A Survey of the Knowledge of Truffles among Polish Foresters and Implications for Environmental Education

Abstract

While the use of truffles in Poland has a long tradition, for historical reasons this knowledge was almost lost. Currently, truffles and truffle orchards are again receiving public attention. For example, the Polish State Forests supported the establishment of truffle orchards by the Forestry Research Institute. In recent years, knowledge concerning these unique hypogeous fungi has been disseminated systematically through scientific and popular publications, films, and electronic media. This study investigates the awareness of economically and culinary valued truffle fungi (Tuber spp.) among more than 1400 Polish foresters. The results show that 70% of interviewees were familiar with historical and contemporary information about growing and using truffles in Poland. Based on respondents' age, education, type of work, and gender we attempted to identify whether these elements were associated with the state of knowledge about truffles. The results indicated that younger foresters were better informed about the presence of truffles in Poland and also about their use in the past in Polish cuisine. Environmental education was an important source of knowledge about truffle harvesting and the soils that are conducive to truffle development. Foresters who have provided forest ecology education and who are 36-65 years of age generally possessed better knowledge about truffles than other age cohorts. More than 30% of respondents expressed interest in educational courses to improve their knowledge of truffles. The results point to the need for forestry education concerning truffles and indicate the need for fostering sustainable agroforestry-centered initiatives disseminating this knowledge to the public.

Full text

Article
A Survey of the Knowledge of Truffles among Polish
Foresters and Implications for
Environmental Education
Dorota Hilszcza ´nska 1, * , Aleksandra Rosa-Gruszecka 1, Bogusław Kosel 2, Jakub Horak 3
and Marta Siebyła 4
1
Department of Forest Ecology, Forest Research Institute, Braci Le´snej 3, S˛ekocin Stary, 05-090 Raszyn, Poland;
a.rosa@ibles.waw.pl
2Wydział Historyczno−Socjologiczny, Uniwersytet w Białymstoku, Plac Uniwersytecki 1,
15-420 Białystok, Poland; kosel.boguslaw@gmail.com
3Department of Forest Protection and Entomology, Faculty of Forestry and Wood Sciences,
Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, Kamýcká1176, CZ-165 21 Prague, Czech Republic;
jakub.sruby@gmail.com
4Department of Forest Protection, Forest Research Institute, Braci Le´snej 3, S˛ekocin Stary,
05-090 Raszyn, Poland; m.siebyla@ibles.waw.pl
*Correspondence: d.hilszczanska@ibles.waw.pl; Tel.: +48-22-7150-502
Received: 20 March 2019; Accepted: 26 April 2019; Published: 27 April 2019


Abstract:
While the use of truffles in Poland has a long tradition, for historical reasons this
knowledge was almost lost. Currently, truffles and truffle orchards are again receiving public
attention. For example, the Polish State Forests supported the establishment of truffle orchards by the
Forestry Research Institute. In recent years, knowledge concerning these unique hypogeous fungi has
been disseminated systematically through scientific and popular publications, films, and electronic
media. This study investigates the awareness of economically and culinary valued truffle fungi
(Tuber spp.) among more than 1400 Polish foresters. The results show that 70% of interviewees were
familiar with historical and contemporary information about growing and using truffles in Poland.
Based on respondents’ age, education, type of work, and gender we attempted to identify whether
these elements were associated with the state of knowledge about truffles. The results indicated that
younger foresters were better informed about the presence of truffles in Poland and also about their
use in the past in Polish cuisine. Environmental education was an important source of knowledge
about truffle harvesting and the soils that are conducive to truffle development. Foresters who
have provided forest ecology education and who are 36–65 years of age generally possessed better
knowledge about truffles than other age cohorts. More than 30% of respondents expressed interest in
educational courses to improve their knowledge of truffles. The results point to the need for forestry
education concerning truffles and indicate the need for fostering sustainable agroforestry-centered
initiatives disseminating this knowledge to the public.
Keywords: fungi; Tuber spp.; education; forestry; survey
1. Introduction
Poland has one of the largest forest areas (ca. 9.4 million ha) in Europe [
1
]. The majority of
forests (about 80.8%) are administered by the State Forests National Forest Holding (the State Forests
headed by the General Director). The General Directorate is in charge of 17 Regional Directorates, with
altogether 431 forest districts divided into forest ranges [2].
Forests 2019,10, 365; doi:10.3390/f10050365 www.mdpi.com/journal/forests

Forests 2019,10, 365 2 of 13
Timber is the main product derived from Polish forests, and Poland’s forests remain one of the
best stocked in Europe. Non-wood forest products, such as forest fruits (mainly berries), mushrooms,
and game animals have been gaining in importance. The Polish Central Statistical Office provides no
statistics on the amount of fruits and mushrooms harvested from forests. Due to free public access
to Poland’s forests, everyone has a right to collect forest fruits and mushrooms without limit, with
harvesting restricted only for protected species [3].
Social functions of forests are difficult to define and measure, which include recreation, tourism,
education, and various traditional uses [
4
]. The State Forests place substantial efforts into raising
public awareness of recreational and educational infrastructure available in forests, including: parks
and arboreta (of which there are 17 in Poland), centres for ecological education (over 20), educational
rooms (50), scenic viewpoints (318) and nature paths (over 150). The so-called green schools and
Promotional Forest Complexes and Forest Education Centres, which are located in Forest Districts, run
educational courses for primary school pupils (reaching over 815,000 people in 2015) and middle and
high school students (about 450,000 people in 2015) [
5
]. At the national level, more than 9000 foresters
in Poland provide public education about forests. A noticeable disadvantage of the current system is
the fact that forest education for the majority of foresters is an additional responsibility on top of their
other duties [6].
It is estimated that there are over 1000 species of edible mushrooms in Polish forests [
7
]. Their
collection has a centuries-long tradition and an established place in Polish culture. Knowledge about
mushrooms has traditionally been passed down from generation to generation. However, with the
modernization of the country and an increase in the standard of living, knowledge and skill concerning
the collection of edible mushroom species has been waning in recent years [8–10].
Knowledge among foresters about subterranean fungi such as truffles (Tuber spp.) was lost after
the Second World War for some changes of social and cultural character as well as changes of forest
management. Primary factors determining truffle forgetfulness were: (i) Changes in forest cover.
After the Second World War, forests comprised only 20.8% of Polish territory. Unfavorable conditions
for fruiting truffles included changes in species composition, age structure of stands, and changes
of forest management. For example, undergrowth shading the forest floor was more common due
to the cessation of grazing in forests. (ii) Changes in the structure of forest ownership and use. The
disappearance of traditional types of forest use, such as cattle grazing and collection of brushwood.
(iii) Changes at the societal level due to war and the great loss of Polish citizens, especially the loss of
Polish aristocracy and intelligentsia, including foresters, or social groups with the most knowledge and
practice regarding collection, use, and cultivation of truffles; emigration and migration of population
from rural to urban areas. (iv) The communist regime promoted “pork chop and carp” as the food for
the ‘working class’ rather than the traditional delicacies of Polish cuisine. Truffles as a luxury product
for the nobility were not welcomed by new authorities [11,12].
As a type of mycorrhizal fungi, truffles need a host plant to develop, grow best in calcareous,
mainly rendzic soils, and, because they grow up to 30 cm deep in the soil, they need to be found with
the help of trained dogs or pigs.
Truffles currently are gaining attention in Poland, mainly due to research projects sponsored
by the State Forests National Forest Holding. The projects have been conducted since 2007 by
researchers of the Forest Research Institute. Due to this research, six truffle orchards were established
(altogether covering almost 5 ha) (Table 1). At the oldest truffle orchard, fruiting bodies of the summer
truffle (Tuber aestivum Vittad.) were found, eight years after orchard establishment [
11
,
12
]. Although
establishing of truffle orchards is still in pioneer phase, such an activity is perceived as a new source of
benefits in agroforestry. The possibility to grow and collect truffles is important for increasing rural
economy and thereby the incentives for planting oak and hazel (main host-plant species). Truffle
cultivation can contribute to a stable bioeconomy, both supporting the high biodiversity associated with
Quercus spp. [
13
] and contributing to local economy of rural areas. Since truffle orchards may become

Forests 2019,10, 365 3 of 13
a new core of sustainable, high-diversity biotops worth protecting, the topic should be propagated,
especially by foresters dealing with education who can based on results of the work cited below.
Table 1. Truffle orchards under care of the Forest Research Institute.
Location Date of
Establishment Ownership Area Species of Tuber Host-Plants Remarks
1. Chełm (Chełm Hills) 2008 Polish State
Forests Holding 0.4 ha T. aestivum
Vittad. (Poland)
Quercus robur L.,
Corylus avellana L.
1st T. aestivum
fructification in
September 2016
2. K ˛apiołki
(Kraków-Cz˛estochowa
Jurassic Upland)
2011
Private investors
0.4 ha
T. aestivum
(Poland)
T. aestivum
(France)
T. melanosporum
Vittad. (France)
Quercus robur,
Corylus avellana,
Pinus sylvestris L.
3. Michałów
(Nida Basin) 2013 and 2019 Polish State
Forests Holding 1.5 ha T. aestivum
(Poland)
Quercus robur,
Fagus sylvatica L.
4. Brzesko
(Sandomierz Basin) 2017
Private investors
0.33 ha T. aestivum
(Poland) Quercus robur
5. Chmielnik
(Nida Basin) 2017
Private investors
0.75 ha T. aestivum
(Poland) Quercus robur
6. Kumów
(Chełm Hills) 2017 and 2018 Polish State
Forests Holding 1.49 ha T. aestivum
(Poland) Quercus robur
The results of our truffle research are disseminated through publications [
11
,
12
,
14
],
monographs [
15
], and in the film “Truffles in Poland,” produced by M. Ogrodowczyk (https:
//www.youtube.com/watch?v=sGVQEkaWRjs). Given that environmental education is provided
by foresters, we are of the opinion the subject of truffles should be part of the forestry education
curriculum. To evaluate the state of knowledge about truffles among foresters, a survey was conducted
with the aims of: (i) investigating the level of knowledge about truffles among foresters and (ii) indicating
which aspects of knowledge about truffles need better communication.
2. Materials and Methods
The survey was carried out among foresters from 43 Forest Districts (10% of all districts in Poland).
Each of 17 Regional Directorates was represented by one to six forest districts. The names of both the
forest district and regional directorates are given in Table A1, Appendix A. In total, 2002 questionnaires
were sent, canvassing 7.8% of all foresters employed in Poland, with from 20 to 74 individuals canvassed
in each district depending on the number of forest district workers. The questionnaires were sent to
the chosen Forest Districts via mail. The data was collected for two months and 1404 questionnaires
were received back.
The questionnaire titled “What do you know about truffles?” included four questions to
characterize the respondent (independent variables) and ten questions on aspects of truffle ecology, use,
history in Poland, etc. (dependent variables) (Tables 2and 3). The dependent variables were designed
to investigate the foresters’ knowledge, experience, and preferences regarding truffles. Characterization
of independent data based on survey responses is showed in Table 4. The estimated time to complete
the survey was 15 min.
Table 2. List of independent variables.
Variable Variable Type Values
A. Age Ordinal <25; 25–35; 36–45; 46–55; 56–65; >65
B. Gender Dichotomous female; male
C. Forester job Nominal in the forest; in the office; both
D. Work with environmental education Dichotomous yes; no

Forests 2019,10, 365 4 of 13
Table 3.
List of dependent variables. The symbol “*” in questions 4, 7, 9 indicates that a “yes” answer
allowed the respondent to provide an example and for question 7 that it was possible to give a different
answer than the choices provided.
Question Variable Variable Type Values
1. Do you collect
mushrooms? Preference Nominal Yes, often; Yes, rarely; No
2. Do truffles grow in
Poland? Knowledge Nominal
Yes, they grow in the forest; Yes,
they are grown in truffle-orchards;
No; Not known
3. Have you ever found
truffle? Experience Nominal Yes, abroad; Yes, in Poland; not
sure; No
4. Have you ever heard
about hunting for truffles
in Poland? *
Knowledge Dichotomous Yes; No
5. In the past truffles
were eaten in Poland. Knowledge Nominal Only by nobles; Used as fodder;
Widely; Not known
6. Soils conducive to
truffles. Knowledge Nominal Calcareous; Podzols; Sandy; Not
known
7. How are truffles
collected? * Knowledge Nominal
With help of dogs or pigs;
Following wild pigs rooting;
Searching for plant indicators;
Using other methods (please,
indicate an example)
8. Which of the
following fungi grow in
your Forest District?
Experience Nominal
1. Gyromitra esculenta (Pers.) Fr.,
2. Tuber aestivum Vittad.,
3. T. excavatum Vittad.,
4. Scleroderma citrinum Pers.
9. Are truffle products
present in Polish
markets? *
Knowledge Nominal Yes; No; Not known
Statistical Analysis
Statistical analyses were done using R 3.0.2 software, (www.r-project.org). The majority of the
data were selected with inner hierarchy. This means that the answers for particular questions were
not independent from other questions. We chose one of the most appropriate modern statistical
methods for selection of the hierarchy in thresholds and used a conditional inference tree method [
16
].
This method belongs to the family of recursive partitioning, which is based on maximally selected rank
statistics. It was supported by using the package for R [
17
]. For our analyses, we used first order of
discrimination in the case of significant response.

Forests 2019,10, 365 5 of 13
Table 4. Characterization of independent data based on survey responses, N/A—no answer.
Item n%
Age
<25 43 3.1
25–35 361 25.7
36–45 305 21.7
46–55 361 25.7
56–65 304 21.7
>65 20 1.4
N/A 10 0.7
Gender
Male 936 66.7
Female 392 27.9
N/A 76 5.4
Forester job
In the forest 529 37.7
In the office 402 28.6
Both 408 29.1
N/A 65 4.6
Work with environmental education
Yes 271 19.3
No 976 69.5
N/A 157 11.2
3. Results
Out of 2002 questionnaires, 1404 were obtained back. The response rates fell into two distinct
groups. Questions to do with fungus identification were responded to by 660 foresters. Questions
dealing with more general aspects of truffle occurrence, ecology, and use, received between 1170 and
1174 responses. Unless otherwise stated, there was no significant effect of respondent age, gender,
education, or job position on the response received.
The survey revealed that the majority of respondents (70.7%) know that truffle fungi grow in
Polish forests. However, only a small number of respondents (15.4%) were aware that truffles can be
grown in orchards. Only a small number of respondents indicated that they found truffles abroad or
in Poland (0.6% and 2.8%, respectively). Answering the 4th question (Table 5), only 471 respondents
indicated a source of information about truffles. The main source of information was TV and only
11 respondents indicated scientific publication (Figure 1).
A large portion of respondents (about 62%) were aware of the historical use of truffles. However,
most respondents were of the opinion that truffles were not commonly eaten in the past (only 4.3% of
respondents thought they were once a common food item), an opinion especially common among
those younger than 36 years old. More than one third of foresters knew the type of soils conducive to
truffle growth. Only about 5% indicated that truffles were present on non-calcareous soil. A great
number of respondents (1217) knew that searching for truffles is provided with help of dog or swine
(Table 5, Figure 2). More than 200 respondents were familiar with other methods of truffle hunting
(Figure 2). Out of the four species of fungi (Tables 3and 5), G. esculenta (Pers.) Fr. was the one most
respondents were able to identify. Men more often indicated that truffles grew in their forest district.
About 28 per cent of respondents were familiar with truffle products, especially people younger than
46 years of age.

Forests 2019,10, 365 6 of 13
Table 5. Respondents’ answers with comments based on statistical analysis. The symbol “*”indicates
that the respondent were asked to provide an example.
Question Answers to
Choose Result Remark
1. Do you collect
mushrooms?
Yes, often; Yes,
rarely; No
30.5% of foresters
answered “yes, often”,
58.8% said “yes, rarely”
and 10.3% said “no”.
2. Do truffles grow
in Poland?
Yes, they grow in
the forest; Yes, they
are grown in
truffle-orchards;
No; Not known
The first answer was
chosen by 70.7% of
respondents.
Those who disagreed were
most often above 56 years of
age (Stat. =26.37; p<0.001).
Only 15.4% of respondents
agreed with the second
answer.
Respondents above 36 years of
age more often did not agree
with the second statement
(Stat. =8.98; p=0.011).
Only 2.5% of respondents
said “no” with opinion.
Respondents above 56 years of
age were more likely to give
the answer (Stat. =9.73;
p<0.001).
18.9% of respondents did
not know if truffles grow
in Poland.
Respondents above 36 years of
age were more likely to choose
the answer (Stat. =15.87;
p<0.001).
Only 10.0% of responders
said that truffles grow,
both in forest and orchard.
Respondents above 36 years of
age more often gave a negative
answer, i.e., they did not agree
that statement (Stat. =6.55;
p=0.041).
3. Have you ever
found truffle?
Yes, abroad; Yes, in
Poland; not sure;
No
Only 0.6% per cent of
respondents gave a
positive answer.
2.8% of respondents
indicated they had found
truffles in Poland.
8.2% of the respondents
was not sure.
95% of respondents said
“no”.
Most of those disagreeing were
men (Stat. =9.93; p=0.006).
4. Have you ever
heard about
hunting for truffles
in Poland? *
Yes (please indicate
a source); No
“Yes” said 36.2% of
respondents and the
source of knowledge are
indicated in Figure 1.
Foresters responsible for
environmental education were
statistically more likely to give
a positive answer to this
question (Stat. =19.10;
p<0.001).

Forests 2019,10, 365 7 of 13
Table 5. Cont.
Question Answers to
Choose Result Remark
5. In the past
truffles were eaten
in Poland.
Only by nobles;
Used as fodder;
Commonly;
Not known
The first statement was
chosen by 61.7% of
respondents.
Only 6.6% of respondents
agreed with the opinion.
Respondents above 36 years of
age more often were of
different opinion (Stat. =14.31;
p<0.001).
“Commonly” said 4.3% of
respondents.
Respondents above 36 years of
age more often were of
different opinion (Stat. =14.31;
p<0.001).
27.4% of respondents did
not know.
6. Soils conducive
to truffles.
Calcareous;
Podzols; Sandy;
Not known
“Calcareous” said 33.7% of
respondents.
Foresters responsible for
environmental education were
more likely to give the answer
(Stat. =16.31; p<0.001).
“Podzols” said 5.1% of
respondents.
Foresters who do not deal
with environmental education
more often chose the answer
(Stat. =6.75; p=0.037).
“Sandy” said 5.2% of
respondents.
7. How are truffles
collected? *
With help of dogs
or pigs; Following
wild pigs rooting;
Searching for plant
indicators; Using
other methods
(please, indicate an
example)
Results are showed in
Figure 2.
8. Which of the
following fungi
grow in your Forest
District?
1. Gyromitra
esculenta,
2. T. aestivum,
3. T. excavatum,
4. Scleroderma
citrinum
The first species was
selected correctly in 39.1%
of cases.
Men were more often correct
at this task than women
(Stat. =6.27; p=0.048).
The second species was
correctly identified only by
9.2% respondents.
The third species was
correctly chosen by 5.9% of
respondents.
The forth species was
correctly identified by
34.1% of respondents.
9. Are truffle
products present in
Polish markets? *
Yes; No;
Not known
Only 28.45% of
respondents said “yes”.
Respondents above 46 years of
age more often answered they
did not know (Stat. =24.83;
p<0.001).

Forests 2019,10, 365 8 of 13
Forests 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13
Figure 1. Sources of information about truffles in Poland.
Figure 2. Methods of truffles collection known to respondents.
4. Discussion
The high cultural importance of fungi is very characteristic of northern Slavic societies. In
Poland, mushrooms are widely collected and consumed by the general public. Mushrooms are also
widely known, recognized, talked about, and even frequently depicted in children’s illustrations [18].
The scene of mushroom collection is presented in the Polish national epic entitled “Pan Tadeusz” as
a noble occupation, having a strong social and culture-creating value [19].
Truffles, as fungi of special value and taste, were known and eaten in Poland at least since 1661
[11,12]. However, after the Second World War, interest in truffles decreased due to changes in social
Figure 1. Sources of information about truffles in Poland.
Forests 2019, 10, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 13
Figure 1. Sources of information about truffles in Poland.
Figure 2. Methods of truffles collection known to respondents.
4. Discussion
The high cultural importance of fungi is very characteristic of northern Slavic societies. In
Poland, mushrooms are widely collected and consumed by the general public. Mushrooms are also
widely known, recognized, talked about, and even frequently depicted in children’s illustrations [18].
The scene of mushroom collection is presented in the Polish national epic entitled “Pan Tadeusz” as
a noble occupation, having a strong social and culture-creating value [19].
Truffles, as fungi of special value and taste, were known and eaten in Poland at least since 1661
[11,12]. However, after the Second World War, interest in truffles decreased due to changes in social
Figure 2. Methods of truffles collection known to respondents.
4. Discussion
The high cultural importance of fungi is very characteristic of northern Slavic societies. In Poland,
mushrooms are widely collected and consumed by the general public. Mushrooms are also widely
known, recognized, talked about, and even frequently depicted in children’s illustrations [
18
]. The scene
of mushroom collection is presented in the Polish national epic entitled “Pan Tadeusz” as a noble
occupation, having a strong social and culture-creating value [19].
Truffles, as fungi of special value and taste, were known and eaten in Poland at least since
1661 [
11
,
12
]. However, after the Second World War, interest in truffles decreased due to changes in
social and cultural character as well as changes made in forest management. In the late 1940s, despite
the rich body of historical records on truffles, even their presence in Poland was questioned [
20
].
In 2007, research on truffles conducted in the Nida Basin revealed the presence in Poland of T. aestivum

Forests 2019,10, 365 9 of 13
and other truffle species [
21
]. Since then, efforts have been made to disseminate knowledge about
truffles (Tuber spp.) by publications, a movie, and book [
11
,
12
,
14
,
15
,
21
–
26
], and popular programs.
The first Polish truffle orchards were established using seedlings inoculated from native inoculum.
In the oldest orchard, which was established in 2008, fruiting bodies of T. aestivum were first observed
in 2016 [
12
]. The research and popularization of truffles was strongly supported by the forestry sector,
which help to drive research and to promote the subject within forestry education [23–26].
The survey reported here, carried out among foresters in Poland, revealed that people older than
56 years of age more often did not know about the presence of truffles in Poland. Such a result is
surprising given that respondents indicated their main source of information about truffles were TV
and Internet (Figure 1). On the other hand, this group of respondents might be less engaged with
the Internet, the second leading source of information on truffles. Kalle and S
õ
ukand [
27
] found that
people, even in societies where social media has become prevalent, prefer that knowledge be given
personally rather than in books. This is particularly true for mushrooms due to the toxicity of some
species. However, field guides are still influential, in that they tend to cause unification of mushroom
names throughout the country [10].
The survey showed that women were less likely to have found truffles than men. It might indicate
sociological aspects of forest use: although knowledge about mushrooms is held by both sexes, men
are slightly more involved in the practice of gathering. This is in contrast to plant gathering, which
in Poland has been performed mainly by women and children [
10
]. Mushroom collection is more
similar to hunting, usually a male domain, than collecting berries or herbs, as the appearance of fungal
fruiting bodies is temporal [
10
]. A strong element of chance is thus introduced, making mushroom
gathering more exciting and due to the fact that it has a highly competitive character, male mushroom
pickers do not want to confirm their “failure”.
Men more often indicated that truffles grew in their forest district. Some of the correct species
identification may have resulted from people recognizing the truffle name and correctly guessing
which picture it matched. We hypothesize that male foresters may have a higher truffle identification
rate than females because of the springtime occurrence of these fungi when field work (planting,
thinning etc.) is being carried out mainly by male foresters.
More than one third of foresters knew the type of soils conducive to truffle growth. Foresters
responsible for environmental education were more likely to give the correct answer. However, about
5% of foresters indicated that truffles were present on non-calcareous soil. This result may indicate
that, among foresters who knew that truffles grow in Polish forests, a minority possessed knowledge
of the ecological requirements for truffle growth as for the type of soils conducive to truffle growth.
Popularity of truffle products, especially among people younger than 46 years of age seems
to confirm the idea that young people are more prone to follow the news and have a more
consumer-oriented attitude and contemporary lifestyle that could include greater knowledge and use
of gourmet food [28].
Based on the results of our survey we think a forest education program aimed at raising awareness
of truffles should be divided into stages addressed to various groups of recipients (taking into account
age, education, and gender). Firstly, it should include foresters working in areas where truffles grow
naturally since in the future they would be dealing with nature conservation in the terrain of truffle
ecotourism. Secondly, educators and employees of forest education centres should be knowledgeable
on the subject of truffles. For this purpose, appropriate guides containing the most important data on
truffles growing in Poland, both in the natural environment and in truffle orchards are necessary.
5. Conclusions
The results revealed that the level of knowledge among foresters still is far from satisfactory.
To achieve greater awareness on this topic we think more emphasis should be given to popular science
articles in the Polish language dealing with, for example, how to grow truffles in orchards, hunt for
truffles in forests, and how to use them in cuisine (e.g., how to preserve and cook truffles). Truffles

Forests 2019,10, 365 10 of 13
could also be promoted as an eco-attraction, and to help increase knowledge of the important roles of
fungi in forest ecosystems. Considering that TV and the Internet were the main sources of knowledge
about truffles, it might be reasonable to develop educational activities in these media, for example by
creating a special website <truflapolska.pl>or Facebook page, to make material more accessible on
this subject.
Author Contributions:
D.H., A.R.-G., B.K. and M.S. generated the data. All authors analyzed and discussed the
data. Statistical analysis: J.H. The general conception: D.H. and A.R.-G. The manuscript was written by D.H.
and B.K.
Funding:
The research was performed within the project financed by the State Forests National Forest Holding
[grant No. OR-271.3.5.2017].
Acknowledgments:
All reviewers are acknowledged for their valuable comments and suggestions, which greatly
improved the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appendix A
Table A1. Data codification for statistical analysis.
No Question Description Answer Code
1. Questionnaire number From 1 to 1404
2. Regional Directorate of State
Forests
1—Białystok, 2—Gda´nsk, 3—Katowice, 4—Kraków,
5—Krosno, 6—Lublin, 7—Łód´z, 8—Olsztyn, 9—Piła,
10—Pozna´n, 11—Radom, 12—Szczecin, 13—Szczecinek,
14—Toru ´n, 15—Warszawa, 16—Wrocław, 17—Zielona Góra.
3. Forest District
1—Białowie˙za, 2—Hajnówka, 3—Nurzec, 4—Suwałki,
5—Elbl ˛ag, 6—Bielsko, 7—Katowice, 8—Olkusz, 9—Ustro´n,
10—Złoty Potok, 11—Brzesko, 12—Krzeszowice,
13—Limanowa, 14—Miechów, 15—Niepołomice,
16—Kolbuszowa, 17—Chełm, 18—Lubartów, 19—Mircze,
20—Tomasz
ó
w, 21—Zwierzyniec, 22—Kutno, 23—Przedb
ó
rz,
24—Radomsko, 25—Olsztyn, 26—Susz, 27—Zdrojowa Góra,
28—Krotoszyn, 29—Chmielnik, 30—J˛edrzejów, 31—Łagów,
32—Pi´nczów, 33—Zwole´n, 34—Chojna, 35—Gryfino,
36—Karnieszewice, 37—Polanów, 38—Brodnica,
39—Celestynów, 40—Chojnów, 41—Jabłonna, 42—Bardo
´
Sl ˛askie, 43—Nowa Sól.
4. Age range 0—lack of information (no answer); 1—<25 y/o, 2—25–35 y/o,
3—36–45 y/o, 4—46–55 y/o, 5—56–65 y/o, 6—>65 y/o.
5. Gender
0—lack of information (no answer),
1—female,
2—male.
6. Type of work
0—lack of information (no answer);
1—fieldwork,
2—office work,
3—field- and office work.
7. Is the respondent engaged in
nature and forest education?
0—lack of information (no answer);
1—positive,
2—negative.
8. Does the respondent collect
mushrooms?
0—lack of information (no answer);
1—yes, often,
2—yes, sometimes,
3—negative.

Forests 2019,10, 365 11 of 13
Table A1. Cont.
No Question Description Answer Code
9. Opinion: “Truffles do not occur in
Poland”.
0—negative;
1—positive (they do not occur).
10.
Opinion: “Truffles occur in Poland
in the forest”
0—negative;
1—positive.
11.
Opinion: “Truffles occur in Poland
in truffle orchards”.
0—negative;
1—positive.
12.
Opinion: “The respondent does
not know if truffles occur in
Poland”.
0—negative;
1—positive (the respondent is not sure about truffles’
occurrence).
13.
Opinion: “Truffles in Poland occur
in the forest and in truffle
orchards, both of them”
0—any,
1—both selected
14.
Opinion: “The respondent found a
truffle abroad”.
0—negative,
1—positive.
15.
Opinion: “The respondent found a
truffle in Poland”.
0—negative,
1—positive.
16.
Opinion: “The respondent does
not know if he/she found a truffle
in Poland”.
0—negative;
1—positive (the respondent is unsure about his/her finding).
17.
Opinion: “The respondent did not
find a truffle in Poland”.
0—negative;
1—positive (respondent did not find).
18.
Opinion: “The respondent heard
about truffle hunting/collecting in
Poland”
0—negative,
1—positive.
19.
In Poland, in the past truffles were
eaten at by nobles
0—negative,
1—positive.
20.
In Poland, in the past truffles were
eaten commonly.
0—negative,
1—positive.
21.
In Poland, in the past truffles were
used as animal feed.
0—negative,
1—positive.
22. Truffles occurs in calcareous soils 0—negative,
1—positive.
23. Truffles occur in podzol soils 0—negative,
1—positive.
24. Truffles occur in sandy soils 0—negative,
1—positive.
25. Occurrence of species presented
on pictures
0—Any picture picked,
1—At least one picture picked.
26. Occurrence of Gyromitra esculenta 0—negative,
1—positive.
27. Occurrence of Tuber aestivum 0—negative,
1—positive.
28. Occurrence of Tuber excavatum 0—negative,
1—positive.
29.
Occurrence of Scleroderma citrinum
0—negative,
1—positive.
30. Products with truffles available in
Poland
0—respondent did not know of any product,
1—respondent heard about product with truffles in Poland.

Forests 2019,10, 365 12 of 13
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2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
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