take temperature and
water samples, check
on reproductive health
of mature kelp, tag and
measure algal growth as
well as cut or remove algae
to manipulate conditions and test hypotheses. Sixteen
SIO graduate students have done their thesis work
diving in the kelp system. In conjunction with the
preceding SIO Kelp Program, these ongoing SIO kelp
studies have compiled one of the longest time-series
of marine ecological data in the world.
Wheeler J. North
commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wheeler_J._North_diving.jpg
In the 1950s, the San Diego-based kelp harvesting company Kelco
had a contract with SIO’s Carl Hubbs to study fish life in kelp beds
and the effects of harvesting kelp, which incorporated diving.
19
Kristin Riser (left) being handed a sample of kelp frond encrusting
growth by Mia Tegner in the Point Loma kelp bed, 1978.
Courtesy of Scripps Institution of Oceanography
19
MaritiMe M useuM of s a n Diego
20
MaritiMe MuseuM o f s a n Diego
20
By recognizing
the difference
between safe
diving and doing
excellent science,
Stewart defined
the American
philosophy of the
role of the diving
safety officer.
s scientific diving became
more prominent, James
Stewart was fundamental
in the formalization and
perpetuation of scientific diver
training and operational standards.
Stewart created a University of
California system-wide diving
program in the mid-1960s. Divers
were fairly unregulated at the U.S.
McMurdo Station in Antarctica
until James Stewart drafted
scientific diving rules starting
with the 1967/1968 season, for
example, prohibiting solo diving,
and requiring a dive tender on the surface. Stewart
later became the U.S. Antarctic Research Program
Polar Diving Officer for many years. In 1971, Stewart’s
diving manual was published by the California Sea
A
Grant program, which increased
his influence on scientific diving
guidelines at other universities.
In 1975, the United Brotherhood
of Carpenters and Joiners of
America, supported by the AFL-CIO,
petitioned the U.S. Government for
a professional diving operations
standard that would encompass
scientific diving. A commercial diving
standard became effective in October
1977. That Occupational Health
and Safety Administration diving
standard, if applied to scientific
diving, would have removed the
scientist from scientific diving.
James Stewart was fundamental
in organizing the American Academy
of Underwater Sciences in 1977. In
1979, Stewart organized the AAUS’
university dive safety officers to
submit exemption arguments to
OSHA, citing the long established
self-regulation and standards of
scientific diving, and an accident rate
significantly lower than commercial
diving. After negotiation and
Congressional hearings, the scientific
diving exemption to commercial
diving standards was issued in 1982,
leaving scientific diving to its own
professional regulation.
By recognizing the difference
between safe diving and doing
excellent science, Stewart defined
the American philosophy of the role of the diving
safety officer. He emphasized that the diving safety
officers usually are not trained to teach science, and
their role is to make it easy for excellent scientists to
James Stewart cartoon of an
Occupational Health and Safety
Administration-regulated
scientific diver, c. 1980.
Courtesy of Scripps Institution
of Oceanography Archives,
UC San Diego Library
21
Notes
Bascom, Willard N. and Robert F. Dill, Philip E. Jackson, Robert S. Livingston, John B. MacFall,
Walter H. Munk, “Diving during Capricorn Expedition.” SIO Reference 53-22. La Jolla, CA., SIO, 1953.
Brueggeman, Peter, “Diving Under Antarctic Ice: A History,” 2003. Accessed 2015.
escholarship.org/uc/item/1n37j685
Brueggeman, Peter, “La Jolla Canyon and Scripps Canyon Bibliography,” 2009. Accessed 2015. escholarship.
org/uc/item/5079n1d7
Clarke, Thomas A., Arthur O. Flechsig and Richard W. Grigg, “Ecological studies during Project Sealab II,”
Science, 157(3795): 1381-1389, 1967.
Day, Deborah, “James Ronald Stewart Chronology,” SIO Archives, 2005.
Dayton, Paul K. “Point Loma Kelp Project History.” Accessed 2015. daytonlab.ucsd.edu/Kelp/ProjectHistory.htm
Dayton PK, V Currie, T Gerodette, BD Keller, R Rosenthal and DA Ven Tresca. “Patch dynamics and stability
of some California kelp communities.” Ecological Monographs, 54(3): 253-289, 1984.
Dill, Robert F., “Deep Dive to 225 Feet in the Scripps Submarine Canyon,” Skin Diver, 3(6):3,12-13.
Dugan, James, “Diving at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography,” c. 1955. Conrad Limbaugh Papers, UCSD
Library Special Collections & Archives collection, SMC 0086.
Enright, James T. E. W. Fager, 1917-1976, Coming of Age: Scripps Institution of Oceanography: A Centennial
Volume, 1903-2003. Robert L. Fisher, Edward D. Goldberg, and Charles S. Cox, editors (San Diego, Scripps
Institution of Oceanography, University of California, 2003), pp. 31-44.
Foster, John W., “California’s Ancient Maritime Heritage,” California Department of Parks and Recreation.
Accessed 2015. www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=23712 [Indian Mortars off La Jolla Shores].
Hanauer, Eric. Diving Pioneers: an Oral History of Diving in America (San Diego, Watersport Publishing, 1994
[Limbaugh, North, Rechnitzer, Stewart].
Hanauer, Eric, “Scientific Diving at Scripps,” Oceanography, 16(3):88-92, 2003.
Hinton, Sam, “A Naturalist in Show Business, or I Helped Kill Vaudeville,” 2001. UCSD Library,
Sam Hinton Papers, MSS 0683 [Haymaker].
Howard, Janet, “Fragile Forest: Kelp Community Becoming Underwater Ghost Town,” Scripps Institution of
Oceanography Explorations, 5(1):2-9, 1998 Accessed 2015. scripps.ucsd.edu/news/4101 [1971+ kelp studies]
Kuhns, Kittie Kerr and Betty Shor, eds., Scripps Stories, Days to Remember, SIO Reference 93-35. (La Jolla, CA.,
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, 1993). [Rechnitzer]
Limbaugh, Conrad and Francis P. Shepard, “Submarine canyons.” Marine Ecology, Geological Society
of America Memoir ( J. Hedgpeth, Geological Society of America, 1957) 67(1): 633-639.
McDonald, Christian, Scripps Institution of Oceanography and Scientific Diving, (La Jolla, CA., Scripps
Institution of Oceanography, 2015).
McGowan, John A., “Observations on the Sexual Behavior and Spawning of the Squid, Loligo opalescens,
at La Jolla, California,” California Fish and Game, 40(1):47-54.
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21
dive safely. This recognition
of the dual nature of scientific
diving is critically important
and can be problematic with
increasing university risk
management over time, and
thus increasing restrictions on
scientists. James Stewart retired
as the SIO Diving Safety Officer
in 1991, and was followed
by Wayne Pawelek. In 2004,
Christian McDonald became
the SIO Diving Safety Officer.
Today, scientific diving at SIO is
much the same as it was in the
beginning, with a diving safety
officer and oversight by a diving
control board.
W
ith the opening of
the Birch Aquarium
at Scripps in 1992,
the focus on scientific diving
was expanded with volunteer
aquarium divers who were
incorporated into the SIO
diving program. In 2015, there
are more than 160 scientific
divers affiliated with SIO.
Scientific dives logged annually
number more than 4,000 in
Southern California, in the Birch
Aquarium at Scripps, and at
research locations worldwide.
Scientific diving at Scripps
Institution of Oceanography is
built on its past and has steadily
increased diving knowledge and
underwater research, diving and
equipment support, and greater
diving safety. Scientific diving
is scientific work at its core and
not underwater sightseeing, but
even with the work, the divers
always enjoy being underwater
– that has never changed from
the beginning.
