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Nationalising minority ethnic athletes: Danish media representations of Nadia Nadim around the UEFA women’s Euro 2017
Abstract
With the rise in nationalism and anti-immigration sentiments in Europe, debate has arisen in several national media when minority ethnic athletes opt to play for the national team of their country of origin. This article aims to examine how minority ethnic athletes who opt to play for the national team in their country of destination express and are ascribed national belonging. To do so, the article draws on Nira Yuval-Davis’ distinction between belonging and the politics of belonging as well as perspectives from transnational migration studies. The article is based on a single case study of Danish newspapers’ representations of the Danish women’s football player of Afghan origin, Nadia Nadim. In the build-up to, duration and aftermath of the UEFA Women’s Euro in 2017, Nadim was ascribed Danish identity, while her popularity as a player rose. However, the article points out how athletes who become exemplary others along ethnic and national lines are deprived of their transnational belonging and of their potentially critical voice. Further, the article discusses how ideas of national unity in sport are enacted in the media through apparently innocent descriptions of patriotism and national archetypes seeking to reconcile current divisions in European societies.
... In our own studies, we have been making use of the conceptual framework of Yuval-Davis to analyse the politicisation of sports and leisure practices of various groups of Muslim women in Denmark (Lenneis and Agergaard 2018;Agergaard 2019;Lenneis, Agergaard, and Evans 2020;Agergaard et al. 2021). As other European countries, the Danish state has enacted increasingly restrictive immigration and asylum policies (Bergmann 2017;Stainforth 2009), while a growing political and public attention is also paid to immigrants' and descendants' civic integration into their new nation states (Mouritsen and Olsen 2013; Mouritsen, Jensen, and Larin 2019). ...
... Muslim women who are successful professional athletes appear to be positioned so that they are better capable of negotiating current politics of belonging. The first author's study of Danish newspapers' representation of Nadia Nadim around the Euro 2017 shed light on such processes using Yuval-Davis conceptual framework and in particular her inspiration from the intersectionality theory to analyse how some groups and individuals are included while others are excluded from belonging to the nation state (Agergaard 2019). ...
... Later the same year, Nadim was voted 'Dane of the Year' by the conservative national newspaper, Berlingske. The media reported that Nadim was very happy and honoured to win this price, while Nadim's concern about the minority ethnic population affected by the same political and public attention to Danishness seemed to be silenced (Agergaard 2019). Rather, Nadim was praised for not only being a very skilled female football player, but also for her concurrent training as a medical doctor. ...
While it is well documented that sports events can reinforce nationalism , less attention has been given to how borders are drawn to mark off groups whose national identity is questioned in connection with their everyday sports and leisure practices. This article aims to develop a conceptual framework for studying such collective identification processes that not only include some but also exclude 'others' from the nation. To do so, we draw on postcolonial and transnational feminist scholars' descriptions of politics of belonging and everyday bordering that place non-western women in a position as 'others'. The utility of such a conceptual framework is illustrated in analysing current political and public discourses about Muslim women's sports and leisure practices that demarcate this group from belonging to the nation. Further, we discuss the contributions and limitations of this conceptual framework and point towards related perspectives that can further develop research with national 'others' in sport.
... The weakness of the literature reviews considered above is that they ignore important research studies on forced migration and sport by authors, who for disparate reasons do not use the terms 'refugee' or 'forced migrant' in their publications, despite partially including them in their samples. The extensive work of Sine Agergaard (Agergaard, 2008(Agergaard, , 2018(Agergaard, , 2019Agergaard & Engh, 2017;Agergaard, Michelsen la Cour, & Gregersen, 2016;Agergaard & Ryba, 2014), in particular, must be mentioned in this regard. Moreover, by focussing on scientific literature published in English only, the above literature analyses ignore the works of important authors outside the Anglosphere. ...
... Performance is nevertheless an important factor for retaining media sympathy and attention. The ups and downs involving Bakery Jatta and other refugee athletes (Agergaard, 2019;Burdsey, 2016) suggest that sympathy can quickly dissipate due to changes in public opinion or the athlete's alleged faults. In the German language, the word 'refugee' (Flüchtling) is appropriate in juridical terms, but has a negative connotation and is therefore avoided in 'politically correct' language (Duden, 2020). ...
... Sky Sports, 2020; Amaechi, 2020). Paradoxically, despite the platform of such international stars to express support towards racial equality, it has also been outlined how their critical voices can be silenced in contemporary 'identity politics' (Agergaard, 2019). What's more, solidarity has been demonstrated in unexpected quarters such as NASCAR, with its close association with the colonial south (Paybarah, 2020), and sports teams such as the Washington Redskins have reconsidered their appropriation of Indigenous American imagery in their branding and name change to Washington Football Team (Schad, 2020). ...
... Moreover, when such voices are heard by policy-makers, they are frequently questioned, challenged, dismissed or simply marginalised, particularly when they highlight the intersection of race/ethnicity with other inequalities and dimensions of power (Lenneis & Agergaard, 2018;Ratna & Samie, 2018). Such silent groups including refugees, migrants, Muslims, Black athletes and others, who have been observed to have their critical voices silenced in political and public debates (Agergaard, 2019), while they also negotiate their options within sport (Agergaard & Engh, 2017). Put differently, such voices are often marginalised through processes that have been collectively referred to as the operation of 'Whiteness. ...
... We employ this framework to study a particular case, media debates around the status of elite athletes chosen to represent Great Britain at the 2012 Summer Olympics. While a link between sport and nation is already well-established in the literature (Bairner, 2001;Maguire & Poulton, 1999) and the key role of elite athletes with migration backgrounds in representing 'their' country has been noted in passing (Agergaard, 2019;Holmes & Storey, 2011), it is our contention that events such as the 2012 Olympics provide particularly fruitful opportunities to study wider debates around national belonging as the 'London spectacle' was particularly preoccupied with (re)presenting (and marketing) Britain as a multicultural, tolerant and inclusive nation (Burdsey, 2016;Silk, 2012). For instance, Asian-British and black-British athletes prominently featured as 'London 2012 Ambassadors' in an attempt to assert Britain's multicultural successes. ...
The continuous growth of international sport events as media spectacles has magnified their ability to project ideas of nationhood. In media coverage, the athletes/players are portrayed as the embodiment of the ‘nation’, but this process is far from linear. Historically, mass media have constructed highly gendered and restricted ideas of the nation, placing women and ethnic minorities at the margins or erasing them altogether. The analysis of the coverage of the England and Italy men’s teams at the Euro 2020 brings to the forefront the persistence, but also the evolution, of such tensions. Combining critical discourse analysis with theories of race and racialisation, this article aims to unpack the often-overlooked role of ‘race’ in the articulation of national identity in Europe. While the England team proudly embraced the ethnic diversity of British society, Italy was the only Western European team not to select players with an immigrant background or ethnic minorities. By looking at a British popular newspaper, Daily Mail, and at an Italian one, Corriere della Sera, this article provides a necessary update to the understanding of the function of mass media as ‘gatekeepers’ of the nation.
The only Iranian woman to ever win an Olympic medal, Taekwondo Athlete Kimia Alizadeh, immigrated to Germany and became a refugee participant for the 2020/2021 Tokyo Games, competing against her former compatriot, teammate, and friend. This study content analyzes four Iranian media sources as they rendered the story of a former national hero-turned-refugee. A total of 15 frame categories were applied to each of the media sources: (a) Twitter ( n = 5,662), (b) television ( n = 103), (c) radio ( n = 117), and (d) newspapers/digital-native news ( n = 119). Television was found to adopt the most critical tones of Alizadeh, with social media, newspapers, and radio offering assessments that ranged from neutral to positive. Interestingly, social media and newspaper frames were significantly correlated, while other media sources were not.
Taking a "cultural studies" approach that focuses on the ways in which media negotiate the intersections of nation, race and ethnicity, this article examines Irish print and broadcast media discourses of migration surrounding the Irish national soccer team and Gaelic games following the 2020 Black Lives Matter protests. It argues that the focus on the Irish soccer team's "homegrown" diversity has superficially celebrated a developing national cosmopolitanism and embrace of migration, but against the backdrop of declining national team fortunes and recruits from the emigrant descendant "diaspora" in Britain. Profiles of immigrant players in Gaelic games have engaged critically, to a degree, with nativism and racism, but offer a benign and future-orientated representation of these games. While significant, both are limited as vehicles for collective national retrospection and introspection with regard to racism in Irish sport and society.
Following the global “refugee crisis” of 2015, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) established the Refugee Olympic Team (ROT), providing opportunities for refugee athletes to compete at the 2016 and 2020 (2021) Summer Olympics. To examine the changing intertwinements between wider social dynamics and mediated constructions of refugees, this article considers the IOC’s representation of the ROT around the 2020 Games. With this aim, a catalogue of articles published on the IOC’s website was examined through critical discourse analysis. Four discursive themes emerged: 1. The saving, healing and transformative power of Western sporting capital and the Olympic Games; 2. The ROT as epitome of the Global North’s inclusivity and benevolence; 3. Refugee athletes as offering hope and inspiration to other refugees; and 4. The neoliberal ideal that “hard work pays off” and “you can overcome everything” in and through sport. More broadly, current changes in the societal reception of refugees were evident in the IOC’s communication, which appeared to assume that we have moved beyond the “refugee crisis”. The IOC disseminates an “official” discourse, which elides the challenging structural conditions that refugees face after their arrival in receiving contexts, and obscures current political reluctance towards finding more long-term solutions for refugees.
Bakery Jatta migrated from The Gambia to Germany during the so-called ‘refugee crisis’. Today, he is a professional soccer player and plays for Hamburger SV. His story has been widely reported in mass media. This article explores the question ‘How did German newspapers report on Bakery Jatta?’ based on a discourse analysis of a catalogue of 270 German newspaper articles published between 2016 and 2019. The articles included in the catalogue cover five major topics: Jatta’s performance; his biography; contract and transfer; legal issues, and expressions of solidarity for or of hostility toward him. The media reporting spanned three phases, which saw Bakery Jatta’s media portrayal mutate from hero to anti-hero. Bild served as the forerunner in this transformation, with the other newspapers following the tabloid’s lead. The reporting on Bakery Jatta exemplifies, echoes and connects different discourses on the ‘refugee crisis’ and on soccer’s integrative power.
This progressive and broad-ranging handbook offers a comprehensive overview of the complex intersections between politics, gender, sport and physical activity, shining new light on the significance of gender, sport and physical activity in wider society.
Featuring contributions from leading and emerging researchers from around the world, the book makes the case that gender studies and critical thinking around gender are of particular importance in an era of increasingly intolerant populist politics. It examines important long-term as well as emerging themes, such as recent generational shifts in attitudes to gender identity in sport and the socio-cultural expectations on men and women that have traditionally influenced and often disrupted their engagement with sport and physical activity, and explores a wide range of current issues in contemporary sport, from debates around the contested gender binary and sex verification, to the role of the media and social media, and the significance of gender in sport leadership, policy and decision-making.
This book is an authoritative survey of the current state of play in research connecting gender, sport, physical activity and politics, and is an important contribution to both sport studies and gender studies. It is fascinating reading for any student, researcher, policy-maker or professional with an interest in sport, physical activity, social studies, public health or political science.
Phrases such as ‘muscle drain’ (Spiro 2012, 487) or ‘brawn drain’ (Adjaye 2010, 30) are sometimes used to refer to the migration of highly skilled sportspeople, often from the ‘Global South’ and ‘less developed’ countries to the ‘Global North’ or ‘highly developed’ countries. While elite sportspeople often have high international mobility, their mobility does not always involve a change of nationality. When a change of nationality takes place, it sometimes takes the form of voluntary abandonment of allegiance to a country for the athlete to be able to join and play for another country. This phenomenon is referred to as ‘defection’ or ‘nationality swapping’ (Mack 2012) as well as switching nationalities (Jansen 2018). Switching nationality has occurred at the Olympics for almost 70 years (Mack 2012) and is often considered problematic and a betrayal to one’s (first) nationality (Gardish 2005). Despite this, the practice is not uncommon, and many countries have a history of naturalising athletes to score better in international sports competitions.
With the eighth edition of the World Cup adopting the slogan “Dare to Shine,” individuals, countries, and media across the world were encouraged to seize the opportunity to make the athletes, teams, and sport shine. This chapter focused on France’s media coverage of the event and more specifically on the different ways in which Les Bleues, France’s national women’s team, as well as other teams and athletes were portrayed before, during, and shortly after the tournament. While the primary interest was on Les Bleues, all World Cup content was examined in order to further our understanding of how female athletes and women’s sport were depicted in various types of media, thus gaining a perspective with and without national interests involved.
– EMPIRICAL RESEARCH
The so-called ‘refugee crisis’ was a highly mediatised event. Despite being considered an important engine for integration, the representation of sport within the media coverage on the ‘refugee crisis’ has never been scientifically reviewed. With the intention of closing this research gap, the present article explores the question: ‘How do German newspapers represent sport in the context of the ‘refugee crisis’?’ To answer this question, 1,840 articles were analysed using a template analysis and interpreted on the basis of foucauldian discourse theory. The analyses focussed on the discourse strands identified within six main themes: (1) Construction of the refugee athlete; (2) Refugees as threats or victims; (3) Engagement of the sport system; (4) Sport facilities as shelters; (5) Integration of refugees in/through sport; (6) Sport as a charitable purpose. The analysis of these strands of discourse shows that the sport theme is deeply embedded in that on the ‘refugee crisis’, but not bound to its development. While sport has the paradoxical potential of both oppressing and empowering individuals, this article focusses on how the sport-related discourse strands support the reproduction of cultural hegemony. Towards the discourse strands, the German press often drawn a distinction between the generous German ‘self’ and the powerless refugee ‘other’.
This article explores the representation of Yusra Mardini as a refugee Olympic athlete. Her participation in the Olympic Games 2016 is analysed through different areas of programming of the mass media and specifically through Mardini’s autobiography, documents of the International Olympic Committee and German newspapers. A qualitative content analysis is carried out and a systems theoretical framework applied. The results reveal that Mardini’s refugee background was both an obstacle as well as an advantage for her career within the sport system. The establishment of the Refugee Olympic Team generated positive resonance for the International Olympic Committee but also exposed contradictions in its inclusion rules. The newspapers showed a strong interest in Mardini and presented her as a hero, downplaying her performances and emphasising her life story. After analysing the interconnections between these different representations, the discussion turns to the mechanisms that go beyond the inclusion of Mardini in professional sports and focusses on the latent information within the materials.
Contemporary immigrants can not be characterized as the "uprooted'. Many are transmigrants, becoming firmly rooted in their new country but maintaining multiple linkages to their homeland. In the US, anthropologists are engaged in building a transnational anthropology and rethinking their data on immigration. Migration proves to be an important transnational process that reflects and contributes to the current political configurations of the emerging global economy. In this article, the authors use studies of migration from St. Vincent, Grenada, the Philippines, and Haiti to the US to delineate some of the parameters of an ethnography of transnational migration and explore the reasons for and the implications of transnational migrations. The authors conclude that the transnational connections of immigrants provide a subtext of the public debates in the US about the merits of immigration. -Authors
At first sight, the perception of African footballers in Germany seems to be two-fold. Whereas amateur players may face racist assaults during matches time and again, open racism in professional German football has declined. Indeed, African players in the Bundesliga are frequently celebrated by fans and are icons of their clubs. However, this paper argues that the cheering of star players and forms of open racism during amateur matches are often only two extremes of a continuum since professional African footballers continue to be socially constructed as being different. Ascriptions of playing styles as elegant, powerful, and playful reflect alleged natural differences and manifest the otherness of African players. The article analyzes the historical construction of this manifestation and also discusses to what extent ascribed otherness is adopted by African footballers as a kind of “self-charismatization.”
Sport, and, in particular, football, has become an important lens for examining processes of globalisation and, increasingly, cosmopolitanism. In this paper, I explore the ways in which competing national and cosmopolitan discourses are articulated by and through the media's reporting of football. Analysing coverage of the appointment of three recent managers of the English national team, two foreign, one English, I show how ideas about (national) self, other and place are being scrutinised and negotiated in the contemporary era. However, rather than rendering national modes of thinking obsolete, these debates point to the periodic emergence of conditional forms of cosmopolitanism.
This article examines five common misunderstandings about case-study research: (a) theoretical knowledge is more valuable than practical knowledge; (b) one cannot generalize from a single case, therefore, the single-case study cannot contribute to scientific development; (c) the case study is most useful for generating hypotheses, whereas other methods are more suitable for hypotheses testing and theory building; (d) the case study contains a bias toward verification; and (e) it is often difficult to summarize specific case studies. This article explains and corrects these misunderstandings one by one and concludes with the Kuhnian insight that a scientific discipline without a large number of thoroughly executed case studies is a discipline without systematic production of exemplars, and a discipline without exemplars is an ineffective one. Social science may be strengthened by the execution of a greater number of good case studies.
This is an initial study into British sports fans' heroes. A questionnaire was administered to 95 students (average age = 19.75) to identify their sporting hero, the hero's sport and nationality and the reasons for this choice. Football was the most common source of sports heroes, identified by 49 percent of participants with a sporting hero. The majority (60 percent, N = 48) of heroes chosen by participants were British with David Beckham the most popular choice. Differences were observed between the gender of participants, gender of hero chosen and the reasons for choosing the hero. The most common reason for selecting a hero was a personal trait rather than skill while a category of Local Affiliation was added to those suggested by previous work. It was concluded that to become a hero athletes should combine skill with devotion to family, charity work and a place in popular culture.
I ask in this article how the inhabitants Á migrants and non-migrants Á of a specific geographical space, a small Swiss city in French-speaking Switzerland, live out different forms of transnationalism. Transnational-ism is for this purpose defined and operationalized on two dimensions: I make a distinction between network transnationalism and what I call transnational subjectivity. The first dimension includes the transnational social networks; the latter refers to the cognitive classifications of a person's membership and belongings in transnational space. Analysis of the personal social networks of 250 inhabitants of this city, supplemented by data from qualitative interviews, brings to light four different ideal types of how transnationalism is lived. It reveals that these morphologies are closely related to questions of social positioning as well as processes of integration, locally or in transnational space.
In German (junior) elite football, there are a comparatively large number of highly talented players with a migrant background. These players were born in Germany and joined the Talent Development Programme of the German Football Association (DFB). Many of these players can decide for which national association they want to play in international games. In media and public discourse, this decision is usually explained by the degree of self-identification with a specific ethnic group. However, this assumption is not empirically evident. Using the example of junior elite players with a Turkish background, this article focuses therefore on the question, which role ethnic identity plays in this decision. Based on social identity theory, we conducted semi-structured interviews with 10 adolescent elite football players with Turkish background who played for the German and/or the Turkish Football Association. Our findings suggest that – in contrast to media narratives – ethnic identity only plays a marginal role in the decision to play for a national football association.
My aim in this chapter is to outline an analytical framework for the study of belonging and the politics of belonging. It is important to differentiate between the two. Belonging is about emotional attachment, about feeling ‘at home’ and, as Michael Ignatieff (2001) points out, about feeling ‘safe’. In the aftermath of 7/7, the 2005 bombings in London, such a definition takes on a new, if problematic, poignancy. Belonging tends to be naturalised, and becomes articulated and politicised only when it is threatened in some way. The politics of belonging comprises specific political projects aimed at constructing belonging in particular ways, to particular collectivities that are, at the same time, themselves being constructed by these projects in very particular ways. An analytical differentiation between belonging and the politics of belonging is, therefore, crucial for any critical political discourse on nationalism, racism or other contemporary politics of belonging (see Yuval-Davis 2011). In this chapter, there is only space to outline some of the central features of such an analytical framework.
The integration of migrants is a key topic in ethnic and migration studies in Western countries and generation of scholars have elaborated sophisticated theories to provide a detailed understanding of integration processes. Nevertheless, when it comes to cultural aspects and questions of belonging, I argue in this chapter that the popular paradigms share some common ground in the sense that they suffer from shortcomings. First, they largely neglect the intertwined nature of processes of incorporation and transnational forms of identification and belonging. Second, most theories are more or less blind to non-ethnic forms of identification because they use ethnicity as an unproblematic explanans for both describing and explaining processes of integration. Finally, they fail to take into account all types of mobility that go beyond migration-cum-settlement as a one-way process and have varied effects on migrants½sense of belonging and identity. On behalf of three short biographies of migrants, I will elaborate and discuss these three theoretical shortcomings and propose directions for future research and theory building.
This paper draws on a multi-sited ethnography of the North American Chinese Invitational Volleyball Tournament and examines the attachments and relationships that participation nurtures. I argue that rather than being exclusive, the NACIVT and its participants foster and nurture multiple relationships that extend beyond the NACIVT and Asianness. In doing so, I aim to do two things: 1) address the dearth of academic research on Asians and sport, particularly in the Western context and 2) explore the burgeoning work that offers a transnational analytic of sport, a key theoretical framework in exploring the sport experiences of Asian people in sport, that goes beyond discussions of stereotypes and barriers to participation, but brings into view the effects of how Asia is constructed and imagined.
Germany sent its most ethnically diverse team ever to Poland and Ukraine to compete in Euro 2012. Over the last six years, the Germany manager, Joachim Löw, has not only revitalized and rejuvenated his squad but also included a considerable number of players with foreign roots and from ethnic minorities. This ethnic and cultural diversity of the current German national side is the result of some major policy changes in the country at the turn of the millennium that made it easier for immigrants and their offspring to gain citizenship. In comparison with other European nations, it is not a reflection of a colonial history but a model of contemporary German society. This paper argues that the above-mentioned changes on the pitch are also reflected off it. Both the 2006 and 2010 Soccer World Cups and Euro 2012 turned into widespread and colourful celebrations of a new, modern sense of Germanness underpinned by a non-threatening and playful patriotism. The creativity, diversity, youth, style and flair of both the German team and its supporters presented the country as a confident and more embracing place than ever before.
Persistent immigration towards industrialized countries has challenged traditional conceptions of citizenship. In Germany,
immigration has visibly changed the ethic fabric of the national football team, which is one of the few national post-war
icons. Although some commentators consider the team to be a role model for successful integration of immigrants, unanimous
approval of a multi-ethnic team would be surprising, given substantial xenophobic tendencies in Germany. Therefore, by analysing
regional TV ratings, we examine consumer discrimination against the presence of ethnic out-group players in the national football
team and explore how such discrimination relates to discriminatory attitudes. We find some but limited evidence for consumer
discrimination but also for a trend towards a ‘taste for diversity’, suggesting that the audience gets used to a multi-ethnic
team. While identity politics seems to be important for sport consumption, the links between sport, identity, consumer discrimination,
and discriminatory attitudes seem more complex than initially assumed.
Since the end of the 1960s Denmark, once an ethnically homogeneous country, has become more heterogeneous as a result of immigration by foreign workers and refugees. The question is how has this development influenced the attitudes in Denmark towards immigrants? The saliency of the immigrant issue has certainly grown, but contrary to expectations, the level of ethnocentrism has changed very little. If anything, the Danish population has become less prejudiced and more tolerant during the last thirty years. This conclusion, based on a number of national surveys, is even more conspicuous as the level of unemployment has increased in the same period.
This essay presents the effects on sport of recent developments such as the acceleration of migratory flows and the increasing influence of mass media on a global scale. It examines two different sets of processes occurring in sport today that can be conceptualized as examples of denationalization. The first one, defined as the progressive disconnection between the geographical origin of sportsmen [1 [1] The terms sportsman and sportsmen apply both to men and women. View all notes] and the nation-states that they are supposed to represent, leads to a de-ethnicization of the nation. The second one, defined as the decrease in importance of the ‘origin label’ in the identification process between fans, sportsmen and teams, leads to an identity deterritorialization. Both of these processes show that the state-national reading grid, defined as the preservation and reproduction of the correspondence between a state, a territory and an identity through the organization and interpretation of sports events according to the sportsmen's nationality, is essentially an historical construction. From this perspective, it is emphasized that contemporary changes regarding the concept of the nation-state and national identities in sport are inscribed in a nonlinear historical process, which previously had the tendency to ethnicize nations and to territorialize identities, and nowadays tends to de-ethnicize the first and deterritorialize the second.
The essay focuses upon the issue of xenophobia in English football cultures, utilizing data taken from a random sample of Liverpool and Oldham Athletic ‘e-zine’ messageboard fan-sites (from 1 April 2004 to 31 May 2005). Recognizing that xenophobia may exist within, as well as across, national boundaries, this essay considers the conditions under which xenophobic comments may emerge. The essay finds that both fan groups can be critical of players. However, the circumstance under which each fan group is likely to ‘become’ xenophobic differs. For instance, Oldham Athletic supporters are more likely to use national boundaries to formulate ‘otherness’ during international tournaments, whilst Liverpool fans are more likely to ‘blame’ non-local British players during periods of poor on-the-pitch results.
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